chapter 19 blood test and lab practical

embolism

Obstruction of a blood vessel by a clot of blood or foreign substance. A serious blockage can lead to severe breathing difficulty or death. Symptoms of pulmonary embolism appear suddenly and include: shortness of breath, rapid breathing, or wheezing.

increase in hematocrit if

Plasma volume is decreased (e.g. dehydration) 2. Formed element volume is increased (e.g. enhanced erythropoeisis) • the average male hematocrit is higher than females because male sex hormones (androgens) promote erythropoesis)

erythroblasts

RBC in bone marrow, stage 2 of RBC. day 2, basophilic erythroblast, day 3, polychromatophilic erytroblast, day 4 normoblast

red blood cells

RBCs aka erythrocytes. have no nuclei or organelles when mature.

Sickle-cell anemia

RBCs have an irregular shape

proerythroblast

Stage 1 of RBC. day one cell out of red bone marrow

white blood cells

WBCs aka leukocytes. They have nuclei and other organelles. Primary function = defense against pathogens. Foundation for the lymphatic system.

White blood cell types (5)

White Blood Cell Types. the "phils" are granulocytes and the "cytes" are agranulocytes. • Neutrophils (50-70%) • Lymphocytes (20-40%) •Monocytes (2-8%) • Eosinophils (2-4%) • Basophils (<1%) Mnemonic: never let monkeys eat bananas.

granulocytes

a group of leukocytes containing granules in their cytoplasm. includes neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils.

thrombopoietin

a hormone produced by the liver and kidneys stimulated during the process of thrombocytopoiesis

Microphages

a large white blood cell, occurring principally in connective tissue and in the bloodstream, that ingests foreign particles and infectious microorganisms by phagocytosis. include neutrophils and eosinophils (types of WBCs).

interleukin-6

a protein secreted by T-cells and macrophages as part of an immune response

mature RBC

a reticulocyte after it enters the bloodstream. they lack nuclei and all other organelles.

items used for blood lab: lancet

a small, sharp instrument used to perform capillary punctures.

Reticulocytosis; also indicates

abnormal inability to form mature RBCs.

Erythropoietin (aka EPO or Erythropoeisis Stimulating Hormone)

accelerates erythropoesis in two ways: 1. Stimulates stem cell division rates 2. Accelerates hemoglobin synthesis

plasma protein; immunoglobulins

aka antibodies. Attack foreign pathogens as part of the immune response.

macrophages

aka monocytes. a large phagocytic cell found in stationary form in the tissues or as a mobile white blood cell, especially at sites of infection.

the 4 plasma proteins include

albumins (60% of plasma), globulins (36%), fibrinogens(4%), and some hormones (<1%).

differentiation of formed elements; hemocytoblasts

all formed elements are derived from stem cells in the bone marrow called hemocytoblasts.Those differentiate into mastoids or lymphoids, which depending on the presence or absence of colony stimulating hormones, further differentiate into the formed elements. Absence = lymphoids, presence = mastoids

which of the following is true of basophils?

all the following; attract other defense cells, granules contain heparin, granules contain histamine, and they constitute about 1% of WBCs.

leukocytosis

an excess of WBCs that can indicate the individual is undergoing an immune response or that the indiviual has leukemia which leads to the uncontrollable divide of WBCs.

thrombocytosis

an excess of platelets usually in response to infection, inflammation or cancer.

polycythemia

an over-production of RBCs due to excessive or prolonged secretion of EPO. Can also be achieved intentionally ("blood doping"), usually for enhanced athletic performance

Aspirin in blood

another anticoagulant

Rh antigens and antibodies

anti-Rh antibodies differ from anti-A and anti-B antibodies in two very important ways. 1. anti-Rh antibodies are not automatically produced in Rh- individuals. 2. Anti Rh can travel from maternal blood supply to fetal blood supply.

heparin

anticoagulant found in blood and tissue cells

antibodies

are globulin plasma proteins (aka immunoglobulins) found in the blood plasma • Antibodies found in human blood include anti-A, anti-B, and anti-Rh

antigens

are glycoproteins on the extracellular surface of RBCs that the immune system uses to differentiate "self" or "normal" from "non-self" or "foreign" Antigens for human RBCs include A, B and Rh

formed elements

around 45% of composition of blood. Includes platelets (<.1%), white blood cells (<.1%) and red blood cells (99.9%). These elements are suspended in plasma and produced via hemopoiesis (aka hematopoiesis) which are produced by myeloid and lymphoid stem cells.

