Chapter 11 (Exam 3)
What does it mean to say gender stereotypes are socially constructed?
"one is not born, but rather becomes, a man or a woman"
What is the prevalence of rape and sexual assaults in the U.S.?
- 17.7 million women, 2.78 million men - Most sexual assault victims (54%) are under 30
With the norms and values of society disrupted, what kind of things can women do that they couldn't before?
- Acquire a more public role in the community and society - Gain greater responsibility for decision making - Generally acquire more power
feminist critiques of advertising, beginning in the 1970s
- Attacked advertisements' emphasis on slimness and beauty - Feminists argued that the ads set up ideals that few women could approximate, adversely affecting their self-esteem - Advertising has recently begun to focus more on encouraging women to purchase what they need to be unique individuals
sexualized relationships
- Bars and other consumption sites are often locales for beginning sexualized relationships - Help for improving sexualized relationships can be purchased from sex therapists, self-help books and on the internet
How did the emergence of the department store in the middle and late 1800s mark the development of greater interest in girls as consumers?
- Celebration of Christmas, and its associated gifts, by department stores such as Macy's - Department stores began to have separate departments for toys, and more important, separate departments for boys' and girls' clothing - As girls gain some freedom from gendered expectations and spend more of their own money, they are being courted more aggressively by advertisers and marketers
In EPZs, how does the gender bias intersect with age discrimination?
- Companies tend to hire mostly young and single women - Women over 25 are not hired because they are seen as more likely to bear children
How do men's consumption patterns differ by generation?
- Compared to older men, younger men are much more comfortable shopping online - Retailers and advertisers are now increasingly recognizing that there is a growing subset of men who see that clothing is "an outward sign of self-image and a symbol of success" - Upper and middle-class men are spending more money shopping online via smartphones, patronizing Amazon and buying luxury brands like Rolex and Louis Vuitton
How does migrant labor enrich the Global North and enhance its already elevated lifestyle?
- Domestic work is the largest labor market for women worldwide - Many female labor immigrants clean the homes and care for the children of affluent families while trying to send money (remittances) to their own families in their home countries
Why are females preferred employees in labor-intensive and low-paying industries?
- Females are preferred in these industries because of the persistence of a number of stereotypes that often have little basis in reality - The idea that women will typically work for lower wages and that they are easier for male employers and managers to supervise - Considered to be more docile but also to have greater patience and more dexterity than men in performing standardized and repetitive work
How has the globalization of LGBTQ movements positively affected society in a global context?
- Globalization has contributed to the rise of gay and lesbian global social movements and to the increasing acceptance of same-sex sexual relationships in large parts of the world - Inexpensive air travel, the internet and sex tourism have made it easier for LGBTQ people to communicate and be together anywhere in the world
How has feminist activism around the world impacted global society?
- Has had a strong impact on the United Nations - Helped create strong linkages among the United Nations, national governments and nongovernmental organizations
global assembly line
- High-status research and management positions are likely to be found in the North - Women are much more likely to be employed in the assembly line work relegated to the less developed nations of the South
What is the larger global women's movement concerned with?
- Human rights - Economic concerns - The environment - Health care - Violence against women
Why is sexuality of central interest to sociologists?
- It is both individual and personal and collective and public - It is biological and biochemical as well as cultural, social and historical - There is variation in degrees of sexuality among individuals and across cultures and time periods
How did World War II affect the feminization of labor?
- Labor shortages caused by the mobilization of men for military service resulted in work opportunities for women - Rosie the Riveter reflected this new reality, as women entered the blue-collar workforce that had been dominated by males
What are the kinds of barriers that push LGBTQ people to migrate away from their home countries?
- Legal prohibitions of consensual sex acts and relationships with same-sex partners - Lack of equal opportunity in the workplace - Bans on same-sex marriages - State-sanctioned physical assaults and murders
How are women more likely to be the noncombatant victims of wars and other forms of organized collective violence?
- Men are more likely than women to be killed or wounded in warfare - Women are more likely to be the noncombatant victims of wars and other forms of organized collective violence, including being raped and killed, and are likely to suffer as a result of local and global terrorism and political violence
How have women's consumption patterns changed since entering the paid work world in increasing numbers?
- More likely to consume an array of subcontracted services, such as cleaning and childcare, performed by other women - Increasingly more likely to consume for themselves than for others
What are the kinds of barriers that pull LGBTQ people to other countries?
