Chapter 2

golden age

a period in a society of relative peace, prosperity, and innovation.

carthage

a phoenician colony on the coast of north africa which became a significant outpost in the region.

ramses the great

a powerful pharaoh ruling for 67 years. he expanded empire into southwest asia. built more temples and erected more statues than any other pharaohs. ramses made peace with attacking hitities, but his successors lacked his power and skills.

dynasty

a series of rulers who all belong to the same family.

barter

a system by which one thing is exchanged for another.

loess

a type of fertile soil that is yellow in color.

sumerian cultural and scientific contributions

records to manage surplus, manufacturing, and trade. created cuneiform. development of cuneiform required emergence of scribes. advances in thought and technology. pioneered many important farming inventions: carts and metal plows, sundial, 12-month calendar to predict floods. sumerian number system based on 60; because it could be divided into segments of 2,3,4, and 5. *today=60 min=1 hour, 60 seconds=1 min, and circle=360. epic of gilgamesh.

mummification

removing the bodys internal organs, drying the body with salts, and packing its insides and wrapping it with chemically treated cloth, then sealed into a coffin. only rich could afford. poor were buried in desert, where dry environment preserved bodies.

dharma

righteous duties and deeds to escape cycle. determines karma.

theocrats

rulers holding both religious and political power.

the vedas

sanskrit for knowledge. collection of religious hymns, poems, and songs.

the chavin

settlements developed in mesoamerica(central america and now mexico). settlements began near andes, along now peru, chavin civilization existed(1000-200bce). centered at chavin de huantar. most lived in valleys, growing cotton, maize, potatoes, and quinoa(food grain). llamas provided meat-eaten as jerky, wool for clothes, and transport. developed irrigation system, like earlier afro-eurasia civilizations. population increased because of surplus, developed 3 urban centers, each with more than 10000 people. develop impressive techniques in gold, silver, and copper metallurgy. learned to solder pieces by melting. remembered for artistry or pottery and cotton textiles + fishnet out of cotton thread. religion united chavin, but weak political structure. religious authority went to decline, little to hold chavin together and civilizations dissolved to various religious groups.

easter island

settlers divided into clans with chief for each clan and chief for all clans. constructed large stone statues, representing ancestor-gods traded with other vast distance islands over centuries. cultivated sweet potatoes-probably obtained from coast of south america. sweet potatoes spread from easter island to other pacific islands, including new zealand. population grew until overpopulation. lacking resources , deforestation coupled with fraction wars caused population to plummet sometime before europeans first visited in 1722 ce.

ocarina

simple wind instrument

the sumerians

southwest, asia, tigris and euphrates flow south from turkey -> iraq into persian gulf. area between is mesopotamia "between rivers". now called "the cradle of civilization" because so many ancient civilizations arose there. the fertile cresent (a larger area) overlaps with mesopotamia, but includes an area west, along the mediterranean coast. flooding left silt deposits, making soil fertile. water, fertile soil, and warm climate provided resources for neolithic to begin farming. sometime before 5000 bce, nomadic pastoralists (sumerians) migrated in, settling alongside people already living there. over time, built civilization of sumer = cities, canals to carry water to fields, and dams to control floods. -> first complex government. while sumer isn't a seperate country today, civilizations created provided core and foundation of several other civilizations in the middle east, evident influence throughout the world today.

rain forest zone

stretches east to west on both sides of the equator. zone only makes up 10% of the continent.

chiang jiang

(yangtze). streches almost 4000 miles across central china.

huang he

(yellow). shorter at 2400 miles, connects chinas northern interior to yellow sea. river take its name from deposits of loess. for thousands of years, flooding of huang he deposited silt across wide area.

the shang dynasty

1750 bce- tang(local leader) overthrew xia and takes power. marked beginnng of shang, ruling for the next 600 years. shang rulers conquered neighboring peoples, establishing empire. kings wielded tremendous economic and religious power from succession of capital cities.