plasma

around 55% of the composition of blood (range = 46-63). 90% of it is water. Includes proteins and other solutes. Similar to interstitial fluid, but it has higher concentration of plasma proteins by almost 5 times over, as these proteins cannot cross capillary walls. 90% of plasma proteins = synthesized in the liver. Other solutes include organic nutrients consisting of lipids and amino acids, in addition to organic wastes that may lie in the plasma, along with electrolytes.

hemostasis stage 2; platelet phase

attachment of platelets to the exposed endothelium

Hemolytic anemia

autoimmune disorder in which the body attacks its own RBCs

ABO blood groups

based on having an A, B, both or no antigens on red blood cells. Cross reactions occur when antigens meet antibodies.

blood pH

between 7.35-7.45

a sign of thrombocytopenia would be

bleeding

the function of hemoglobin is to

carry dissolved blood gases

the function of red blood cells is to

carry oxygen to the cells and then carry away carbon dioxide

cross reactions can lead to

cell death, RBCs must not have surface antigens that match any antibodies that are present in the blood plasma.

anticoagulants

clotting can be prevented through the use of drugs called anticoagulants that depress the clotting response and/or dissolve existing clots. Include heparin, coumadin and aspirin.

hormones called ______ are involved in regulation of white blood cell populations

colony-stimulating factors

microscope parts: arm

connects all parts from base to stage and eyepiece

hemostasis: clot retraction

contraction of platelets via actin and myosin to bring the exposed surfaces together within 30-60 minutes of injury. the contraction pulls on fibrin strands, squeezing plasma and clotting proteins from the clot. This also draws ruptured blood vessel edges together.

hemostasis stage 1; vascular phase

contraction of vessels and division of endothelial cells. lasts 30 minutes after injury occurs.

hemostasis stage 3; coagulation phase

conversion of the plasma protein fibrinogen to fibrin by the enzyme thrombin to form a blood clot. the platelets then contract to bring the exposed surfaces together.

hypoxia causes

decreased RBCs from hemorrhage or destruction, insufficient hemoglobin per RBC, or reduced availability of O2 (high altitudes do that)

anemia

deficiency of RBCs and or hemoglobin, resulting in hypoxia (oxygen deficiency). there are 3 primary types. 1. Iron-deficient anemia 2. Sickle-cell anemia 3. Pernicious anemia 4. Hemolytic anemia

thrombbocytopenia

deficiency of platelets due to either an excessive destruction or inadequate production of platelets.

blood typing is determined by

determined by mixing blood samples with synthetic antibodies to observe possibility of clotting. If clumping is seen with anti-A antibodies, the RBCs have A antigens (type AB and A blood). If clumping is seen with anti B bodies, the RBCs have B antigens (AB and B blood). If there is no clumping, it's type O blood.

the process of fibrinolysis

dissolves clots

formed elements; different primary functions

each formed element serves a different primary function •Erythrocytes are essential for transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide • Leukocytes are essential for body defenses • Platelets are essential for blood clotting (hemostasis)

MAP: with respect to ABO and Rh blood groups, there are _____ different blood types

eight

thrombin

enzyme that converts fibrinogen to fibrin during coagulation

white blood cells that are increased in allergic individuals are the

eosinophils

red blood cell production is regulated by the hormone

erythropoietin

A person with AB+ type blood can receive from...

everyone

A person with O- type blood can donate to...

everyone

plasmin

fibrin-digesting enzyme to dissolve clots

the plasma protein involved in clotting is

fibrinogen

MAP: RBC, WBC, and platelets all constitute what part of whole blood?

formed elements. they compose approximately 45% of the volume of normal blood.

types of WBCs

granulocytes and agranulocytes

Type O blood

has RBCs lacking both A and B surface antigens. Plasma has both Anti-A and anti-B antibodies. They can donate to everyone (universal donor). They can receive blood from type O blood types.

Type AB blood

has RBCs with both A and B surface antigens. The plasma has neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies. They can donate to AB blood types. They can receive blood from all blood types (universal receptor).

