Chapter 17- The Scientific Revolution
Ptolemy's Cosmological Model
-100-170 C.E. -agreed with Aristotle -center of the universe was a stationary Earth and the moon/sun/planets revolved around it in circular orbit -large sphere carried stars, in fixed relationship to each other, from east to west once every 24 hours -each element had a natural place on Earth -all heavenly bodies were composed of a fifth element called ether
What were the achievements and discoveries of the Scientific Revolution? (17.1)
-17th century -astronomy, physics, chemistry, and biology -a: Kepler and Galileo supported Copernican sun-centered theory -p: Newtons laws of gravity and motion -c: Robert Boyle discovering atoms and how atoms determined an object'c characteristics -b: William Harvey's blood circulation
The Control of Nature
-17th century -Scientific revolution strengthened idea of controlling nature -practically applied research -by mid 18th century science science improving was part of western culture and a main theme of enlightenment
Independent Reasoning Consequences of the Scientific Revolution
-17th century -encouraged skepticism ^rely upon observations over previous notions -Descartes showed in "Discourse of this Method" ^questions authority and think for themselves
The Intellectual Consequences of the Scientific Revolution
-Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton ^assumptions their work was based on influenced what educated people studied, how they approached intellectual problems, and their thoughts on the supernatural
Physics: The Laws of Motion and Gravitation
-Galileo's most significant contribution was to physics -main branches were mechanics (motion and its causes) and optics (study of light) ^Galileo wrote laws explaining motion of material objects challenging Aristotle, formulated law of motion to explain speed of falling objects -Aristotle believe movement required another object to move it, Galileo said motion was a state an object was in -greatest contribution to physics was Sir Isaac Newton ^wrote laws to explain the operation of the physical world ^law of gravity
Mathematics and Nature
-Galileo/Descartes though nature had a geometrical structure and could be understood in mathematical terms -matter could be explained in math -Newton used examples derived from experiments and deductive, mathematical reasoning to discover laws of nature
Galileo Galilei
-Italian mathematician -challenged traditional science with a telescope ^claimed planets revolved around the sun instead of earth being the center of the universe -discoveries part of the Scientific Revolution ^changed the way people viewed religion, philosophy, politics, navigation, business, etc ^gave West claims of superiority
Conflict Between Science and Religion
-New science challenged traditional Christian beliefs: 1. contradiction between sun-centered theory and biblical references of the sun moving 2. if universe functioned as a machine then God barely operated it
Paradigm
-a conceptual model or intellectual framework within which scientists conduct their research and experimentation -scientific revolution occurs when the old paradigm collapses and a new paradigm replaces it -astronomy paradigm: originated with Ptolemaic model, then changed to Copernicus' sun-centered theory -biology paradigm: Galen's theory of blood originating in the liver and traveling through veins/arteries, then changed to Harvey's blood circulation throughout body
Universal law of Gravitation
-a law of nature established by Isaac Newton in 1687 holding that any two bodies attract each other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and indirectly proportional to the square of the distance between them -same force holding an object to earth also holds the planets in their orbit -presented in mathematical terms
Neoplatonism
-a philosophy based on the teachings of Plato and his successors that flourished in Late Antiquity, especially in the teachings of Plotinus -influenced Christianity in Late Antiquity -during the Renaissance it was linked to the belief that the natural world was charged with occult forces that could be used in the practice of magic -stressed unity of the natural and spiritual world -believed answers were in math and alchemy and that the sun was the center of the universe
Skepticism
-a tendency to doubt what one has been taught or is expected to believe -Scientific Revolution encouraged -Descartes "Discourse of this Methods encouraged people to think for themselves ^lead to used to challenge Orthodox Jews and Christians
Dualistic
-a term used to describe a philosophy or a religion in which a rigid distinction is made between body and mind, good and evil, or the material and the immaterial -Descartes believed the mind and bod were dualistic
The Discoveries and Achievements of the Scientific Revolution
-developed gradually over a long period of time -revolutionary b/c it transformed human thought like political revolutions transformed gov -most important changes took place in astronomy, physics, chemistry, and biology
Trial of Galileo
-early 16th century -Pope Urban originally supported Galileo but was accused of being easy on heretics (Copernicanism was heresy) -Galileo arrested for heresy ^focused on whether publishing "Dialogue" violated injunction -kept Pope's previous support out of trial -had to submit to the court
