Chapter 13 T/Q

Johann Tetzel

Dominican friar who ran Archbishop Albert's indulgence sale. He conducted an advertising blitz, claiming that the indulgence would bring full forgiveness for one's own sins or release a loved one from purgatory. There was massive success, and people traveled miles to buy the indulgence.

Huguenots

French Calvinist's that at one point made up as much as 10% of the French population. Nobles of France frequently adopted Calvinism as a religious cloak for their independence. Calvinist's believed Catholic culture polluted the community, and engaged in many skirmishes with Catholics. Catholic sacred images were called into question, and Calvinist mobs in many cities smashed statues, windows, and paintings as a way to purify the church. Many Huguenots were killed on Saint Barlow's Day (1557) in Paris when they were massacred by Catholic mobs at the wedding of Margaret of Valois and Henry of Navarre. Huguenots fighting with Catholics nearly destroyed France, but the country was ultimately saved by a group of people called the politiques. Politiques believed the restoration of a strong monarchy was the only way to stop collapse, and held there religious beliefs moderately. The politique and eventual king of France Henry IV sacrificed religious principals for political necessities and saved France.

Council of Trent

General council created by Pope Paul III to reform the Catholic Church and to secure reconciliation with the Protestants. The councils decrees served as a solid basis for the spiritual renewal of the Catholic Church. The council gave equal validity to the Scriptures and Church tradition, it reaffirmed the seven sacraments/transubstantiation, and tackled disciplinary matters. Indulgences were forbidden, clerical concubines had to be given up, and pluralism was suppressed. The council also placed a new emphasis on the education of the clergy, as shown by the requirement that every diocese establish a seminary for the education and training of the clergy. One of the council's larger decisions was that for a marriage to be valid vows had to be said publicly, which lowered the number of conflicts/denial of marriages that took place in secret. While the council did not achieve all of it's goals, it laid the ground for the renewal of the church.

Henry VIII

He was the king of England when it first converted to being Protestant. This change was inspired by the kings desire to get an annulment for his marriage, which was prevented due to Charles V presence in Rome. Charles effectively had Pope Clement as his prisoner and was against the annulment because Catherine of Aragon was his aunt. Henry then preceded to execute those who opposed him, such as Thomas Moore, and then married Ann Boleyn. When Anne could not produce a male child, she was beheaded for adultery. Henry eventually had a son Edward with Jane Seymour, but she died in childbirth. Henry went on to dissolve monasteries, which redistributed wealth to the upper class, Tudor dynasty, and the Protestant church. Along with the help of Thomas Cromwell, branches of gov. spending was balanced and increased the efficiency of the economy. Henry's new church was the Church of England, or the Anglican Church.

Philip II of Spain

Philip II of Spain was husband to Mary Tudor and the son of emperor Charles V. Philip hoped his marriage would reunite England with Catholic Europe, but Mary's death ended his plans. Philip was in the backing to execute Queen Elizabeth, a plan that Mary of Scots was executed for. After Mary's execution by England, the Pope urged Philip to retaliate. Philip then arranged a vast fleet of Spanish ships carrying soldiers down the English channel to attack England. The Armada met an English fleet in the channel, and lost the battle to the faster lighter English ships. While Spain rebuilt its navy after the loss, Catholicism was stopped from being reimposed on England.

Thomas Cromwell

Was the chief minister of Henry VIII who influenced Henry to place a bible in every church. Cromwell also reformed and centralized the King's household, setting up departments of state. He also took surplus funds from departments and added them to areas with deficits, resulting in greater efficiency of the economy. This marked the growth of the modern centralized bureaucratic state.

Mary Queen of Scots

Was the cousin of Queen Elizabeth and next in line to the English crown. Mary was a Catholic and provided a new opportunity to reimpose Catholicism on England. She was eventually imprisoned by Queen Elizabeth due to Elizabeth's worries that Mary would become the center of Catholic plots to overthrow her. Marry was then executed by England after being implicated in a plot to execute Elizabeth. The Catholic Pope then urged Philip II to attack England in response, which he did with the Spanish Armada.