Type B blood

has RBCs with surface antigen B. Plasma has anti-A antibodies that attack type A surface antigens. They can donate to B and AB blood types. They can receive blood from B and O blood types.

agranulocytes

have smoother staining patterns as they lack granules. includes lymphocytes and monocytes.

cardiovascular system includes

heart, blood vessels, blood

vitamin K

helps blood clot an helps with bone metabolism

MAP: what other common blood test would have provided information about the level of formed elements a person has?

hematocrit. Normal hematocrit aka packed cell volume (PCV) is 46 in adult males and 42 in adult females. males = 13-18g/100ml; Females = 12-16 g/100 mL

the waste product bilirubin is produced from

heme molecules lacking iron

Iron-deficient anemia

hemes lack iron

erythroblastosis fetalis

hemolytic disease in the newborn caused by a blood group (Rh factor) incompatibility between the mother and the fetus. The mom has an Rh- blood type and the fetus has an Rh+ blood type, so the mother starts synthesizing anti-Rh antibodies during the first pregnancy. during the second pregnancy, those same anti-Rh antibodies cross the placenta and destroy the fetus's red blood cells.

plasma proteins essential in body defense are the

immunoglobulins

whole blood composition

includes plasma (55%) and formed elements (45%). The blood fractionation is the measurement of the percentage of each formed element type for analytical or clinical purposes.

Reticulocytosis

increase in the number of reticulocytes (immature RBCs) in circulating blood.

thalassemia

inherited defect in ability to produce hemoglobin, leading to hypochromia. Usually occurs in those of mediterranean ancestry, and has one globin chain absent or faulty in their hemoglobin, causing their red blood cells to be thin and fragile.

Ca2+

its a plasma electrolyte

a buildup of bilirubin causes...

jaundice

microscope parts: oil immersion lens

lets one view a slide magnified 100x its size. One must use a drop of oil to get this into view.

leukopenia

leukopenia is a deficiency of WBCs tht may indicate an immunodeficiency (weakened immune system).

Hemoglobin values

males = 13-18g/100ml females = 12-16g/100mL

red blood cells structure

mature = anucleate and can't reproduce, lack organelles so they can't synthesize proteins, shaped like biconcave discs allowing them to stack, bend and flex to enter small capillaries, and also allows for more gas and nutrient exchange from the excess surface to volume ratio. Width = 7.2-8.4 micrometers, height = .45 to 2.85 micrometers.

reticulocyte count

measurement of the number of circulating reticulocytes, immature erythrocytes in a blood specimen. It is an assessment of bone marrow function.

transferrin is an example of which kind of plasma protein?

metalloprotein

microscope parts: cover slip

name for the small plastic or glass piece that is used to cover a water drop on a slide

MAP: a person with type O blood has...

neither A nor B agglutinogens

the most numerous white blood cells in peripheral circulation are the

neutrophils

differential leukocyte (WBC) count

number of individual blood cells produces a differential cell count that is used to indicate a number of disorders or susceptibilities. Deficiency of a certain cell = suffix of -penia or -cytopenia. lymphopenia is a deficiency of lymphocytes. Excess = -osis or -cytosis. Lymphocytosis = excess of lymphocytes. If there's an abnormal amount of overall WBCs, the prefix leuko-is used.

cardiovascular system provides transport of

nutrients, waste, respiratory gasses, cells, and hormones.

more on formed elements

only the WBCs are nucleated. RBCs lack nuclei and organelles. Formed elements survive in the blood stream for a few short days. Most blood cells come from the bone marrow and don't divide.

microscope parts: stage

part of the microscope that supports the slide that is being viewed

hematocrit

percentage of formed elements, mostly RBCs, in a sample of blood. 46% in males and 42% in females. Change via gender is due to the fact that androgens (male hormones) stimulate red blood cell production and estrogens (female hormones) don't. (volume of formed elements over volume of plasma+formed elements).

some leukocytes are phagocytes

phagocytosis is a process in which cells absorb relatively large substances and digest them. Basophils and lymphocytes are NOT phagocytotic.

fibrinogen

plasma protein that is converted to fibrin in the clotting process

a persons blood type is determined by the

presence of specific glycoproteins on the cell membrane

hemostasis

primary function of platelets. This is a process that prevents blood loss through walls of damaged vessels and occurs in 3 phases.

venipuncture

process of drawing blood through superficial veins, which have thinner walls than arteries and lower blood pressure.

thrombocytopoiesis

process of platelet formation stimulated by a number of molecules including thrombopoietin and interleukin-6.

microscope parts: light source

projects light upwards through the diaphragm to allow you to see the specimen

fibrin

protein that forms the basis of a blood clot

blood lab disposal technique

put anything that contains blood in the biohazard box. place any additional waste in the trashcan. wipe down the table and wash your hands. return any additional clean lab equipment to its proper area in the lab.

