Chapter 12

Beginning at age 7 or 8, how does the child's descriptions of others change?

Beginning at age 7 or 8, the child begins to focus on the inner traits or qualities of another person and assume that such traits will be visible in many situations.

What are ways stated by the book's authors that which watching television violence might lead to child aggression?

Bobo doll experiment: children are likely to imitate adult aggression seen on television. Huesmann (2003): those who watched the greatest number of violent television programs as children were most likely to engage in actual violence as young adults. Repeated viewing of violent television leads to emotional desensitization regarding violence and tend to think of violence as a proper means to solve problems.

Who is more aggressive, boys or girls?

Boys are more aggressive physically; girls more relationally

Describe how boys' and girls' friendship groups differ.

Boys' friendship groups are larger, more accepting of newcomers, and like to play outside and/or roam over large areas in their play. Girls friendship groups are small, fairly exclusive, and they spend more times indoor or near their home or school.

Describe the relationship between friendship and competition.

Boys' friendships are focused more on competition and dominance; higher levels of competition between pairs of friends than strangers In girls' friendships, there is more competition between strangers.

For whom does self-care have the most negative effects? Why?

Self-care has the most negative effects for children in low-income neighborhoods with high crime rates. This is because children in these neighborhoods may use after-school time to hang out with socially deviant peers who are involved in criminal activity or have negative attitudes toward school.

How is a 9-year-old better able to understand divorce/separation than a 5-year-old?

9-year-old's better understand that their parent's roles as parents is different from their roles as partners or spouses. So when parents are divorced, 9-year-olds are better able to understand that their parent's love for them has not changed.

How do the self-descriptions of 9-year-olds and 11-year-olds differ?

9-year-olds tend to describe their surface qualities: address, color of hair/eyes, etc. 11-year-olds tend to describe themselves using external qualities and emphasize psychological factors such as personality trait: describe themselves compared to others, sociable/not sociable, mild tempered or not, etc. As a child get's older, his "psychological self becomes more complex, more comparative, less tied to external features, and more centered on feelings and ideas."

Why might afterschool programs help self-care children?

Afterschool programs can help younger self-care children attain a higher level of achievement. Afterschool programs also provide children with opportunities to play, do homework, and get help from adults.

For whom does aggression lead to rejection?

Aggression leads to rejection for children who are often disruptive and uncooperative and believe that their peers like them. Are unable to control the expression of strong feelings. Interrupt their play partners more often and fail to take turns in systematic ways.

How do American and Chinese parents tend to differ in how they encourage a sense of self?

American parents focus on developing a sense of self-esteem based on the children's own interests and abilities. Chinese parents teach their children to value themselves based on cultural ideals and what a "good" person is.

When do children first develop a global evaluation of themselves (i.e., overall self-esteem)?

Children first develop a global evaluation of themselves at age 7 (school age).

What did Erik Erikson label the middle childhood period? Why?

Erikson labeled the middle childhood period as "industry vs. inferiority." The psychosocial task of 6-12-year-olds is development of industry, which is the willingness to work to accomplish goals. In many countries, 6-12-year-olds must learn to read and write. If they feel to do so, they will enter adolescence and adulthood feelings of inferiority.

Describe each of the Big Five personality traits.

Extraversion: active, assertive, enthusiastic, outgoing; high activity level, sociability, positive emotionality, talkativeness. Agreeableness: affectionate, forgiving, generous, kind, sympathetic, trusting; perhaps high approach/positive emotionality, perhaps effortful control Conscientiousness: efficient, organized, prudent, reliable, and responsible; effortful control/task persistence Neuroticism (emotional instability): anxious, self-pitying, tense, touchy, unstable, worrying; negative emotionality, irritability Openness/Intellect: artistic, curious, imaginative, insightful, original, having wide interests; approach, low inhibition

For a child to develop high self-esteem, what must happen first?

For a child to develop high self-esteem the amount of discrepancy between what the child desires and what the child thinks he has achieved must decrease. In addition, children must receive support from the important people around them, particularly parents and peers.