Catherine of Aragon

Was the first wife and Henry VIII. She was the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and aunt to Charles V. Henry was dissatisfied with his marriage due to the fact that Catherine had not produced a male child. When Henry could not annul his marriage due to Charles presence in Rome, he broke from the Catholic Church and proceeded to marry Anne Boleyn.

Ann Boleyn

Was the second wife of Henry VIII. Henry was in love with Anne during his marriage with Catherine of Aragon, and assumed she would give him the son he wanted. Anne failed twice to produce a male child, so Henry accused her of adulterous incest and had her beheaded. One of Ann's children grew up to be Queen Elizabeth I.

Ignatius of Loyola

the founder of the Society of Jesus. After suffering a severe battle wound to hid leg, Loyola studied books about Christ and decided to give up his military career to become a soldier of Christ. During a year in seclusion and prayer, he gained incites that went into his classic, Spiritual Exercise. This work was training program of structured meditation designed to develop spiritual discipline. This program was intended for study during a four-week period of retreat. After studying in Paris, Loyola recruited group of six men and as granted papal permission for the Society of Jesus. Loyola's order played a very powerful international role in strengthening Catholicism in Europe and spreading the faith around the world.

Martin Luther

A German professor and priest who vastly propelled the Protestant reformation. Through his study of the scriptures, Luther came to the conclusion that salvation and justification come through Faith. He also believed that Gods will is only revealed in the scriptures, not the traditions of the church, and challenged clerical celibacy, stating it was unnatural. Luther was the author of the 95 Thesis, that argues that indulgences undermined the seriousness of penance. All of Luther's ideas were strongly opposed by the church. He was eventually ordered by Charles V to appear at the diet of Worms, were he refused to recant his beliefs.

Ulrich Zwingli

A Swedish humanist and priest who was the most important reformer other than Martin Luther. He refused to teach the Catholic church's prescribed readings, and instead read through all of Erasamus' New Testament. Like Luther, Zwingli believed Christian life rested in the Scriptures, attacked indulgences, Mass, and clerical celibacy. Luther and Zwingli also agreed on the core Protestant ideas, although the disagreed on the ritual of Eucharist.

Indulgence

A document issued by the Catholic church lessening penance or time in purgatory, widely believed to forgive all sins. Indulgences were signed by the pope or other church officials, and substituted for virtuous acts previously used to lessen penance/purgatory. Indulgences were given to the crusaders and those going on pilgrimages. This was opposed by early Protestants, who were troubled that people did not fell the need to repent after purchasing an indulgence.

John Knox

A dominant leader in the reform movement of Scotland, which led to the establishment of a state church. Scotland's monarchy was very weak, but was rules by King James V and Mary Queen of Scots, who were devout Catholics. However, factions of independent nobles competed for power, and most nobles were in favor of reform. Knox was determined to model the Scottish Church after Calvinist Geneva, and persuaded the parliament to end papal authority and rule by bishops. The Scottish Church then went on to follow the Calvinist doctrine, with a great emphasis on preaching.

The Peace of Augsburg

A treaty signed by Charles V officially recognizing Lutheranism as a religion. He did this to bring Peace to the holy empire, and to stop the religious war he was beginning to lose. Most of northern/central Germany converted to being protestant after the peace. Powers developed many varying state church's, and people who did not share the church's beliefs generally fled, leading to many religious refugees.

John Calvin

Assisted in the reform of the city of Geneva, working to create a well disciplined Christian society that worked with the state. Calvin believed that God had complete omnipresent over the weakness of humanity, and that God decided who would be saved and who would be damned, regardless of someone's actions. Many Calvinists interpreted their good actions as being signs that they were chosen to be saved. Civil authorities in Geneva cracked down on heresy and anything that threatened the city doctrine. Geneva then became the model of a Christian community. Calvinism spread throughout Europe, with countries like Scotland going to a Calvinist doctrine.

How did the political situation in Germany shape the course of the Reformation?