the middle kingdom (2040-1786 bce)

2040-mentuhotep II took power and moved capital to thebes father south on nile, reuniting egypt under a central government, reducing power of provinical governors and gaining control over egypt. pharaoh's had different governing approaches that their predecessors had to encourage loyalty, they had statues and art created picturing them wise and caring protectors of people, and writing too, which were a part of a great renewal in art, religion, and literature. many temples to gods were also built. pharaohs used power to construct big irrigation projects increasing size of egypts farmlands. expanded border; armies pushed east to control sinai peninsula and south into nubia(rich in gold and other resources) ended over invasion by pastoral nomads. hyksos from modern syria. using horse-drawn chariots and gently improved bows and arrows to defeat egyptians.

the code of hammurabi

282 laws carved into stone monuments, one of the first instances of laws being put into writing for everyone to see. dealt with topics such as property rights, wages, contracts, marriage, and various crimes. main purpose=protect rights. built on "an eye for an eye". punishment should fit the crime. system of justice harsh, but not as violent or unpredictable as retribution people carried out when injured.

sumerian government

3000 bce - some cities in sumer were home to 2000-10000 people. 2700 bce - largest city (urak) population of 50000. most city dwellers were farmers, who made daily trips to countryside to work in the fields - city-states. sumerian military leaders became more important than priests over time. kings ruled kingdoms. religion and politics were blended in civilizations in the sense that kings were also high priests. this included social stability. as the kings were perceived as being a direct link between the people and the gods.

egyptian writing

3000 bce-people were using hieroglyphics. mashed papyrus and used its fibers to make paper(word paper comes from papyrus). the book of the dead. wrote hieroglyphics on inside walls of tombs to tell stories of dead.

chinas first civilizations

4th core and foundational river civilizations developing in eastern china. includes 2 major rivers: huang he (yellow) and chiang jiang (yangtze). much of eastern china experiences reliable, moderate climate, two geographical features that protection from invasion=gobi desert in the west and worlds tallest mountain range: himalayas in southwest. 6500 bce-neolithics of yangtze valley were growing rice. 5800 bce-began farming near huang he. main crops: soy beans and millet(grain) 300 bce-groups along huang he took up rice farming. 100-both began domesticating chickens and pigs. 3000 bce-first silk production, according to chinese tradition, wove fine silk cloth from threads of silkworms, which fed on mulberry leaves. made items from copper and carving from a percious stone(jade).

the pacific people

60000 years ago: first people in oceania. vast regions in pacific: new guinea, australia, and thousands of others. hunter-foragers. ice age allowed low sea levels and small distance between islands. so, migrants would've needed needed rafts or small boats from island to island.

the decline of the zhou dynasty

800s bce-kings began to lose control. local leader uprising with west invasions weakened central governmnet. 400s bce-kings had little power outside own city-state, other states fought among themselves for control.

ten commandments

a code of conduct that became very influential in christainty dominated areas.

upanishads

a collection of religious thought that illuminated several new religious concepts: brahma, dharma, karma, and moksha. foundational text for set of religious beliefs that later became known as hinduism. historically significant because it reflects blending of dravidian religious values, and also because it reflects social structures of ancient india.

hieroglyphics

a form of picture-writing. like sumerians cuneiform, with addition of symbols representing ideas and sounds.

empire

a large territory that included diverse cultural groups.

brahma

an overarching, universal soul that connects all creatures on earth. each individual human being in no separate entity: their individual soul isn't essence of truth or reality. individual soul isn't really important; 1 must try to escape life and death cycle to join brahma: universal soul. ones dharma allows one to escape seemingly endless cycle.

indus agriculture and the environment

archaeologists conclude rural areas were providing ample amounts of food to urban areas because so few were farmers. evidence shows harappans traded by sea and land with sumer and egypt, and with eastern indian societies. considered civilized if means existence of surplus and division of labor. decline and disappearance because of environmental degradation. eroded soil and deforestation. floods or earthquakes could have been a cause for their disappearance.