- More opportunities to work, marry and live more freely with less fear - Urban environments are popular and attractive because large and visible groups of other LGBTQ people often create communities and neighborhoods in cities around the globe
How do most occupations continue to be segregated by sex?
- Most consistently male-segregated occupations do not require postsecondary schooling - Several of the most consistently female-segregated occupations do require schooling beyond high school, meaning they must maintain some success in high school in order to get into the college programs needed for future job training
What are some cultures with various nonbinary genders?
- North American Native and First Nations tribes - mountain villages in Afghanistan - rural areas of Albania - Dayak farming community of the Gerai, in Indonesian Borneo - southern Oaxaca state in Mexico
sexualized technologies
- People around the world increasingly consume contraceptives, as well as drugs that are supposed to treat erectile dysfunction but are abused to sustain erections for hours in an attempt to enhance the sexual experience - Others include surgeries for making oneself more sexually attractive to building vaginas, vulvas and phalluses as part of gender transitions
"sex sells"
- Sex is used to encourage consumption of all sorts of things that are not inherently sexual - Advertisements use sexualized images to promote innumerable products and imply that the use of these products leads to sexual relationships
the globalization of media and technologies
- Sexuality is a growing presence in the global media - The internet is most important, but photos, movies, music, advertising and television have also gone global - These media have been sexualized, undergoing a process called pornographication
What does it mean to say sexual expression varies among individuals?
- Someone may define herself as bisexual and may be sexual with men and women, but may prefer romantic relationships with women - Another person may define himself as an asexual heteroromantic, some with no sexual attractions but who is interested in a romantic relationship with a woman
What has the global women's movement come to focus on in recent years?
- The adverse effects of global capitalism - The lack of women's voices in global civil society - The growth of antifeminist fundamentalist movements - HIV/AIDS epidemic
What are some reasons why sociologists have become increasingly interested in sexuality?
- The growing number of sexually linked social problems, including sexual violence, HIV/AIDS and the recent discovery that Zika can be transmitted sexually - Social changes in attitudes and behaviors, including the increase in "hooking up" and casual sexual relationships - The greater visibility of sexuality-related social movements, especially those associated with gays, lesbians, bisexuals and transgender - Technological changes, such as the arrival and exploding popularity of erectile dysfunction (ED) drugs like Viagra and Cialis - The media's presentation of sex in its many forms - The globalization of sexuality through sex tourism and human/sex trafficking - The increase in overt expressions of sexuality in consumer culture, not only widespread commerce in sexual activity but also the use of sex to sell virtually anything - The increasing popularity of the internet, especially its ever more vibrant commercial sex culture
How has the nature of war changed in recent years?
- The line between combatants and civilians has burred, with the result that more civilians, including women, have become the victims of warfare - More women are in the armed forces and in terrorist groups in various countries, and this increases their chances of being the victims of violence - increasing presence of asymmetric warfare
What does it mean to say global cultural change involves the global diffusion of such sexual identities as straight, gay and bisexual?
- The terms gay, lesbian and transsexual, as well as the idea that they refer to identities, are exports from the Global North - Almost anywhere you go in the world, you may be able to find similar identities, norms and values relating to sexuality
Who has the power to define what gets called deviance?
- They can come to be defined that way only through cultural consensus - If enough people, and especially those with power, agree that something should be called "deviant", societal expectations will change to reflect this consensus
How can women sometimes benefit from warfare and its disruption of business as usual?
- They can gain greater economic independence, more freedom to act and greater mobility - With the norms and values of society disrupted, women can do things they couldn't before
How does sex tourism affect the locales in which people travel for sex?
- Trips can be complicated by the fact that locals and tourists usually do not have the same levels of economic privilege - Many popular locales have histories of having been dominated by colonial empires, so tourists may see such destinations through a "conquering" lens - Social norms are seen as suspended on these trips and participants may perceive host countries to be welcoming of such tourism - Global Southerners may be stereotyped as hypersexualized, exotic and exceptionally interested in sex
How does the U.S. compare with other countries on measurements of gender inequality?
- U.S. ranks 28th, with a score of 0.74 - Iceland is the most equal country in the world, with a score of 0.881 - Yemen is the least equal, with a score of 0.484
increased urbanization
- Urbanization has contributed both to increased freedom of sexual expression and to the globalization of sexuality - Residents of global cities learn about what is possible and what is cutting edge from one another - leads to the creation of "sex-scapes"
How are working conditions in EPZs often brutal?