all the circulating red blood cells in an adult originate in the

red bone marrow

microscope parts: power

refers to the degree of magnification for a lens

Pernicious anemia

resulting from Vitamin B12 deficiency

blood types; cross-reactions

when antibodies bind to antigens during the combination of two incompatible blood types, cells will clump in a process known as agglutination, leading to cell bursting aka hemolysis.

lymphocytes

• Comprise 20-30% of circulating WBCs • Have a relatively large, round, darkly-staining nucleus surrounded by a thin "halo" of cytoplasm • No visible granules

characteristics of circulating leukocytes; migration

• Contact and adhere to the vessel walls in a process known as margination • Squeeze through endothelial cells to exit vessels in a process known as diapedesis to remember margination, think about how marginalized communities are oftentimes forced to migrate due to shit like gentrification. To remember diapedisis, think of a pegasus wearing a diaper migrating.

basophils and inflammation.

• Like neutrophils, basophils enhance inflammation • They do so by discharging granules of 1. Histamine - dilates blood vessels 2. Heparin - reduces blood clotting. They also release additional chemicals that attract eosinophils and other basophils through positive chemotaxis, and are NOT phagocytes.

attack of eosinophils

• Like neutrophils, eosinophils attack pathogens that are coated with antibodies in two ways: 1. Phagocytosis 2. Cytotoxic chemical attack

released from neutrophils

• Neutrophils also release two types of eicosanoid lipids: 1. Prostaglandins: enhance inflammation 2. Leukotrienes: attract other phagocytes through positive chemotaxis

complications and attributes of polycythemia

Often occurs secondary to respiratory problems, cardiac problems, or prolonged change of altitude. Can increase oxygen-carrying capacity. The opposite of anemia. Can greatly increase blood viscosity, sometimes elevating blood pressure to dangerous levels

fibrinolysis

Once the vessel is repaired, blood clots gradually dissolve in a process called fibrinolysis. This happens when plasminogen is converted into plasmin, which digests fibrin strands.

MAP: a person with type AB blood has _____

A and B antigens and neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies.

items used for blood lab: capillary tube

used to collect blood

items used for blood lab: alcohol swabs

used to disinfect the skin prior to puncturing with lancet.

items used for blood lab: disposable gloves

used to ensure the safety of students so any bloodborne pathogens cannot infect a neighboring lab partner

items used for blood lab: sealing clay

used to seal the capillary tube to contain the blood sample

items used for blood lab: centrifuge

used to spin the blood sample into its different layers of formed elements and plasma

these bones produce blood cells

vertebrae, sternum, ribs, skull, scapula, pelvis, humerus and femur.

blood volume

5-6 liters for men, 4-5 liters for women 8% of body weight in kilograms (1 kg = 2.2 lbs)

A person with O+ type blood can receive from...

O+, O-

A person with O- type blood can receive from...

O-

oxyhemoglobin

O2 loading in lungs produces this ruby red colored type of hemoglobin.

deoxyhemoglobin

O2 unloading in tissues produces this dark red colored type of hemoglobin

transport globulins; hormone-binding proteins

Transport various hormones in the blood • Examples include Thyroid-binding globulin, transthyretin and transcortin

red blood cells; hemoglobin (hb)

95% of the protein content of RBCs. globular protein formed from 2 alpha chains and 2 beta chains. each of the 4 subunit chains have a molecule of heme built around an iron ion. Each heme binds to a molecule of oxygen when O2 levels are high, and when CO2 levels are high, each subunit will bind to a molecule of CO2. Each RBC has 250 million hemoglobin molecules. heme = red pigment on globin chains.

plasma protein; hormones

(1% of plasma proteins) • Insulin • Prolactin • FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) • TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) • LH (luteinizing hormone)

eosinophils

(Lobes, reduces/controls inflammation, Parasites& Allergies) • Comprise 2-4% of circulating WBCs • Nucleus is typically segmented into two or three lobes • Granules stain dark red with a dye called eosin • Unlike neutrophils, eosinophils will reduce inflammation • Controls the spread of inflammation to unaffected tissues • Eosinophils are seen in high numbers in response to Parasitic infestations & Allergens

neutrophils

(N-Dense, Mobile, <10, 1-2 dozenB, pyogenesis) • Comprise50-70%of circulating WBCs • Nucleus is dense and segmented with several lobes • Granules are chemically neutral, so they stain best with neutral dyes. Most mobile of all white blood cells, they arrive first at site of injury. 10 hour or less lifespan, dies after engulfing 1-2 dozen bacteria. Mixture of dead neutrophils, cellular debris, and waste result in pyogenesis, aka the creation of pus.