Protestantism
-early years protestants were just as hostile as Catholics to new science -16th and 17th century encouraged modern science in 3 ways: 1. Protestant gov's more willing to allow publication/dissemination of new scientific ideas ^main geographical arena of scientific rev shifted from Catholic Mediterranean to the Protestant North Atlantic 2. emphasized idea that God revealed his intentions in both the bible and nature, meaning it is our duty to study both 3. believed millennium (second coming of Christ) was about to begin, leading to an increase in knowledge/societal improvements/control of nature
What methods did scientists use during this period to investigate nature, and how did they think nature operated? (17.2)
-empirical/inductive approach: all theories are tested through experimentation and observation of natural world -deductive: establish basic truths to arrive at conclusions -applied math to the study of the natural world that was believed to operate like a machine
Biology: The Circulation of the Blood
-greatest discovery by William Harvey for demonstrating that blood circulates throughout the human body ^heart pumped blood not sucked it in ^set standard for future biological research
No Conflict Between Science and Religion
-had different concerns: religion: relationship between humans and God science: how nature operated -mechanical philosophy showed God's unlimited power -science could lead to knowledge of God
Deists
-late 17th century -believed God created the universe and made made laws of nature but did not intervene in the operation of nature or human affairs -questioned traditional Christian beliefs
Educational Consequences of the Scientific Revolution
-late 17th, early 18th century -outside of school lectures/societies/publications spread scientific knowledge -academic war between the "ancients" into classical authors and the "moderns" into new science culture ^Battle of the Books: intellectual debate over who contributed more to human knowledge ^no clear winner, still a debate
Developments within Science
-late medieval science -renaissance science -collapse of paradigms
The Printing Press
-made it easier to share discoveries -preserved scientific knowledge more accurately and to a broader audience -cumulated entire body of scientific knowledge -nonscientific communities became aware of discoveries, made science part of the culture of educated Europeans
Astronomy: A New Model of the Universe
-most significant change was acceptance of the sun as the center of the universe -Pope Urban VIII did not support Galileo's theory and charged him with heresy and he was forced to abandon his support of the Copernican model of the universe ^his book was prohibited even though the idea was gaining widespread support
Renaissance Science
-natural philosophers contributed more to modern science during renaissance than medieval ^inspiration from rediscovered Greek scientific works -recovered work showing Greek scientists various perspectives led to independent experimentation to resolve differences -revived Neoplatonism ^matter is alive and linked to a divine soul that governs the entire universe, math and alchemy could unlock mysteries of living world, sun is center of universe -Copernicus took his sun as the center of the universe idea from Neoplatonic ideas, Kepler took his geometric universe ideas, Newton's laws from a Neoplatonist professor -modern science resulted from the mechanical philosophy of matter being inert and Neoplatonism claiming the natural world was alive
Patronage
-needed organized structure to to give science a set structure, let it develop, and give its members a professional identity -scientists depended on patronage of wealthy and influential individuals ^it would easily be withdrawn; required them to conduct their research in favor of their patrons -academies for scientists to share ideas were a second source of patronage ^more regular source than individuals but still served and depended upon founders -Royal Society using scientific tech to strengthen the power of the state showed how the growth of the modern state and modern science were related
Developments Outside Science
-nonscientific developments encouraging acceptance of new ideas 1. spread of Protestantism 2. patronage of scientific research 3. invention of the printing press 4. military and economic change
The Place of Human Beings in the Universe
-originally privileged position in center of universe -habitation of tiny planet rotating sun reduced their importance ^also possibility of other habitable parents
Chemistry: Discovering the Elements of Nature
-originally viewed as magic and not scientific -Robert Boyle claimed matter was made up of atoms and their composition determined the characteristics -most famous experiment was a vacuum ^made chemists more accepted in the sciences
Observation and Experimentation
-prominent feature of research was observation of nature combined with testing hypothesis through experimentation -induction assumed abandonment of preconceived notions -Francis Bacon believed previous scientists relied too little on experimentation ^his approach was a thorough and systematic investigation of nature
Military and Economic Change