- Violence and abuse are daily routines - A work day may consist of impossibly long shifts with unpaid overtime, nonpayment for workers on sick leave, insufficient health and safety measures, monitored access to bathrooms, sexual harassment, physical abuse and in some cases forced consumption of amphetamines to ensure efficiency
How are women implicated in today's warfare societies?
- Women are likely to be impoverished by such violence and their homes and livelihoods may be destroyed - Shortages of all sorts during times of war are likely to affect those at home - Women may be called on to care for the wounded, and they may be injured not only physically but psychologically
How do women differ from men in their educational achievements?
- Women are significantly more likely than men to graduate from high school and to attend either a two or four year college - Also more likely to receive bachelor's or master's degrees, but men continue to be more likely to be trained in the most prestigious colleges and universities and to obtain doctoral degrees - Even with women's gains in higher education, a significant pay gap exists between men and women once they leave school and begin their careers - While in college, women are more likely to major in sex/gender-segregated academic fields, which tend to lead to jobs that do not pay as well as jobs dominated by men
What are some of the consequences women face that stem from the inequality of work places and work structures?
- Women with authority on the job had more diminished mental health than did women without job authority and men with authority - Women in authority deal with a host of negative interpersonal stressors, stereotyping and resistance from both subordinates and superiors - Women in leadership positions may be viewed as not assertive or confident enough, but when they do display these characteristics, they are judged negatively for not being feminine enough
What are women's consumer practices linked to?
- Women's consumer practices were closely tied to their domestic practices and their roles in the home - Women consumed goods and services to care for, and on behalf of, their families - It was an instrumental way of showing caring and love
What are some examples of self-applied labels and identities that trans people may choose for themselves?
- agender - genderfluid - genderqueer
What are some places that have become increasingly important in creating and maintaining the demand for sexual labor around the world?
- bars - dance clubs - massage parlors - pornography - sex work establishments - international hotel chains - airline companies - the tourist industry
5 interlocking markets of the sexual marketplace
- bodies and sexual acts - pornography and erotica - sexualized objects - sexualized technologies - sexualized relationships
What is important to include in a discussion of social constraints on sexuality and all involve issues of the relative power of the individuals involved, along with complicated sociocultural histories and contexts regarding gender and sexualities?
- consensual sexual activities - informed (effective) sexual consent - consenting to one behavior does not obligate an individual or imply consent to any other behaviors
What are some of the widely held stereotypes about what i means to be a man and to be masculine?
- fatherly - tough - unemotional
What type of family earns the most money among all family types?
- heterosexual families with men and women in the paid labor force earn more than all other family types - married men earn more than unmarried men - unmarried women's household income is far below that of all men and of married women
What are the consequences of cosmetics and clothing industries efforts to advertise to young women by focusing on consumption?
- increased rates of eating disorders and body dysmorphia in young girls - hypersexualization of their lives
What exactly is hooking up?
- it can be somewhat committed or somewhat casual, emotionally and physically intense or not, sporadic or fairly regular, sober or intoxicated, involving friends or strangers - involves the occurrence of some sort of sexual event, very broadly defined, usually between only two people, and sometimes including alcohol or other drugs - it is intended to be an ambiguous concept - it is something that maintains the heterosexual double standard
How did Industrialization bring about the separation of the public and private spheres?
- men tended to become the breadwinners, venturing forth into the public world of work - women were less likely to work outside the home and were apt to be relegated to the private sphere
What do analyses of teacher training and in-depth studies of elementary school classrooms suggest?
- most teachers are not well trained to deal with gender or sexuality issues at school - they have a lack of formal training, education and institutional support combined with individual-level discomfort
What are some of the widely held stereotypes about what it means to be a woman and to be feminine?
- motherly - nurturant - emotional
What are some of the unquestioned social norms schools produce?
- obedience to authority - hard work - the value of hierarchy - competitiveness - a push for achievement - an understanding of the social hierarchy within the school
How are people socialized into the gender binary in the U.S.?
- our social institutions - channels that valuing different activities, attributes and pursuits
What are the structural aspects of college campuses that can reproduce gender imbalances?