plasma protein; Albumins

(Viscosity, osmolarity, bind to F&T&S) Responsible for the higher viscosity (thickness) and osmolarity (solute concentration) of blood. Bind and transport molecules such as: • Fatty acids • Thyroid hormones • Steroid hormones

monocytes

(kidney shape, largestWBC, 2XRBC) • Comprise 2-8% of circulating WBCs • Has large nucleus that is oval or kidney-shaped • No visible granules • The largest of the WBCs • Nearly twice the size of RBCs

cell fragments aka platelets

(spleen storage, 9-12 d, parts of plasma membrane w organelles, anucleate) fragments of large cells known as megakaryocytes. They are flattened discs of plasma membrane with few organelles and anucleate. (In non-mammalian species they stay nucleated and are called thrombocytes.) They circulate for 9-12 days before being removed by phagocytosis and are stored in the spleen.

plasma protein; fibrinogen

(~4% of plasma proteins) • Converted to fibrin during blood clotting

MAP: blood typing (labeled)

1. A+ 2. B+ 3. AB+ 4. O-

Reticulocytosis; indicates normal increase in RBC production in response to

1. Blood loss 2. Acclimating to higher altitudes 3. Therapies for anemia

cons of plasma expanders

1. Generally eliminated by the body after a few hours 2. Have no effect on how much oxygen can be carried

decrease in hematocrit if

1. Plasma volume is increased (e.g. overhydration) 2. Formed element volume is decreased (e.g. anemia)

3 functions of platelets

1. Release important clotting chemicals 2. Temporarily patch damaged vessel walls 3. Reduce size of a break in vessel wall

MAP: the 4 blood types (labeled)

1. Type A 2. anti-B 3. Type B 4. Type B 5. anti-A 6. Type A 7. Type AB 8. anti-A 9. anti-B 10. Type O 11. anti-A 12. anti-B

hematopoiesis diagram (labeled)

1. hemocytoblasts 2. myeloid stem cells 3. lymphoid stem cells 4. progenitor cells 5. blast cells 6. proerythroblast 7. myeloblast 8. monoblast 9. lymphoblast 10. erythroblast stages 11. reticulocyte 12. megakaryocyte 13. myelocytes 14. band cells 15. promonocyte 16. prolymphocyte 17. red blood cells 18. platelets 19. basophil 20. eosinophil 21. neutrophil 22. monocyte 23. lymphocyte

MAP: white blood cell types (labeled)

1. neutrophil 2. eosinophil 3. basophil 4. monocyte 5. lymphocyte

MAP: components of blood (labeled)

1. plasma 2. formed elements 3. plasma proteins 4. other solutes 5. water 6. platelets 7. white blood cells 8. red blood cells

MAP: the maturing red blood cell (labeled)

1. proerythroblast 2. basophilic erythroblast 3. polychromatophilic erythroblast 4. normoblast 5. reticulocyte 6. mature red blood cell

Rh antigens and antibodies; first distinction

1.anti-Rh antibodies are not automatically produced in Rh- individuals. However, anti-Rh antibodies will be produced by the lymphatic system if an Rh- individual is exposed to "foreign" Rh antigens

lifespan of a RBC

120 days, travels 700 miles. 1% of RBCs replaced by bone marrow each day. 3 million new blood cells enter circulation every second. Most are replaced before they burst (hemolyze). They are recycled by macrophages in the spleen, liver, and bone marrow, processing the individual components of hemoglobin.

functions of blood

1: feeds tissue nutrients, gasses, hormones and gets rid of waste 2: ion and pH regulation 3: body temp regulation via redistribution of absorbed heat 4: defending the body body via clotting and fighting pathogens/toxins

Rh antigens and antibodies; second distinction

2. Anti Rh can travel from maternal blood supply to fetal blood supply. Anti-a and anti-b typically can not, creating a dangerous situation during pregnancy called hemolytic disease of the newborn in which the mother is Rh + and her baby is Rh-.

blood temp

38 celsius, 100.4 F

blood viscosity

5 times as thick as water due to dissolved proteins and red blood cells

RBC count

A red blood cell count is a blood test that your doctor uses to find out how many red blood cells (RBCs) you have. It's also known as an erythrocyte count.