At the time of reformation, Martin Luther's appeal to a national German feeling influenced many rulers who otherwise did not delve into religious complexities. However, most authorities joined the Protestant reformation because of material considerations. The rejection of Roman Catholicism would mean the confiscation of farmlands, monasteries, and shrines. This meant that becoming Protestant would expand authorities financial/ political power, and enhance their independence. Also, when Charles V refused to recognize Lutheranism as a religion, Protestant territories formed a military alliance. This started a religious war between Protestant and the Catholic Charles V. Catholics were at first winning the war, but the Pope and France were concerned about Charles becoming even more powerful. Assistance from France and the withdrawal of papal troops led the Lutherans to win the war. Charles V then signed the Peace of Augsburg, which recognized Lutheranism to bring peace to the empire. Most of northern and southern Germany then became Lutheran, with their own state churches. Religious Wars in Germany were then ended for many decades.

Politiques

Catholic and Protestant moderates who held that only a strong monarchy could save France from total collapse. Many politiques favored accepting Huguenots as an official group, and sacrificed religious principles for political necessities which saved France. After the death of King Henry III, Henry of Navarre became king (Henry IV). Henry was a politique who converted to Catholicism when becoming king, but also issued the Edict of Nantes, which granted liberty of conciseness and public worship to Huguenots. Henry's willingness to act upon the politique idea of sacrificing religious principals for political necessities saved France.

Charles V

Charles V was a young Catholic ruler who fell heir to a vast collection of states in Europe. Charles first went to battle for Catholicism in Switzerland, were he was eventually forced to sign a treaty allowing religious choice. Attempting to stop religious splitting, he called the diet of Augsburg, where Protestants presented a statement of their faith, the Augsburg profession. Charles rejected these ideals, leading to a Protestant military alliance, which he eventually went to war with. Although the emperor was at first successful in the war, France and the Pope were opposed to him garnering more power. Papal forces withdrew and France assisted the protestant forces until the Peace of Augsburg was reached. In 1556 Charles abdicated the throne giving up on his idea of an empire under a single church.

Elizabeth I

Daughter of Henry VIII and Ann Boleyn who ruled England after the death of her sister Mary. At the start of Elizabeth's reign, Catholics wanted a Roman Catholic ruler while returning exiles wanted Catholic elements of the church of England to be eliminated. Elizabeth met these extremes with a middle course, by calling for frequent preaching of protestant ideas, but not interfering with people's privately held beliefs. Services were again conducted in English, monasteries were not reestablished, and clergy men could marry. However, the church was hierarchical and had elaborate services, which contrasted with the traditional protestant ideas. At the end of the 16th century, Elizabeth's reign was threatened by European powers attempting to reestablish Catholicism. Elizabeth's largest threat was Mary Queen of Scots, who was next in line for the throne and a devout Catholic. Elizabeth imprisoned Mary because she worried that she would be the center of Catholic plots to overthrow her, and eventually had Mary executed for a plot to assassinate her. This triggered Philip II of Spain to attack England with the Spanish Armada, but the fleet was defeated by the better English ships. This prevented Catholicism from being reimposed on England.

Mary Tudor

Daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon who ruled England after the death of her brother Edward VI. Mary was devoutly Catholic, and rescinded the reformation of her father marking a return to Roman Catholicism. Her marriage to Philip II of Spain was highly unpopular and execution of Protestants further alienated her subjects. Her reign caused many protestants to leave the England., and when she died her half sister Elizabeth took her place.

Edict of Nantes

Legislature issued by Henry IV which granted liberty of conciseness and liberty of public worship to Huguenots in 150 fortified towns. This assisted in healing religious wounds from France's previous religious wars. The Edict of Nantes also helped pave the way for French absolutism in the 17th century by helping restore internal peace in France.

Jesuits

Members of the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyola, whose goal was the spread of the Roman Catholic faith. It was a tightly knit organization with vows of poverty, chastity, obedience, and obedience to the pope. Flexibility and the willingness to respond to the needs of time and circumstance formed Jesuit tradition, and was attractive to many young men. The Jesuits were a phenomenal success for the papacy and Catholic church, carrying Christianity to India, Japan, Brazil, North America, and the Congo. The Jesuits also brought southern Germany and much of eastern Europe back to Catholicism. There were also Jesuit schools that adopted humanist methods, educating sons of nobility and the poor. Lastly, the Jesuit roles of confessor and spiritual directors for kings gave them a strong political influence.