- party systems controlled by fraternities - social life environments that actively or passively promote settings combining alcohol use with assumptions about sexuality
What are the characteristics of jobs in labor-intensive and low-paying industries?
- the flexible use of labor - high turnover rates - part-time and temporary employment - a lack of security and benefits
How is the globalization of sexuality linked to a variety of social changes that are altering not only sexuality but also much of what transpires in the social world?
- the globalization of media and technologies - increased urbanization - globalized social movements and social change - increased mobility
Why are the terms "masculinities" and "femininities" plural?
- there are many forms of both, connected to other characteristics such as race, ethnicity, age, nationality and social class - cultural interpretations of femininities and masculinities are subject to change, depending on place and historical era
What are the Western conceptualizations of gender?
- there are strong, clear gender differences based on sex - genitalia are not only the primary marker of gender identity, but indeed, the underlying cause of that identity
What is significant about the gender roles of trans individuals?
- they may have gender roles that differ from or correspond with their gender identities - they may choose identities and/or create self-applied labels that do not fit neatly within the gender binary
U.S. State Department's "Trafficking in Person Report"
18,920 prosecutions but only 6,609 convictions for human trafficking
What does is mean to say that EPZs are characteristically unstable?
Companies are continually setting up new ones where labor is cheaper and regulators are more compliant
What kind of incentives do EPZs offer multinational companies?
Exemption from labor and environmental regulations, taxes, tariffs and quotas
What is the focus of many consumer analysts?
Exploring distinctions between and among men and women, developing typologies, patterns and strategies for selling
How has the globalization of sexuality negatively impacted LGBTQ people?
Globalization has also facilitated the spread of homophobia and other forms of prejudice and discrimination
gendered stereotyping
Heterosexual men are thought to be wary of paying too much attention to their looks and appearance, thus, we develop labels for them --- hipster, lumbersexual --- and define their consumption habits accordingly
sexualized objects
Includes sex toys, drugs that are thought to enhance sexual sensations, costumes for sadomasochistic sex, dildos, vibrators and lingerie
bodies and sexual acts
Includes sex work, such as transactional sexual acts, as well as stripping and table and lap dancing, and "real sex" involving "real bodies" is available for purchase by those who choose to pay
global sex industry
Industries based on sex have become increasingly important to global capitalism and creates/helps the demand for sexual labor around the world be met
feminization of migration
Much of this flow involves women from the Global South moving, legally and illegally, to the Global North to handle work that was historically performed by Northern women often becoming nannies, maids or sex workers
pornography and erotica
Not generally thought to involve "real sexuality" or "real bodies" and can be associated with, or lead to, real sexual acts and relations, including masturbation and sexual intercourse, that largely takes place on the internet
RAINN
Rape, Abuse, and Incest National Network, the largest anti-sexual violence network in the U.S.
How does sexuality flow around the world?
Sex trafficking, sex work, gay global parties and the sexual diaspora
globalized social movements and social change
Sexualities-related social movements have arisen to focus on repressive sex laws in which activists, change agents and ideas spread, flow and adapt to their specific contexts
What are survivors of sexual assaults and rapes more likely to suffer from?
Survivors are more likely to suffer from depression and PTSD, contemplate and attempt suicide and use illicit drugs than the general public
What kind of products to EPZs produce?
Textiles, clothing and electronics for the mass market
How do people flow within the global sex industry?
The flow of people in the global sex industry moves from the South to the North and in the opposite direction
What factors contributed to the rise of sex tourism?
The internet as information about destinations is readily available through websites, chat rooms, e-diaries, blogs, promotional videos and guidebooks
sex-scapes
The world's major cities, including London, Hong Kong and Shanghai, in which sex trafficking and sex tourism primarily takes place
How are undocumented and informal female immigrants exposed to the worst forms of discrimination, exploitation and abuse?
They can be held as debt hostages by recruitment agencies until their transportation and placement fees are paid, imprisoned in the houses of their employers, treated inhumanely and sometimes murdered
In corporate economic centers, why are large amounts of low-wage labor, largely filled by women, required?
They help maintain the offices and lifestyles of entrepreneurs, managers and professionals through clerical, cleaning and repair work and labor for companies, providing software, copying paper, office furniture and even toilet paper
increased mobility
Travel for sex itself is a global and commercial phenomenon, in the form of sex tourism and sex holidays
What is one unintended consequence of war, regarding women?
