Chapter 19 Program Design and Technique for Speed and Agility Training

Technical Errors and Coaching in sprinting

Table 19.1 pg. 531

Monitoring agility and change-of-direction ability

Table 19.7 pg 546

Practical implications for speed

- Rate of force production may be a more important factor for sprinting success o *Since sprinting success is largely dependent on the production of forces within a short amount of time, impulse is an important underlying factor.*

Technical Guidelines and Coaching - Body position during braking and reacceleration

-control the trunk leading into the deceleration (decrease large amounts of trunk motion) -through the stance phase, reorient the trunk and hips toward the direction of intended travel to allow for a more effective reacceleration -just as with acceleration mechanics, body lean is paramount in allowing proper force application through the ground with strong alignment of the ankle, knee, and hip and through to the trunk and shoulders. -enter and exit changes in direction with a lower center of mass; when performing side-shuffling changes of direction, maintaining this low center of mass is critical.

Monitoring sprint ability

-maximal-effort sprint test - not the most effective tool -high speed cameras to look at foot strike. Table 19.6 pg 543

Technical Guidelines and Coaching - arm action

-powerful arm actions should be used to facilitate leg drive -ensure that the action of the arms is not counter-productive, particularly during transitioning between difficult changes of direction

Technical Guidelines and Coaching - Visual focus

-when changing direction in response to an opponent, the athlete should focus on the shoulders, trunk and hip. -following the anticipation of the event, unless deception is intended, the athlete should quickly redirect attention to a new area to help lead the transition of the body

Stretch-shortening cycle actions exploit 2 phenomena

1. Intrinsic muscle-tendon behavior 2. Force and length reflex feedback to the nervous system Acutely, SSC actions tend to increase mechanical efficiency and impulse via elastic energy recovery, whereas chronically they upregulate muscle stiffness and enhance neuromuscular activation.

spring-mass model (SMM)

A mathematical model that depicts human locomotion as the result of a body mass "springing" (bouncing) along two springs. • Mathematical model that depicts sprinting as a type of human locomotion in which the displacement of a body mass is the aftereffect from energy produced and is delivered through the collective coiling and extension of spring-like actions within muscle architecture. • Describes the relationship between the SSC, muscle stiffness and sprinting. ** As stride frequency increases at a given running speed, one of the most important features of the leg spring is an increase in muscle stiffness. Because sprinting requires an athlete to move at high speeds, CSCS coaches should emphasize the prescription of exercises that have been shown to increase neural drive while over-loading musculature of the hip and knee regions involved in the SSC.

Training goals of sprinting

Achieve optimal stride length and stride frequency through correct application of force into the ground. Transmission of high forces must occur within a short stance phase (ground contact time). 1. Emphasize brief ground support times as means of achieving rapid stride rate 2. Emphasize further development of SSC as means to increase amplitude of impulse for each step of sprint

Change-of-direction ability

An athlete's measured change-of-direction ability may vary depending on the demand imposed by the chosen change-of-direction test. -may be beneficial to choose different tests that measure this ability under a high-velocity braking requirement; with multiple changes of direction; or, as in reaction to a scenario, opponent, or stimulus. -the orientation of the body leading into the deceleration, through the transition phase as the athlete comes to a stop, and then the positioning as he or she subsequently reaccelerates out of the change of direction. -It is a combination of the ability to decelerate, reorient the body to face or partially face the direction of intended travel and then explosively reaccelerate that truly determines change-of-direction ability.

Methods of developing agility - Change-of-Direction Ability

Closed skill change-of-direction drills can progress from beginner to advanced levels based on the physical loading demands that have been discussed. Table 19.5 pg 540 shows progression of drills for change-of-direction ability, etc...

Sprinting Technique Guidelines

Linear sprinting involves a series of subtasks -Start -acceleration -top speed Stance broken down into -eccentric breaking period -concentric propulsive period Flight phase -recovery -ground preparation Figure 19.9 pg. 530

Program design

Microcycles: short term Mesocycles: medium term macrocycles: long term. Periodization: the strategic manipulation of an athlete's preparedness through the employment of sequenced training phases define by cycles and stages of workload.

Change-of-direction ability

Physical capacity to change direction while decelerating and then reaccelerating, sometimes using a different mode of travel

Methods of developing speed - mobility

Soft tissue manipulation is used to increase speed in athletes -stretching -chiropractic care -massage -myofascial release **coaches use these achieve optimal mobility within the dynamic state. Mobility: freedom of an athlete's limb to move through a desired range of motion Flexibility: a joint's total range of motion

Running Speed

Sprinting: a series of coupled flight and support phases, known as strides, orchestrated in an attempt to displace the athlete's body down the track at maximal acceleration or velocity (or both), usually over brief distances and durations.