-revolution occurred almost simultaneously with European change in economy and warfare -physicists helped improve accuracy of weapons -mechanics made mining more profitable -Royalist Society suggested members do research to make capitalist ventures -research did not always have immediate results but it contributed to the English economy in the 18th century
Science and Western Culture
-rise of Western science gave Europeans dominance over Africa, Asia, and the Americas ^gave them military/navigational tec ^agricultural tec to grow resources in colonies -turned into Western imperial expansion
How did the Scientific Revolution influence philosophical and religious thoughts in the 17th and early 18th century? (17.4)
-science became important part of university education system, also spread by publications and coffeehouse talk ^helped popularize skepticism among educated people which encouraged independent thought of religion and philosophy -secularization became a trend, religion was displaced by more worldly concerns at end of 17th century
Humans and the Natural World
-science led people to reconsidered their relationship with nature in 3 ways: 1. determine the place of humans in sun-centered universe 2. investigate how science and tec gave humans more control over nature 3. reconsider male and female relationship due to knowledge of the mind and body
The Collapse of Paradigms
-scientists would rather work established framework (paradigms) than introduce new theories -scientific revolution occurs when the old paradigm collapses and a new paradigm replaces it
Claudius Galen
-studied Aristotle and medicine -discovered that arteries carried blood not air ^also believed blood originated in the liver
How did the Scientific Revolution change the way in which 17th and 18th century Europeans thought of the place of human beings in the world? (17.5)
-sun-centered model: questioned human status and unique and central to the universe -new science: possible to make natural world serve people more effectively -human body: questioned equality of the sexes, female organs were perfect in their own right and were equally responsible for reproduction
The Mechanical Philosophy
-the 17th century philosophy of nature, by Rene Descartes, holding that nature operated in a mechanical way, just like a machine made by a human being ^only difference was that operations of natural mechanisms could not be observed like structures of a machine -perceived human body as a machine -matter was completely inert/dead -implied that nature operated in regular, predictable ways in accordance with the unchanging laws of nature
Deductive Reasoning
-the logical process by which ideas and laws are derived from basic truths or principles -Rene Descartes foremost leader ^any problem should be solved by first establishing truths then proceeding from those ideas to specific conclusions -mathematics provided the model: moves logically from premises to conclusions through equations -limitations appeared in principles of gravity
Empiricism
-the practice of testing scientific theories by observation and experiment -idea that we can know truth through what the senses can experience
Alchemy
-the practice, rooted in a philosophical tradition, of attempting to turn base metals into precious ones -also involved the identification of natural substances for medical purposes -was influential in the development of chemistry and medicine in the 16th and 17th century
Induction
-the process of reasoning that formulates general hypothesis and theories on the basis of specific observation and the accumulation of data -theories came after accumulation/analysis of data
Rationalism
-the theory that the mind contains rational categories independent of sensory observation -reason is the primary source of truth
The Search for Scientific Knowledge
-there was no "scientific method", each had his own procedure -shared similar views on how nature operated -observed, experimented, used deductive reasoning and mathematical equations ^defines Western approach to solving scientific problems
Late Medieval Science
-trace origins to 14th century modifications of Aristotle's scientific theories by natural philosophers, started to question his authority ^medieval scientists changed thoughts of impetus (began to think objects in motion kept force after they lost contact with the mover) -began direct/empirical observation instead of accepting preconceived notions regarding the operation of nature ^not rigorous experimentation, just encouraged theories based on facts found through empirical studies -unchallenged position of theology (Ptolemy's cosmology and Galen's theories) ^new ideas challenging Christian doctrine were ignored
Why did the Scientific Revolution take place in western Europe at this time? (17.3)
-within science: research by natural philosophers in the 14th century, Renaissance humanists investigations, and the collapse of paradigms that had ruled scientific research -outside science: spread of Protestantism, patronage of research, invention of the printing press, and military/economic change
The Causes of the Scientific Revolution
3 internal causes of the Scientific Revolution: 1. natural philosophers conducting research into motion in the 14th century 2. scientific investigations conducted by Renaissance humanists 3. collapse of dominant conceptual frameworks, or paradigms, that had governed scientific inquiry and research for centuries