Women can sometimes benefit from warfare and its disruption of business as usual
From which countries in the Global South do women travel to the Global North for work?
Women come from China, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Bangladesh
How do men and women differ in how they react to explicit sexual content in advertising?
Women tend to have a strong negative reaction to explicit sexual content in advertising and are less likely to buy merchandise promoted with these types of ads, unless the sexual content is promoting and expensive items, but men tend to feel positively about such ads
sex
a biological term, usually expressed as male or female, typically reflected in a person's chromosomes, gonads, genitalia and hormones
genderqueer
a broad umbrella term that encompasses a range of gendered identities, feelings and self-determined labels
1969 New York Stonewall bar riot
a clash with police in which gay, queer and trans people resisted police harassment that is often seen as the start of the modern U.S. LGBT rights movement
heterosexual double standard
a cultural belief system in which men are expected to desire and seek sex from whomever, whenever, while women are expected to be sexual only within committed, romantic relationships
gender
a cultural term, connected to societal definitions of expected behaviors, attitudes and personalities
gender
a cultural term, connected to societal definitions of expected behaviors, attitudes and personalities and is usually reflected in terms like woman or man and consists of the physical, behavioral and personality characteristics that are defined as appropriate for one's sex
Sylvia Rivera
a drag queen and bisexual transgender activist who was a loud and persistent voice for the rights of people of color and low-income queers and trans people and was among those who clashed with police in the 1969 New York Stonewall bar riot
patriarchy
a form of society that is dominated by men and focused on men and hegemonic masculinity
hen
a gender-neutral pronoun increasingly used in Sweden's primary and elementary schools as a way of promoting gender equality
intersex
a general term used for a variety of medical conditions in which a person is born with a reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn't seem to fit the typical definitions of female or male, but do not typically require hasty or immediate medical interventions
Dayak farming community of the Gerai, in Indonesian Borneo
a group of people who do not use genitalia to determine a person's gender so they link gender to tasks and accomplishments, such as learning to choose rice seeds according to growing conditions
gender identity
a person's internal sense of gender
master status
a position that is more important than any others, both for the person in the position and for all others involved, and dominates all other statuses, including achieved and ascribed statuses, and are therefore of great consequence
International Women's Movement
a response to the inequalities faced by women, with a history traceable to the 1800s, characterized by recent growth due to globalization and focused on issues such as sexual harassment and its greatest triumphs have related to women's right to vote in countries around the world
hidden curriculum
a school's unofficial norms, routines and structures that transmit dominant cultural norms and values
sex trafficking
a sector of human trafficking defined as a commercial sex act that includes force, fraud or coercion and transporting and obtaining a person for sex acts
emphasized femininity
a set of socially constructed ideas about "model womanhood" organized around accommodating the interests of men and the patriarchy and focuses on social ability, ego stroking and acceptance of the roles of mother and wife , representing a subordinate heterosexual femininity
transgender
a term for people whose gender identity differs from the gender assigned to them at birth or in infancy
intersex
a term to describe a person who is born with reproductive or sexual anatomy that does not conform to typical definitions of biological sex
Rebecca Plante
added the concept of subcultural scripting
rape
also a form of domination, defined as penetration, not matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim
sexual orientation
an element of sexual identity which identifies whom you desire (fantasies), with whom you want to have sexual relations (behavior) and with whom you have a sense of connectedness?
rape culture
an environment conducive to sexual assaults and rape that tends to be prevalent in and around college campuses because of several factors, including gender imbalances, the routine presence of alcohol and other drugs at social events and parties, the age of the population and the relatively unsupervised nature of life at college
muxes
an example of a nonbinary cultural practice in the Mexican state of Oaxaca that comprises a group of people who do not identify as male or female, although they were born with male bodies who have been widely accepted and greatly admired for their embroidery, hairstyling, handicrafts and cooking
sexual identity
an internal sense of one's sexual self
transgender
an umbrella term for people whose gender identity and/or gender presentation differs from the gender assigned to them at birth or in infancy
Arlie Hochschild
argued that in U.S. dual-earner families with children, wives end up working a "second shift" at home
Gagnon and Simon
argued that there are three broad levels of scripting: cultural, interpersonal and intrapsychic
cult of domesticity
arose around the private sphere and argued that women should display submissiveness to their husbands and other male authorities, piety as moral exemplars within the home, purity in being virgins at marriage and strictly monogamous thereafter and domesticity, having been well trained in the domestic arts and caretaking
Why is gender a key variable in understanding life chances in the U.S.?