Tests to assess agility

Tests without a reactive aspect should be considered change-of-direction tests Test that includes a reactive stimulus is a test of agility for most sports. Table 19.2 pg 534 agility tests

Perceptual-cognitive ability

There are several factors that are components of this ability which are: -visual scanning -anticipation -pattern recognition -knowledge of the situation -decision making time and accuracy -reaction time.

Agility development strategies

Use periodized programming method. *Random programming or development of agility using only "sport-specific" methods has not been found to be as effective. Begin with 1. change-of-direction drills (preplanned) 2. progress in difficulty through increases in the physical demands 3. addition of drills involving perceptual-cognitive stress or "agility" drills Application of agility development strategies pg 545

Technical Guidelines and Coaching

Visual focus Body position during braking and reacceleration Leg action Arm action

3. In upright sprinting an athlete's stride length is largely dependent on ________. a. the amount of vertical force produced during the stance phase b. the athlete's flexibility c. the athlete's stride rate d. the amount of horizontal force produced during the toe-off of the stance phase.

a. the amount of vertical force produced during the stance phase

Speed requires the ability to

accelerate and reach maximal velocity, whereas agility performance requires the use of perceptual-cognitive ability in combination with the ability to decelerate and then reaccelerate in an intended direction.

stretch-shortening cycle (SSC)

an eccentric-concentric coupling phenomenon in which muscle-tendon complexes are rapidly and forcibly lengthened, or stretch loaded, and immediately shortened in a reactive or elastic manner (shown where there is rapid transition from eccentric to concentric contraction as in running, jumping and other explosive changes in velocity.

5. Select the aspect of training that requires additional emphasis when the aim is to improve change-of-direction ability a. strength b. eccentric strength c. reactive strength d. rate of force development

b. eccentric strength

4. Drills or tests that require the athlete to move rapidly in response to a stimulus such as a whistle, arrow, or opponent are best for measuring which of the following? a. change of direction b. maneuverability c. agility d. acceleration

c. agility

2. Elite sprinters produce________forces in a _________ground contact time as compared to their novice counterparts. a. larger, longer b. similar, shorter c. larger, shorter d. smaller, longer

c. larger, shorter

1. What does the term impulse refer to? a. the relationship between power and velocity b. the relationship between acceleration and velocity c. the relationship between force and velocity d. the relationship between force and time

d. the relationship between force and time

What is regarded as a predictor of change-of-direction performance when assessed by the t-test in elite basketball players.

increased muscle mass and decreased body fat

Sprint speed is determined by an athlete's stride length and stride rate;

more successful sprinters tend to have longer stride lengths as a result of properly directed forces into the ground while also demonstrating a more frequent stride rate. These findings suggest that RFD and proper biomechanics are two of the primary limiting factors influencing sprint performance.

Agility

requires the use of perceptual-cognitive ability in combination with change-of-direction ability

Rate of force development (RFD)

the development of maximal force in minimal time, typically used as an index of explosive strength RFD = change in force / change in time Figure 19.1 pg 523

Additional Neurophysiological Considerations for Change-of-Direction and Agility Development

• During plant phase, the length of ground contact time of either an agility or a change-of-direction movement exceeds the typical ground contact time of both the acceleration phase of sprinting and maximal-velocity phase of sprinting. Thus, most change of direction requires longer SSC activities. • Effective braking is an important part of agility performance, neuromuscular development with respect to high-velocity and high-force eccentric contractions should be considered o Adaptations or motor unit recruitment pathways called upon during an eccentric contraction are different than those called upon during concentric contractions. o Adaptations to eccentric training appear to be specific to the velocity of eccentric loading o Training athletes for effective agility performance requires knowledge of perceptual-cognitive demands over and above the neurophysiological requirements for changing direction. Perceptual-cognitive demands are related to athlete's ability in visual search scanning, anticipation, decision making, reaction time, tactical situation changes (offensive vs defensive) changes the brain processing strategy required.

Methods of developing speed - Strength

**Sprint speed is underpinned by an athlete's ability to produce large forces within a bried period of time. These forces must be large enough to support the body weight in the presence of gravity and displace the body through an increase in velocity. **Weight training allows for producing large forces within a brief period of time which is required for increasing sprint speed - Clean, snatch, midthigh pulls **These enhance sprint performance through physiological adaptations such as muscular stiffness, enhanced RFD and coactivation of the musculature surrounding the hips and knees.