Anticlericalism

Opposition to the clergy that was widely spread in the early sixteenth century through songs, images, etc. This was caused by three root problems, clerical immorality, ignorance, and pluralism. Clerical immorality was demonstrated by priests that were drunkards, gambled, or wore fancy dress. Priests who were barely literate and did not understand the scriptures demonstrated clerical ignorance. Lastly, clerical pluralism was the act of holding multiple church positions, in which many positions were often neglected.

Henry of Navarre/ Henry IV

Politique king of France who sacrificed religious principals for political necessities to save France. Henry at one time a Huguenot, including when he got married to Margaret of Valois. On his wedding day, Huguenot wedding guests in Paris were massacred and other Protestants were killed by Catholic mobs. He later converted to Catholicism, but also issued the Edict of Nantes. It was a legislature which granted liberty of conciseness and liberty of public worship to Huguenots in 150 fortified towns. This assisted greatly in healing religious wounds from France's previous religious wars. Henry's reign combined with the Edict of Nantes helped pave the way for French absolutism in the 17th century by helping restore internal peace in France.

How did protestant ideas and institutions spread beyond German-speaking lands?

Protestant ideas spread to many countries in Europe through different means. One of the first countries to convert was England, establishing the Anglican Church. England's conversion was triggered by Pope Clement rejecting the annulment of Henry VIII. After he was not allowed to annul his marriage, he broke from the Catholic Church. England then suffered a religious inconsistency until Queen Elizabeth religiously stabilized England as Protestant. A major new religion called Calvinism also spread Protestant ideas. Calvinism's main difference from Lutheranism was that God was completely omnipresent and they believed in predestination. Predestination was the belief that God decided in the beginning who would be saved and who would be damned. Calvinism was original invented in the reformation of Geneva, but spread across Europe and was even implemented as the doctrine of the Scottish Church. Protestant ideas also spread into Eastern Europe, but they generally did not hold due to diverse ethnic groups and the Catholic reformation. However, Calvinism was by far the most prominent Protestant religion in eastern Europe.

What were the central ideas of the reformers? Why were they appealing to different social groups?

Protestant reformers were not only popular because they opposed the Catholic church, but because their ideas. Most protestants held 4 central ideas. First, salvation comes from Faith alone. This contrasted with Catholic belief that salvation comes from faith and good work. Second, authority rests in the bible alone. This core idea was a large reason Catholics tried to suppress the reform, since it practically undermined their authority. Third, the church is a spiritual priesthood of all believers. This appealed to many peasants and the working class, since it suggested everyone was equal in the eyes of God, and rejected Catholicism's hierarchy. Lastly, every person should serve God in their own individual calling. This meant that someone served God best by what they did best, and once again rejected Catholic hierarchy. This general opposition to the Catholic Church and ideas of equality resonated with many leaders and the lower class. The reformation also brought the upper class a chance for material gain, since they would be confiscating Catholic land. The appeal of these central ideas to a variety of European social classes was the key component in the spread of Protestant religion.

Witch Hunts

Questioning of people (mainly woman) who were expected to be witches on a large scale. Those who were questioned would often be tortured, and this tactic would be used to discover more potential witches. Witch hunts began rising during the 16th century, due to a new understanding of what a witch was. Witches were no longer just people who used magical power to get what they want, they were now considered people used by the devil to get what he wants. Trials of this new type assisted in making the hunts more prominent. Witches were most often women, due to stereotypes such as women being too weak to resist the devils temptations, having a powerful sexual desire, and the idea that women cursed to get what they wanted due to lack of authority. Legal procedures in this time also changed from accusatory to inquisitorial. This made people much more willing to accuse others, since they would not be held accountable for the trial or have to face the accused person's relatives. Most witch trials began with a single accusation in a town/city, for things such as using magic to spoil food, causing hailstorms, etc. If the accused confessed to being a witch during their questioning, they were promptly executed. If many other people were implicated as being a witch during questioning/torture, a witch panic would begin. Panics were very large hunts that mainly occurred in areas of Europe that were religiously divided, as they felt more threatened by witched than large monarchs. Witch hunts slowly became less common as new scientific ideals emerged, and were practically nonexistent by the 17th and 18th centuries.