because of its master status and a primary basis for the persistence of structural, institutional inequalities
How has globalization aided in the growth and expansion of the International Women's Movement?
because of the increased ability of those working on behalf of the movement to travel globally and to communicate with one another
Transgender Day of Remembrance (TDOR)
began in 1999 when trans woman of color Rita Hester was the victim of a hate murder and is the culmination of an annual November Transgender Awareness Week
What does it mean to say informed sexual consent is "informed"?
both parties demonstrate a clear and mutual understanding of exactly what they are consenting to
How are gender ideals in advertising reinforce?
by the spatial segregation of women's and men's television networks, television shows, movies, lifestyle magazines and departments in department stores and shops in malls
informed (effective) sexual consent
characterized as... - informed - freely and actively given - mutually understandable - not indefinite
What does it mean to say informed sexual consent is "mutually understandable"?
consent is expressed in words or actions, NOT silence, that indicate a clear willingness to do the same thing, at the same time, in the same way, with each other
What does it mean to say informed sexual consent is "not indefinite"?
consent may be withdrawn at any time, and at that time all sexual activity must cease and until additional effective consent is given
man cave
defined as a room or space reserved for a man to engage in his hobbies, usually decorated by the male who uses it, without female influence and represents a form of productive consumption that enables men to combine leisure with work
homophobia
defined as the fear of being, appearing or seeming gay, as well as the fear of anyone or anything gay that, at its most virulent, inspires hate crimes, murders, assaults, rapes, batteries and other forms of violence
sexual dilemmas
defined by Hamilton and Armstrong as situations in which young women in particular find that social rules and expectations for gender and social class contradict each other
human trafficking
defined by the U.S. State Department as "modern slavery" or forced labor and includes child soldiers, debt bondage and domestic servitude
heterosexual double standard
describes a cultural belief system, that may lead to sexual dilemmas, in which men are expected to desire and seek sex from whomever, whenever, while women are expected to be sexual only with committed, romantic relationships
sexual marketplace
describes how human sexualities have been increasingly turned into commodities and marketed and is composed of 5 interlocking markets
private sphere
domestic life in and around the home
sexual assault
encompasses sexual acts of domination, usually enacted by men against women, other men and children that can occur between strangers, but usually occurs between acquaintances or intimates
International Labour Organization
estimates 21 million are victims world wide, and 4.5 million of those are involved in forced sexual labor, generating $99 billion annually
two-spirit individuals
example of a nonbinary cultural practice in North American Native and First Nations tribes that is socially defined as truly distinct, neither man nor woman, nor a combination of the two and are respected in their tribes
bacha posh
example of a nonbinary cultural practice in mountain villages in Afghanistan in which families without male children present young girls as boys, in order to gain the prestige associated with it, with the clothing, haircuts and behavioral shifts common to boys and are "changed" into girls at puberty
culture
gives us patterns, rules and codes to manage our sexualities and sexual identities and provides the big picture for our sexualities by communicating our shared attitudes, values, goals and practices which are conveyed by language and socialization
What is a root cause of the gender gap in education?
hidden curriculum
sexual orientation
identification of those whom you desire, with whom you want to have sexual relations and with whom you have a sense of connectedness
How does the World Economic Forum measure gender inequality?
in terms of gender gaps in health care, education, economy and politics on a scale where the highest score is 1 and the closer a score is to 1 indicates a relatively narrow gap between men and women
gender binary
involving only two genders, man and woman
What does it mean to say that gender builds on biological sex but exaggerates biological difference?
it carries biological difference into domains in which it is completely irrelevant
What kinds of jobs are women drawn to globally?
labor-intensive industries and low-paying industries, such as textiles, apparel, leather products, food processing and electronics
Bridget Brennan
marketing expert who stated "If somebody, somewhere needs a gift, chances are there's a woman thinking about it; tracking it down; wrapping it; making sure it's accompanied by a personal message and then arriving to the person on the appointed day. I sometimes think entire industries would collapse overnight if women stopped being so thoughtful. Consider the impact to the greeting card industry alone."
sexual diaspora
members of various sexual subcultures move around the world and from one society to another
How did men and women occupy the private and public spheres of society before the Industrial Revolution?