Methods of developing agility - strength

-Emphasize relative strength and variety of speed-strength qualities along force-velocity spectrum -Development of eccentric strength **Load-velocity profiles in the wt room as well as in the field *i.e. squat jumps, countermovement jumps and drop jumps of various heights in combo of change-of-direction and agility drills themselves. **Athletes will develop the physical requirements before being able to transfer newly gained strength into technical competence. Table 19.4 pg 539

Program Design Variables

-Exercise (or work) interval-the duration or distance over which a repetition is executed -Exercise order - the sequence in which a set of reps is executed -Frequency - the number of training sessions performed in a given time period -intensity - the effort with which a rep is executed (% of maximum) -Recovery (rest) interval - the time period between reps and sets -repetition - the execution of a specific workload assignment or movement technique -series - a group of sets and recovery intervals -set - a group of reps and rest intervals -volume - the amount of work (e.g., 3 sets of 5 reps) performed in a given training session or time period -work to rest ratio - the relative density of exercise and relief intervals in a set, expressed as a ratio -volume load - the density of volume performed at prescribed intensities - for example 3 sets of 5 reps at 100 kg results in a volume-load of 1500 kg.

Methods of developing speed - sprinting

-Maximum velocity sprinting **no exercise improves running velocity more than maximum-velocity sprinting **Neurological adaptations resulting from long-term training plans that emphasize maximal strength and movement velocity improve both RFD and impulse generation -Weightlifting movements and jump training to develop RFD and impulse at varying loads b/c it uses SSC -chronic exposure to movements eliciting the SSC can increase muscle stiffness, which is a potential physiological advantage for sprint ability. -sprinting requires near-maximum to maximum muscle activation, which depends on high central cervous system activity, which is called RATE CODING. *When signal frequency reaches a threshold, skeletal muscle may not completely relax between stimulations. Incomplete relaxation results in more forceful contractions and a greater RFD in subsequent contractions. --> chronic exposure to sprinting may lead to improvements in musculoskeletal control via the central nervous system.

To meet the training goals of agility performance emphasize the following:

-directing visual focus toward the opponent's shoulders, trunk, and hips to increase perceptual ability to anticipate the movement of a defensive or offensive opponent -orienting the body into a position that allows for effective application of forces into the ground to maximize braking capacity, and increasing the speed from which one can rapidly stop as well as the direction of movement one must brake from (running forward, running backward, or shuffling laterally) -The ability to maintain a good position after braking, reorient the body into a position that faces the new direction , and effectively use acceleration mechanics to reaccelerate.

Technical Guidelines and Coaching - leg action

-ensure that the athlete can effectively dissipate or tolerate the eccentric braking loads through an effective range of motion at the knee and avoid a stiff-legged braking style. -emphasize "pushing the ground away" in order to enhance performance, especially while learning in closed drills. External focus of attention - through instructions to concentrate on the ground instead of a body part - has been shown to improve change-of-direction performance.

Change-of-direction ability among a variety of movement pattern with various degrees of cutting has been shown to improve with

-increased hip extension velocity -low center of mass height -increased braking impulse and propulsive impulse -increased knee flexion entering the change of direction -minimized trunk angular displacement entering the change of direction (deceleration phase) -increased lateral trunk tile (during 180 deg changes) **a well-rounded approach to strength development involving dynamic, isometric and in particular eccentric strength capacities is needed for the development of better change-of-direction performances. **In contrast to sprint development, it is recommended that athletes undergo training that allows for the neuromuscular system to effectively adapt to the rate of loading required during the braking phase, with the understanding that the neuromuscular requirements for braking capacity must be specifically trained using high-velocity eccentric contractions such as those during drop landings, landing from a loaded jump, or the catch phase of a power clean or power snatch.

Factors affecting change of direction and perceptual-cognitive ability

-shallow cutting angles (<75 deg) --> shorter ground contact times will benefit from training similar to speed training but will still require additional perceptual-cognitive training -more aggressive cutting angles (>75 deg) --> longer ground time and emphasize eccentric strength and maximal strength along with concentric explosiveness required during the reacceleration. Figure 19:11 pg 533

Methods of developing agility -- Perceptual-cognitive ability

-start with adding a perceptual-cognitive component to common closed skill change-of-direction drills. I.e. deccelerations or the Z-drill can evolve into agility drills by including a generic stimulus such as a whistle, a coach command or a flashing arrow or light. then move to more sports specific Table 19.5 pg 540

Activities aimed at improving SSC should

1. Involve skillful, multijoint movements that transmit forces through the kinetic chain and exploit elastic-reflexive mechanisms 2. To manage fatigue and emphasize work quality and technique, they should be structured around brief work bouts or clusters separated by frequent rest pauses Examples are: COMPLEX TRAINING: alternating SSC tasks which with heavy resistance exercises within the same session enhances their working effect. Utilizes POSTACTIVATION POTENTIATION. Not appropriate for novice or young athletes.