Peasants revolt

Radical reformers during the 16th century often called for social and religious change, a message that strongly resonated with German peasants. Peasants were extremely aggravated by crop failure and continued abuse from nobles. Eventually, the peasants demanded changes they said conformed to the Scriptures, citing Luther as proof that they did. Although the peasants at first had the support of Luther, It was eventually lost due to their rebellion and murderous ways. The peasants were crushed by the nobility and more than 75,000 were killed in 1525.

What were the causes and consequences of religious violence, including riots, wars, and witchhunts?

Religious riots, violence, wars, and witch hunts were very common during the time of reformation. Religious violence and wars both had very similar causes, as it was the violence that led to the wars. These were both caused by conflict between religious groups, mainly between Catholics and Protestants. Both religions viewed each other as a pollution of society, and would fight for power over a territory, defense of Protestantism, and re-imposition of Catholicism. The consequences of this fighting usually included death from massacres, weaker more unstable central governments, and religious instability between territories. Riots during this time period were mainly caused by angry religious minorities, or religious majorities that were not properly represented by their secular states. This anger was the result of government oppression over religious minorities or protestant groups. However, Catholics could also be oppressed in previously Catholic states that became Protestant. While these riots rarely resulted in significant change, they did stir the waters and foreshadow potential religious war. Lastly, witch hunts were caused by the new perception that witch's are anyone who works with the devil, stereotypical female ideas, religious paranoia, and a new form of legal procedure. Many states feared the dangers heresy could bring, and used the witch hunts as a way to display their power. This was made even easier by new legal procedures that allowed someone to accuse a witch without being responsible for the outcome of their trial. Witch hunts likely resulted in the deaths of many innocent women, and left countries with a heretic paranoia that was displayed through witch panics.

Catholic Reformation

Spiritual revival of the Catholic Church for internal reform and a Counter-Reformation that opposed Protestants ideas. Equal validity was given to the Scriptures and Church tradition, the seven sacraments/transubstantiation were reaffirmed, and disciplinary matters were tackled. Indulgences were forbidden, clerical concubines had to be given up, and pluralism was suppressed. A new emphasis was also placed on the education of the clergy, as shown by the requirement that every diocese establish a seminary for the education and training of the clergy. Marriage was also now required to have public vows, which lowered the number of conflicts/denial of marriages that took place in secret. Religious orders were another major characteristic of the reformation. Many new orders were created and most older orders were reformed, by means of following more rigorous standards or teaching women.

French Religous Wars

String of conflicts between the Catholics and Calvinists of France. Many members of the French population had become Calvinist, including nobles who adopted Protestantism as a religious cloak for their independence. Both religions viewed each other as a pollution to society, and preachers further incited violence. Calvinists called many sacred images into question, and their mobs would smash Catholic statues, windows, and paintings as a way to purify the church. catholic mobs responded by defending images, and crowds on both sides killed their opponents, often in gruesome ways. One of the larger attacks during the war was a Catholic attack in Paris on Saint Barlow Day. catholic mobs massacred Protestants in the city and Huguenot wedding guests of King Navarre and Margaret of Valois. The religious wars nearly destroyed the country, and would have if not for the politiques.

What reforms did the Catholic Church make, and how did it respond to Protestant reform movements?

The Catholic reform was a counter reformation to the Protestant reformation that had stripped away many Catholic followers. Because of this, their reform opposed Protestants intellectually, politically, militarily, institutionally. Equal validity was given to the Scriptures and Church tradition, the seven sacraments/transubstantiation were reaffirmed, and disciplinary matters were tackled. Indulgences were forbidden, clerical concubines had to be given up, and pluralism was suppressed. A new emphasis was also placed on the education of the clergy, as shown by the requirement that every diocese establish a seminary for the education and training of the clergy. Marriage was also now required to have public vows, which lowered the number of conflicts/denial of marriages that took place in secret. Religious orders were another major characteristic of the reformation. Many new orders were created and most older orders were reformed, by means of following more rigorous standards or teaching women. This reform lead the Catholic Church to have a very large comeback over Protestants. The church's willingness to reform was very appealing, and the reform kept rooted Catholic differences from Protestants while fixing criticisms. By the end of the reform, Catholicism had retook southern Germany and much of Eastern Europe.