A person with A+ type blood can donate to...

A+ and AB+ blood types

A person with A- type blood can donate to...

A+, A- and AB+, AB- blood types

A person with A+ type blood can receive from...

A+, A- and O+, O- blood types

A person with O+ type blood can donate to...

A+, B+, AB+ and O+ blood types

A person with A- type blood can receive from...

A- and O- blood types

A person with AB- type blood can receive from...

A-, B-, AB- and O- blood types

A person with AB- type blood can donate to...

AB+ and AB- blood types

A person with AB+ type blood can donate to...

AB+ blood type

effects of RBC size on anemia: macrocytic anemia

Abnormally large erythrocytes. RBCs too large to enter smallest blood vessels. Often the result of pernicious anemia

effects of RBC size on anemia; microcytic anemia

Abnormally small erythrocytes • Smaller cells carry less hemoglobin and, therefore, less oxygen • Found in iron-deficient anemia

coumadin

Anticoagulant

A person with B+ type blood can donate to...

B+ and AB+ blood types

A person with B- type blood can donate to...

B+, B- and AB+, AB- blood types

A person with B+ type blood can receive from...

B+, B- and O+, O- blood types

A person with B- type blood can receive from...

B- and O- blood types

plasma protein; transport globulins

Bind ions, hormones and other compounds to carry them to distant targets. i. hormone-binding proteins ii. steroid-binding proteins iii. apolipoproteins iv. metalloproteins

importance of blood typing

Blood typing must be done before blood transfusions are performed to avoid introducing donor RBCs with antigens that will cross-react with antibodies in the recipient's plasma.

MAP: A person with A+ blood has

Both Rh antigen and A antigen on the surface of the red blood cells, as well as anti-B antibodies.

carbaminohemoglobin

CO2 loading in tissues results in 20% of that CO2 binding to hemoglobin to create this subtype of hb.

transport globulins; apolipoproteins

Carry lipids • Examples include apo A, apo B, apo C, etc.

characteristics of circulating leukocytes; positive chemotaxis

Certain chemical signals guide WBCs to invading pathogens, damaged tissues, or other activated WBCs

basophils

Comprise less than 1% of circulating WBCs • Nucleus is not usually well-defined • Granules stain purple or blue with a basic dye

3 causes of anemia

DIET LACKING: * Iron * Folate * Vitamin B12

pros of plasma expanders

Easy to sterilize and store Doesn't need to match blood type can be used before a blood transfusion while a blood type is being determined

what's the difference between fetal hemoglobin and adult hemoglobin?

Functionally, fetal hemoglobin differs most from adult hemoglobin in that it is able to bind oxygen with greater affinity than the adult form, giving the developing fetus better access to oxygen from the mother's bloodstream.

Type A blood

Has RBCs with surface antigen A. Plasma has anti-B antibodies that attack type B surface antigens. They can donate to A and AB blood types. They can receive blood from A and O blood types.

plasma protein; Globulins

Include immunoglobulins (antibodies) and transport globulins.

lymphocytes; location and maturation

Lymphocytes are found in high concentrations in the lymphatic system: • Lymph (fluid connective tissue) • Lymphatic tissues/organs • Mature into more specialized cell types 1. T-cells 2. B-cells 3. Natural killer cells •Lymphocytes are NOT phagocytes

plasma electrolytes

Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, HCO2-, HPO4-, and SO4 (2)-

positive or negative blood types

The absence or presence of the Rh surface antigen (aka Rh factor) is indicated with a + or - after the designation A, B, AB, or O.

microscope parts: base

The bottom of the microscope, used for support

where does oxygen bind in hemoglobin?

The oxygen molecules bind to each of the four iron molecules on each of the 4 subunit chains.

RBC production

This is the process of erythropoiesis. These RBC go through maturation in 4 stages; 1. proerythroblast 2. erythroblast 3. reticulocyte 4. mature RBC RBCs, along with platelets and most WBCs are produced in red bone marrow of hollow bones (vertebrae, sternum and ribs, skull, scapula, coxal bones and proximal limb bones). In extreme circumstances demanding more RBCs, yellow bone marrow that stores lipids can be converted to red marrow.

transport globulins; steroid-binding proteins

Transport a specific class of hormones known as steroid hormones in the blood • An example is testosterone-binding globulin

transport globulins; metalloproteins

Transport metal ions • An example is Transferrin • carries iron (Fe2+)

RhoGAM

this serum contains anti-Rh antibodies an can prevent the Rh- mother from becoming sensitized to the Rh+ baby.