Training goals of agility performance

1. enhanced perceptual-cognitive ability in various situations and tactical scenarios 2. Effective and rapid braking of one's momentum 3. rapid reacceleration toward the new direction of travel.

Agility Performance and Change-of-direction ability

Athletes improve change-of-direction ability through development of a number of physical factors and technical skills during a variety of speeds and modes of movement. The development of agility also require improving perceptual-cognitive abilities in relation to the demands of the sport.

Nervous system and neurophysiological basis for speed

Combination of strength, plyometric and sprint training produces several adaptations within the neuromuscular system which may contribute to improved sprint performance. -Strength training enhances neural drive - the rate and amplitude of impulses being sent from the nervous system to the target muscles. -Increases in neural drive, which are indicative of an increase in the rate at which action potentials occur, are related to increases in both muscular force production and the rate of force production. -Plyometric training increases excitability of high-threshold motor neurons. --> enhances neural drive Increases in neural drive may help to increase the athlete's RFD and impulse generation.

Physics of sprinting, change of direction, and agility

Force - represents the interaction of two physical objects. Force has both magnitude (size) and direction. The movement of mass changes an object's velocity causing acceleration. Speed - a scalar quantity which means that it describes only how fast an object is moving. The rate at which an object covers a distance. Velocity - describes both how fast an object is traveling and its direction. "speed with direction" Acceleration - rate at which an object's velocity changes over time.

Impulse

Ground contact time: the length of time athletes are in the stance or plant phase of sprinting Impulse: the product of the time the force is applied to the ground and the amount of force applied (also the area under a force-time curve figure 19.2 pg 524) Momentum - the relationship between the mass of an object and the velocity of movement. A change in impulse results in a change in momentum and is the cause of an object's movement. **training should focus on impulse - the area under the force-time curve - in addition to RFD.

Speed and agility mechanics

In order to execute movement techniques, athletes must skillfully apply force (the product of mass and acceleration). Due to limited time to produce force during athletic activities, there are two variables that describe force relative to the time available to produce force: -rate of force development (RFD) - the development of maximal force in minimal time, typically used as an index of explosive strength -impulse - the product of the generated force and the time required for its production, which is measured as the area under the force-time curve. Impulse dictates the magnitude of change of momentum of an object.

Speed Development Strategies

Planning tactics should be periodized in a manner that addresses the physical and psychological components of sprinting through emphasis and de-emphasis on particular qualities in a phasic manner. An athlete's capability to sprint can be improved through the incorporation of training periods that are designed to fully maximize and saturate a fitness quality, which may bolster the effects of future training agendas. Protocols should aim to enhance: -hypertrophy of task-specific motor units -firing frequency -rate coding -muscle-tendon stiffness **Application of speed development strategies pg 541 Short to long method of sprint training: conceptual progression that attempts to merge the relationship between larger rates of acceleration and greater velocities. (i.e. athlete starts training year with emphasis on improving propulsive force output through short sprints that maintain the biomechanics associated with the acceleration phase of a sprint. Later athlete bridges into longer sprint work that aims to enhance top speed through upright running mechanics.)

Methods of developing speed

The demonstration of proper speed is the result of well-organized programming that organically develops and matures the required skill sets within the athlete. *A well-constructed training plan highlights specific components that will assist in fully maximizing an athlete's movement potential. 1. Sprinting 2. Strength 3. Mobility

Sprinting speed can be increased by an increase in stride length or an increase in stride frequency. Underlying component to maximizing stride length and stride frequency is related to rapid force production

o The differences between elite and novice sprinters can be traced to a single component. Research suggests the amount of vertical force applied to the ground during the stance phase may be the most critical component to improving speed. Also, these greater forces must be applied to the ground in the shortest period possible (RFD). o Application of force is needed to displace a mass. In sprinting, stride length represents the displacement of mass. Elite male sprinters achieve a stride length of 2.70 meters, whereas novice sprinters display a stride length of 2.56 m at max velocity o Increasing stride rate would theoretically maximize the time available to produce force. Elite sprinters have stride rates near 4.63 steps/sec. Novice sprinters have strides about 4.43 steps per second. Elite sprinters need less ground contact time to exert the effort needed to displace his or her mass. They spend more time in the air due to more frequent stride rate. o Faster sprinters are able to achieve higher velocities through the continuous application of high forces in a short stance phase, which results in longer strides occurring at a higher rate.