Describe how and why gender segregation occurs in play groups.

Gender segregation in play groups begins with shared activity preferences. However, gender segregation later becomes a matter of social skills that are more useful in interactions of the same gender.

Describe how boys' and girls' friendships are similar and different.

Girls' friendships include more agreement, compliance, and self-disclosure. "Controlling speech" (manipulating, defiance, etc.) is more common among boys. In both genders, however, collaborative and cooperative exchanges are the most common forms of communication between both friendships.

How do White and Hispanic American parents differ in their beliefs about whether or not children can carry out specific tasks on their own?

Hispanic American parents have "less confidence in the self-regulatory abilities of young school-aged children then White parents."

Most developmental psychologists would say that children under what age should not care for themselves?

Most developmental psychologists would say that children under age 9 or 10 should not care for themselves. Children under this age do not have cognitive abilities necessary to evaluate risks and deal with emergencies.

To whom do mothers give more autonomy, boys or girls? Whom do they hold more accountable?

Mothers give more autonomy to boys. However, they hold their daughters more accountable for failure than they do sons.

Describe characteristics of popular rejected, and neglected children.

Popular rejected: those that are named by most children as peers that they prefer to avoid are labeled rejected children. Neglected children: children who are neither preferred nor avoided by most other children in a group.

Describe the positive and negative effects video game playing can have on children.

Positive effects of video games include enhancement of children's spatial-cognitive skills and may eliminate the well-documented gender differences in the domain. The negative effects are: increase in general level of hostility and decrease in capacity to empathize with others, both of which increase aggressive behavior. The more violent video games children prefer, the more aggressive they behave toward peers.

Describe examples of positive influences television can have on children. Who tends to watch these more?

Science-orientated programs such as Bill Nye the Science Guy & The Magic School Bus can be effective teaching tools. In addition, programs designed to teach racial tolerance have also been seen as effective. Girls watch these show more; however, this decreases as children move through the middle childhood years.

What is self-efficacy? How does it develop?

Self-efficacy is the belief in one's capacity to cause an intended event to occur or to perform a task. (Albert Bandura) A child develops self-efficacy through social comparisons- the process of drawing conclusions about the self-based on comparisons to others. Simply watching others model success at a task is insufficient; the child must perceive the similarity.

A child who is terrible at grades and athletics might still have high self-esteem. Why is that?

Self-esteem is not simply based on the sum of separate assessments (i.e. grades and athletics). Rather, things like physical appearance, social acceptance, friendships, romantic appeal, and relationship with parents can affect self-esteem. Self-esteem is global evaluation of one's worth.

Describe what studies on only children find about how they turn out.

Studies show that only children grow up to do just as well as those who have siblings. In addition, studies have shown that only children may have an advantage in cognitive development and academic achievement over those who have siblings. Also, first-born children get higher scores, on average, on cognitive tests than later-born do. However, having siblings seem to positively contribute to social and emotional development.

What do the book's authors mean when they say the 6-7-year-old child does not have "conservation of personality."

The book's authors mean that children think that the global traits (nice, mean, good, or bad) they describe people with are not lasting or general traits of the individual.

If you had one characteristic to use to pick who 10-year-old Johnny's friends are, which would it be: age, gender, or race?

The one characteristic would be gender.

What is the overarching theme of social and personality development in middle childhood?

The overarching theme of social and personality development in middle childhood is self-perceived competence.

According to Erik Erikson, can a child who doesn't do well in school still develop a sense of competence? If so, how?

Yes, Erikson believed that a child who doesn't do well in school can still develop a sense of competence. They can do so by participating in culturally valued pursuits outside of academic settings.

Does advertising affect children's food preferences?

Yes, advertising does affect children's food preferences.

Are males more physically aggressive than females in all societies? In all primates?

Yes, boys are more physically aggressive than females in all societies. They are also more aggressive in all varieties of primates.

Does gender segregation occur in every culture in the world?

Yes, gender segregation occurs in every culture in the world.