Chapter 17
If a researcher studying family response to adolescent suicide interviewed parents and siblings independently, the triangulation approach method would be called which of the following? A) Data triangulation B) Investigator triangulation C) Theory triangulation D) Method triangulation
Ans: A Feedback: Triangulation is the process of using multiple referents to draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth. This includes data triangulation (using multiple data sources to validate conclusions) and method triangulation (using multiple methods to collect data about the same phenomenon). There are three types of data triangulation: time, space, and person. Strategies for enhancing quality during the coding and analysis of qualitative data include investigator triangulation (independent coding and analysis of some of the data by two or more researchers) and theory triangulation (use of competing theories or hypotheses in the analysis and interpretation of data).
Which of the following are terms that are considered aspects of trustworthiness within the Lincoln and Guba framework? Select all that apply. A) Transferability B) Confirmability C) Stability D) Dependability
Ans: A, B, D Feedback: Although not without critics, the criteria often viewed as the ìgold standardî for qualitative research are those outlined by Lincoln and Guba (1985). These researchers suggested four criteria for developing the trustworthiness of a qualitative inquiry: credibility, dependability, confirmability, and transferability. Dependability refers to the stability (reliability) of data over time and over conditions.
Which of the following is characteristic of qualitative research? Select all that apply. A) It is consistent with the constructivist paradigm of inquiry. B) It generates causal hypotheses. C) It tests hypotheses. D) It involves an iterative process of interpretation and analysis.
Ans: A, B, D Feedback: Interpretation in qualitative studies sometimes yields hypotheses that can be tested in more controlled quantitative studies. Qualitative studies are well suited to generating causal hypotheses, but not to testing them. In the constructivist paradigm, multiple interpretations of reality exist. The goal of research conducted according to the constructivist paradigm is to understand how individuals construct their own reality. This paradigm is often associated with qualitative research. Interpretation and analysis of qualitative data occur simultaneously, in an iterative process.
Which of the following statements about controversies in qualitative research is true? A) Unlike quantitative research methods, qualitative research methods do not require rigorous study designs. B) There is lack of consensus regarding the quality criteria for qualitative inquiry. C) There is no ìgold standardî in qualitative research criteria. D) There is no comparable criterion in qualitative research for the positivists' criterion of internal validity.
Ans: B Feedback: Establishing a consensus on what the quality criteria for qualitative inquiry should be, and what they should be named, remains elusive, and it is unlikely that a consensus will be achieved in the near future, if ever. Guba and Lincoln established criteria considered as the ìgold standardî for qualitative research; however, not all qualitative researchers agree with their recommendations. The criteria established by Guba and Lincoln to develop trustworthiness of qualitative inquiryócredibility, dependability, confirmability, and transferabilityórepresent parallels to the positivists' criteria of internal validity, reliability, objectivity, and external validity, respectively.
Which of the following terms is especially controversial among qualitative researchers? A) Dependability B) Validity C) Transferability D) Credibility
Ans: B Feedback: One of several controversies regarding quality in qualitative studies involves terminology. Some argue that rigor and validity are quantitative terms that are not suitable as goals in qualitative inquiry, but others believe these terms are appropriate. Although not without critics, the criteria often viewed as the ìgold standardî for qualitative research are those outlined by Lincoln and Guba (1985). These researchers suggested four criteria for developing the trustworthiness of a qualitative inquiry: credibility, dependability, confirmability, and transferability.
A nurse-midwife conducted a phenomenology study of the lived experience of women in Haiti who gave birth following the 2010 Haitian earthquake. She collected data from 15 women over a 12-month period of time. Which quality-enhancement strategy is described in this example? A) Persistent observation B) Prolonged engagement C) Reflexivity D) Data triangulation
Ans: B Feedback: Prolonged engagement is the investment of a sufficient amount of time to collect data about a study population to achieve an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon. In this example the researcher spent 12 months interacting with study participants to explore the lived experience of the women. Persistent observation refers to the collection of specific data relevant to the phenomenon under investigation. Reflexivity refers to the awareness and personal experience and insight that the researcher brings to the study. Data triangulation refers to the use of multiple sources to draw conclusions about what constitutes truth in the data.