men and women together occupied both the private sphere and the public sphere, meaning they shared the breadwinner and domestic roles
sex tourism
occurs when individuals travel to other countries specifically for the purpose of buying sex from men, women and sometimes children
female proletarianization
often accompanies feminization of labor, especially in developing economies, as an increasing number of women are channeled into low-status, poorly maid manual work and is closely related to feminization of poverty
How do we begin gendering babies in utero?
parents choose gendered names for their unborn children and often begin shopping for "gender-appropriate" infant clothing and toys
agender
people who may not identify with any gender
social institutions
powerful established sociocultural pathways that exist to meet our collective needs
sex
principally a biological term and typically reflected in a person's chromosomes, gonads, genitalia and hormones
How has consumer culture functioned since the Industrial Revolution?
production has been centered outside the household and has primarily been the function of white men while white middle- and upper-class women, largely relegated to the home, were assigned the role of consumers
masculinities
refers to the cultural definitions of the traits associated with being a "man" acquired during the socialization process
femininities
refers to the cultural definitions of the traits associated with being a "woman" acquired during the socialization process
hegemonic masculinity
refers to the dominant form or most idealized vision of masculinity taken for granted as "natural" and is linked to patriarchy
feminization of labor
refers to the rise of female labor participation in all sectors and the movement of women into jobs traditionally held by men
What is the key difference between sex and gender?
sex is based mainly on biology, whereas gender is based on social distinctions
pornographication
sexualization of media in society
Raewyn Connell
sociologist who coined the terms hegemonic masculinity and emphasized femininity and analyzed the roles that these ideas have played in global gender inequalities
What is an example of the nonbinary cultural practice in rural areas of Albania?
some women became men, adopting men's dress, habits, privileges and responsibilities and swore off marriage, sex and children and were accepted by men and respected as if they were men
export processing zones (EPZs)
special industrial areas, often in developing countries, designed to draw foreign companies and capital investment characterized by incentives, a wide range of products, instability, economic development of host countries, brutal working conditions, mandatory pregnancy testing and a gender bias
job authority
the ability to fire, hire and influence
heterosexism
the belief that heterosexuality is superior to other sexual orientations and individual or institutional discrimination against those with other orientations
heterosexism
the belief that heterosexuality is superior to other sexual orientations, along with individual and institutional discrimination against those with other orientations
What has been the key factor in the feminization of labor?
the better integration of an increasing number of areas into the world economy through trade and production
wage gap
the difference between men's earnings and women's earnings, usually expressed as a percentage of men's earnings
homophobia
the fear of being, appearing or seeming gay but also the fear of anyone or anything gay
gender scripts
the gender-appropriate, culturally produced, shared and reinforced social norms that serve as blueprints, or maps, to guide sexual and gender behavior that include the who, what, where, when, how and why of socially constructed sexualities
public sphere
the job sector and public life
gender roles
the social presentation of gender, which includes clothing, hairstyle and attitudinal and behavioral traits
sexuality
the ways in which people think about and behave toward themselves and others as sexual beings
sexuality
the ways in which people think about, and behave toward, themselves and others as sexual beings, related to both sex and gender, that includes sexual attitudes, behaviors, sensuality, values, anatomy, biochemistry, identities and orientations
What does it mean to say informed sexual consent is "freely and actively given"?
there is no coercion, force, threats, intimidation or pressuring
Historically, how did families invest in the education of their girls?
they invested relatively little in their education because they were expected to grow up to stay at home as wives and mothers
consensual sexual activities
those agreed upon by the participants, any of whom have the right to decide to stop at any point for any reason
genderfluid
those who may feel that their identities change depending on the context
sex trafficking
transporting and obtaining a person for sex acts through force, fraud or coercion
sex tourism
traveling to other countries for the purpose of buying sex from men, women and sometimes children
asymmetric warfare
warfare involving forces of unequal capabilities, often taking the form of shootouts in the streets
How does socialization play a key role in gendered sexual scripts?
we learn sexual and gendered scripts by observing and learning from others, socializing agents
second shift
wives who work outside the home tend to be saddled with additional labor when they get home from their paid work
multiple market
women purchase things for significant others, family members and friends
feminization of migration
women travel from the South to the North in search of work
feminization of labor
women workers are concentrated in labor-intensive, low-wage jobs