Rh antigens and antibodies; more on + and _ and inheritance

since blood type is a combination of mother and father's blood, the two bloods mixed can cross react. an Rh- mother with an Rh+ fetus make sthe mother produce anti-Rh antibodies that can pass to the featus, producing a cross reaction between Rh antigens of fetal RBC and Rh antibodies added to fetal blood plasma. This is why Rh- mothers are given RhoGAM drugs that block production of these antibodies.

microscope parts: slide

small glass plate on which specimen are placed for viewing

plasma expanders

solutions that can temporarily increase the blood volume following major blood loss.

thrombus

stationary blood clot within a blood vessel. It is a problem because it impedes the function of a blood vessel. The effect of a thrombus on the body depends on its location. When a thrombus forms in an artery, such as in the heart or brain, it is called an arterial thrombosis. When a thrombus occurs in a vein, it is called a venous thrombosis. When this happens in the deep veins of the leg, it is called deep vein thrombosis (DVT).

Rh blood groups

the Rh factor, aka D antigen, determines whether your blood type is positive or negative. it's determined by the presence or absence of an Rh factor, which is a specific type of antigen. Different than ABO typing though, because antibodies are not automatically formed in the blood of Rh-people.

how hemoglobin components are recycled; heme

the heme that was stripped of iron is converted into biliverdin and then bilirubin and eliminated as wastes.

how hemoglobin components are recycled; iron

the iron is removed from the heme molecule and transported through the blood bound to transport globulin transferrin (reused in new RBCs)

blood types are determined by...

the presence or absence of antigens and antibodies

how hemoglobin components are recycled; protein

the protein is broken down into amino acids for new subunits.

reticulocyte

the red blood cell cell after the ejection of the nucleus before it enters the bloodstream from the bone marrow.

in case of hemorrhage, platelets are stored as a reserve in

the spleen

microscope parts: objective lenses

these are found on the nosepiece and range from low to high power

differentiation of formed elements; colony-stimulating factors when multi-CSF is present

these are hormones that determine the fate of formed elements. If multi CSF is present, hemocytoblasts differentiate into myeloid stem cells, and then differentiate further based on the presence or absence of other CSF or erythropoeitin. From myeloid stem cells, they can become RBCs, platelets, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils or monocytes.

differentiation of formed elements; colony-stimulating factors when multi-CSF is absent

these are hormones that determine the fate of formed elements. if multi-CSF is is not present, hemocytoblasts differentiate into lymphoid stem cells which differentiate further into lymphocytes.

microscope parts: stage clips

these are used to hold a slide in place on the stage.

plasma expanders - isotonic electrolyte solutions carbohydrates like dextran

these effects fade when large carbs are phagocytize.

characteristics of circulating leukocytes

they can migrate out the blood stream. They are capable of amoeboid (blob like) movement. They exhibit positive chemotaxis, meaning leukocytes are attracted to and accumulate at the site of the reaction, causing inflammation.

plasma expanders - isotonic electrolyte solutions ringer's solution

this is an isotonic saline containing lactate ions. effects fade when liver and muscles absorb and metabolize the lactate.

microscope parts: eyepiece

this part allows you to view the image on the stage and contains the ocular lens

microscope parts: nosepiece

this part holds the objective lenses and is able to rotate to change magnification

microscope parts: fine adjustment knob

this part moves the stage slightly to help you sharpen or "fine" tune your view of the specimen

microscope parts: coarse adjustment knob

this part moves the stage up and down to help you get the specimen into view

microscope parts: diaphragm

this part of the microscope helps you adjust the amount of light that reaches the specimen

attack of neutrophils

• Neutrophils attack bacteria marked with antibodies in two ways: 1. Phagocytosis: bacteria are engulfed then fuse with lysosomes (organelles filled with digestive enzymes) 2. Cytotoxic attack: secrete anti- microbial chemicals that kill bacteria in the surrounding area

monocytes; lifespan and more info

•Remain in blood for only about 24 hours before entering into tissues to become a phagocyte known as a macrophage • Can engulf large pathogens, damaged cells, and debris Release chemicals to attract additional phagocytes to help with phagocytosis, and to attract fibroblasts to produce scar tissue.