The proper rationale for searching for and including disconfirming evidence is which of the following? A) To eliminate confounding cases from data analysis B) To refine a hypothesis or theory C) To confirm saturation of the data D) To formulate a conclusion based on existing data
Ans: B Feedback: Searching for disconfirming evidence is a verification procedure that challenges an explanation or category that has emerged early in data analysis. It occurs concurrently with data collection and analysis. Negative case analysis is a procedure to continuously refine a hypothesis or theory until it accounts for all cases. Saturation of data occurs when data collection yields redundant information. Triangulation is the process of using multiple referents to draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth. Eliminating confounding cases would be the opposite of including disconfirming evidence.
The term trustworthiness in qualitative research parallels which of the following terms used in quantitative research? Select all that apply. A) Generalizability B) Validity C) Reliability D) Correlation
Ans: B, C Feedback: Lincoln and Guba (1985) created standards for the trustworthiness of qualitative research that parallel the standards of reliability and validity in quantitative research. The term generalizability, used in quantitative research, is analogous to the term transferability in qualitative research, which is the extent to which qualitative findings can be transferred to or have applicability in other settings or groups. A correlation is the association or relationship between variables.
A member check involves the researcher reviewing data with which of the following? A) An external auditor B) A peer of the researcher C) A study participant D) A second member of the research team
Ans: C Feedback: In a member check, researchers give participants feedback about emerging interpretations and then obtain participants' reactions. Other strategies for enhancing quality during the coding and analysis of qualitative data include investigator triangulation (independent coding and analysis of some of the data by two or more researchers); external validation through peer debriefings (exposing the inquiry to the searching questions of peers); and launching an inquiry audit (a formal scrutiny of audit trail documents by an independent auditor).
Which of the following statements about qualitative research methods is true? A) Peer debriefings in qualitative research provide proof that interpretations are correct. B) Qualitative research attempts to test hypotheses generated from quantitative research. C) Interpretation and analysis of qualitative data typically occur simultaneously. D) Qualitative research methods are best suited to study well-known phenomenon.
Ans: C Feedback: Interpretation and analysis of qualitative data typically occur virtually simultaneously, in an iterative process. Interpretation in qualitative studies sometimes yields hypotheses that can be tested in more controlled quantitative studies. The nature of qualitative research is to generate, not test hypotheses. Qualitative research is especially productive when it is used to describe and explain poorly understood phenomena. Prudent qualitative researchers hold their interpretations up for closer scrutinyóself-scrutiny as well as review by peers and outside reviewers. Even when researchers have undertaken peer debriefings and other strategies described in this chapter, these procedures do not constitute proof that interpretations are correct.
In qualitative research, investigator triangulation is comparable to which quantitative research concept? A) Content validity B) Construct validity C) Inter-rater reliability D) Internal consistency
Ans: C Feedback: Investigator triangulation is conceptually analogous to inter-rater reliability in quantitative studies. Content validity is a term used in quantitative research that refers to the degree to which items in an instrument actually measure the intended concept. Construct validity in quantitative research refers to the validity of inferences gleaned from the study setting or an instrument used in the study in measuring the construct under investigation. Internal consistency in quantitative research refers to the degree to which sub-parts of a scale or instrument measure the same attribute or dimension.
Which of the following is true of thick description in qualitative research? A) It should not include verbatim quotes from participants. B) It should not include information that can be interpreted as controversial. C) It should be implicit in the description of the research context. D) It should avoid emotional impact.