Protestant

The name originally given to followers of Luther, who came to mean all no-Catholic Western Christian groups. Protestants tended to agree on many core ideas. They believed that salvation comes from faith alone, authority rests in the bible alone, the church is a spiritual priesthood of all believers, and that every person should serve God in their individual calling. However, protestants did not agree on the ritual of Eucharist. While Luther believed Christ was present in the blood/whine during these rituals, Zwingli thought that Christ was only present in the faithful. Attempts to unite Protestants failed because of this difference.

Compare and contrast the political consequences of the spread of Protestant ideas in the Netherlands and France.

The Netherlands and France both had a relatively similar experience with the spread of Protestant ideas. Both countries were thrust into Civil wars, which were each caused for nearly the same reasons. The Netherlands was split into multiple provinces that began fighting due to religious differences between the provinces. This fighting was further aggravated by Philip II of Spain sending troops to suppress Calvinism. France also had a divide between Huguenots and Catholics, who engaged in many skirmishes due to their religious differences. Catholics and Protestants in both countries viewed each other as a pollution to society. While each of these countries wars had similar causes, their outcomes and paths were different. While the Netherlands had a full out war including the Spanish, In France the war involved the occasional mob defiling religious property or killing the opposing religious party. France also did not have other powers intervening in their war, like the Netherlands did with the opposition of Spain and the assistance of England. At the end of the countries wars, the Netherlands was left divided into the southern Catholic provinces and the northern Union of Utrecht, while France was relatively united. France did divide after the war due to the efforts of politiques and Henry IV to strengthen the monarchy. While both these countries had similar causes for their religious wars, the route their wars took/ their conclusion was relatively different.

Holy Office

The Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition created by Pope Paul III. The office had jurisdiction over the inquisition, a powerful instrument of the Catholic reformation. The inquisition was a committee of six cardinals judicial authority over all Catholics and the power to arrest, imprison, and execute suspected heretics. the office also published the Index of Prohibited Books, a list of forbidden readings by Christian Humanists and Protestants. While the Inquisition practically destroyed heresy within the Papal States, its influence on other territories was very slight.

Union of Utrecht

The alliance of seven northern provinces (led by Holland) that declared its independence from Spain and formed the United Provinces of the Netherlands. This left the north o the Netherlands protestants, and the south Catholic, which Philip II did not accept. Philip then continued the war, but eventually agreed to a truce after England began supporting the United Provinces. The war was originally caused by religious differences and Spanish attempts to suppress Calvinist worship. The union marked the approach to the end of Netherlands civil war that had been occurring between Catholics and Protestants, provinces, and Spain.

Book of Common Prayer

The first Book of Common prayer written by archbishop Thomas Cranmer, that was approved by Parliament and in stately and dignified English included the order for all services/ prayers of the Church of England.

Against the Murderous, Thieving hordes of Peasants

Tract written by Martin Luther in response to the behavior of the German peasants. Luther believed that freedom for Protestants meant independence from the Catholic church, not secular powers. He also sated that the Scriptures have nothing to do with earthly justice or material gain. The peasants behaviors of murdering and burning down property further convinced Luther not to support them. This opposition by Luther made the Reformation loose much of its appeal to German peasants.

Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis

Treaty ending the long conflict between France and Spain called the Habsburg-Valois War. Spain was the victor of the war, and France was forced to acknowledge Spanish dominance in Italy. However, true peace was not fully reached, and over the next century religious differences led to riots, civil war, and international conflict. This fighting was especially prominent in France and the Netherlands, where Protestants and Catholics continuously fought.

Thomas Cranmer

Was the appointed archbishop of Canterbury who influenced Henry VIII to place a bible in every church. He also simplified the liturgy, invited Protestant theologians to England, and wrote the first Book of Common Prayer. It was approved by Parliament and in stately and dignified English included the order for all services/ prayers of the Church of England.