Ans: C Feedback: Thick description refers to a rich, thorough, and vivid description of the research context, the people who participated in the study, and the experiences and processes observed during the inquiry. Thick description includes the free use of verbatim quotes from study participants and contributes to the authenticity of a qualitative study. According to Sandelowski, thick description should be implicit in the description of the research context and the term itself should not be written in the research report. In high-quality qualitative studies, descriptions typically need to go beyond a faithful rendering of information. Powerful description is evocative and has the capacity for emotional impact. Qualitative researchers should, however, avoid misrepresenting their findings by sharing only the most dramatic or sensational stories.
The term transferability in qualitative research is similar to which term used in quantitative research? A) Authenticity B) Reliability C) Generalizability D) Correlation
Ans: C Feedback: Transferability, analogous to generalizability, is the extent to which qualitative findings can be transferred to or have applicability in other settings or groups. Authenticity refers to the extent to which researchers fairly represent the participant's actual or lived experience. Dependability in qualitative research is analogous to the term reliability in quantitative research. Correlation is a term used in quantitative research to describe the association between variables.
The criterion that refers to neutrality or objectivity in qualitative inquiry is which of the following? A) Credibility B) Transferability C) Authenticity D) Confirmability
Ans: D Feedback: Confirmability refers to the objectivity of the data. Credibility, which refers to confidence in the truth value of the findings, has been viewed as the qualitative equivalent of internal validity. Transferability, the analog of external validity, is the extent to which findings can be transferred to other settings or groups. Authenticity is the extent to which researchers faithfully show a range of different realities and convey the feeling tone of lives as they are lived.
Credibility in qualitative research refers to which of the following? A) The reliability of data over time B) Objectivity of the interpretation of the data C) Applicability of the data to other groups D) Confidence in the truth value of the data
Ans: D Feedback: Credibility or the believability of data refers to confidence in the truth value of the data and data interpretation. Dependability is the reliability of data over time. Confirmability refers to establishing that the data objectively represent the participants' information and view point, and not that of the researcher. Transferability is the extent to which qualitative findings can be transferred to or have applicability in other settings or groups.
A nurse working in an adolescent health clinic conducted a grounded theory study related to contraceptive decision-making in Latina youth. She collected data from individual interviews and focus groups. Which of the following quality-enhancement strategies is described in this example? A) Persistent observation B) Prolonged engagement C) Reflexivity D) Data triangulation
Ans: D Feedback: Data triangulation refers to the use of multiple data sources for the purpose of validating conclusions. In this example the nurse collected data from individual interviews and focus groups. Persistent observation refers to the collection of specific data relevant to the phenomenon under investigation. Prolonged engagement is the investment of a sufficient amount of time to collect data about a study population to achieve an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon. Reflexivity refers to the awareness and personal experience and insight that the researcher brings to the study.
The maintenance of good, thorough documentation and a decision trail is especially critical in which of the following? A) Member checks B) Stepwise replications C) Negative case analysis D) Inquiry audits
Ans: D Feedback: Strategies for enhancing quality during the coding and analysis of qualitative data include launching an inquiry audit (a formal scrutiny of audit trail documents by an independent auditor); stepwise replication (dividing the research team into two groups that conduct independent inquiries that can be compared and merged); and searching for rival explanations and undertaking a negative case analysis (revising interpretations to account for cases that appear to disconfirm early conclusions). Strategies for enhancing quality during qualitative data collection include member checks (asking study participants to review and react to study data and emerging conceptualizations).
Confirmability in qualitative research refers to which of the following? A) The reliability of data over time B) Objectivity of the interpretation of the data C) Applicability of the data to other groups D) Confidence in the truth value of the data
Ans: B Feedback: Confirmability refers to objectivity, achieved through congruence or agreement between two or more independent evaluators about the data's accuracy, relevance, or meaning. Dependability refers to the stability of data over time. Transferability refers to the applicability of data to other groups. Credibility refers to the believability or confidence in the truth of the findings.
Which of the following is a barrier that qualitative researchers face in demonstrating the trustworthiness of their studies to readers? A) Page limitations imposed by journals B) Reflexivity C) Lack of generalizability D) Small sample sizes
Ans: A Feedback: Adhering to page constraints imposed by journals inevitably reduces the amount of thick description and verbatim accounts that can be reported in qualitative research reports. Page limitations imposed by journals ultimately impact the ability of the researcher to support the authenticity of the study with thick description of the content, and researchers must compromise in how the data is reported. Reflexivity involves awareness that the researcher as an individual brings to the inquiry a unique background, set of values, and a social and professional identity that can affect the research process; this would not be a barrier to demonstrating trustworthiness. Generalizability and large sample size, although important in quantitative research, are not goals of qualitative research because qualitative research is context-bound.
Which criterion is considered analogous to internal validity in the Lincoln & Guba framework? A) Credibility B) Transferability C) Dependability D) Confirmability
Ans: A Feedback: Credibility, which refers to confidence in the truth value of the findings, has been viewed as the qualitative equivalent of internal validity. Dependability, the stability of data over time and over conditions, is somewhat analogous to reliability in quantitative studies. Confirmability is the qualitative equivalent of objectivity. Transferability, the analog of external validity, is the extent to which findings can be transferred to other settings or groups.
A quality-enhancement strategy about which there is considerable controversy is which of the following? A) Member checks B) Stepwise replications C) Negative case analysis D) Inquiry audits
Ans: A Feedback: Few strategies for enhancing data quality are as controversial as member checking. Nevertheless, it is a strategy that has the potential to enhance credibility if it is done in a manner that encourages candor and critical appraisal by participants.
Which of the following quality-enhancement strategies has the greatest potential for leading to erroneous conclusions about the data? A) Member checking B) Audit trail C) Reflexivity D) Data triangulation
Ans: A Feedback: Member checking can lead to erroneous conclusions about the data if the participants withhold information or desire to ìcover upî the truth about a phenomenon. An audit trail is a systematic collection of materials and documentation that would allow an independent auditor to draw conclusions about the researcher's interpretation of the data and is a good tool for enhancing the trustworthiness of data. Reflexivity refers to the awareness and personal experience and insight that the researcher brings to the study. Data triangulation refers to the use of multiple sources to draw conclusions about what constitutes truth in the data.
If both in-depth interviews and participant observations were used to collect data on a phenomenon in a study, this would be referred to as which of the following? A) Data triangulation B) Investigator triangulation C) Theory triangulation D) Method triangulation
Ans: D Feedback: Triangulation is the process of using multiple referents to draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth. This includes data triangulation (using multiple data sources to validate conclusions) and method triangulation (using multiple methods to collect data about the same phenomenon). Strategies for enhancing quality during the coding and analysis of qualitative data include investigator triangulation (independent coding and analysis of some of the data by two or more researchers) and theory triangulation (use of competing theories or hypotheses in the analysis and interpretation of data).
Dependability in qualitative research is considered the analog of which criterion in quantitative research? A) Internal validity B) Construct validity C) Reliability D) Specificity
Ans: C Feedback: Dependability refers to the stability of data over time and over conditions and is somewhat analogous to reliability, not specificity, internal validity, or construct validity, in quantitative studies. Credibility, which refers to confidence in the truth value of the findings, has been viewed as the qualitative equivalent of internal validity.
A nurse working in an inner-city clinic conducted an ethnographic study of sex workers to gain understanding of factors related to HIV risk for these women. After she completed her data collection, she gave three participants feedback about her findings for their review and commentary. Which of the following quality-enhancement strategies is described in this example? A) Audit trail B) Data triangulation C) Reflexivity D) Member checking
Ans: D Feedback: In member checking, researchers give participants feedback about emerging interpretations and then obtain participants' reactions to those interpretations. This method allows participants to validate whether or not the researchers' interpretations accurately represent their realities. An audit trail is a systematic collection of materials and documentation that would allow an independent auditor to draw conclusions about the data. Data triangulation refers to the use of multiple sources to draw conclusions about what constitutes truth in the data. Reflexivity refers to the awareness and personal experience and insight that the researcher brings to the study.