the babylonian empire

around 1900 bce, persians from now iran invaded mesopotamia, and built capital of babylon controlling an empire.

king hammurabi

babylonians most powerful king. conquered all of mesopotamia, ruling for more than 40 years, until 1750 bce. abolished local governments and appointed officials responsible to him. reorganized tax structure, easier for representatives to collect and increase tax. taxes used to maintain irrigation canals to increase agricultural productivity. famous for code of hammurabi. brought greater stability and justice to society by replacing individual vengeance with a well-publicized system administered by government.

nile river valley

begins in the interior of africa flowing north emptying in mediterranean. in ancient times, rich black soil covered banks and delta, ideal for agriculture(wheat, barley, and papyrus-used for writing materials, baskets, sandals, etc... annual floods deposited silt, replenishing soil. 6000 bce-5000 bce=start of agriculture and pastoralism. learned how to grow wheat and barely from mesopotamians. grow gourds, watermelon, and sorghum, and raise donkeys and cattle from people living in the grassy savanna land south. domesticated animals, mined copper for jewelry and tools, and has surplus for town emergence over 2000 year span, influencing later life in the mediterranean world. made advances as climate changed. 5000 bce-deforestation by no rain. sahara got bigger. savanna got smaller dug irrigation canals(scholars think irrigation, wheat, plow, bronze-making and writing are from sumerian trade.

aryan language

brought sacred language sanskrit with them to south asia. first, stories told orally by generation. 1200-1000 bce=writing system. most literary and religious works recorded in language. had tongue that'd evolve into hindi. aryans indo-european origin causes sanskrit to share traits with latin(indo-european language). sanskirt continues to be studied by religious scholars, while hindi's spoken widely among many northern indian societies.

chavin de huantar

ceremonial center north of today lima. home to elaborate temple made of white granite and black limestone. obtained by trade, since materials weren't native to region. drainage ditches under temple to prevent flooding during rain. shamans interpreted temples many sculptures and carvings.

zhou trade and agriculture

china experienced great changes during long zhou rule. internal trade expanded. foreign trade. first chinese money in form of copper coins, with different ones minted in different regions. 6th century bce(iron age)-iron technology development that changed agriculture. peasants built dikes, reservoirs, and irrigation canals for water supply using iron tools. steady population from oxen-driven iron plows that allowed more farm land and surplus. most chinese were peasant farmers whod didn't own land. lived in small villages and farmed village lands together. had to devote number of labor days on roads, canals, and other local projects.

ancestor veneration

chinas long tradition that began during shang, believed ancestor spirits could speak to gods. made offerings to spirits, to win favor. kings made sacrifice everyday for successful rule. no organized priesthood.

scribes

class of people skilled at cuneiform. first charged with record-keeping and later with writing of history and myths

egyptian society

complex social hierarchy with royal families, nobles, and priests at top. artisans worked in shops attached to temples and were paid by government. below=large lower class predominatly of farmers. farmers crops belonged to its owner of land-the government, temple, or noble family. farmers had to farm, work on irrigation, and other government constructed projects. lowest level were slaves. usually hailed from conquered land. all classes equal under law except slaves. class was very rigid, difficult to advance classes. women had more rights than most ancient women-could own property, make contracts, divorce, and pursue legal disputes in court. hatsheput and cleopatra became pharaohs and a few held posts at temples, but most weren't educated and usually didn't take part in government, having little politiclal power.

zhou achievements

considered "golden age" because of large number of technological achievements. military benefited from crossbow and iron sword invention. armies began using mounted cavalry. farmers developed plows and improved irrigation system to better exploit water of huang he and yangtze. improved roads, which bolstered trade and brought increaded conflict with outsiders.

desert zone

continents two deserts. sahara-northern africa. kalahari-southern africa.

babylonian society and culture

culture resembled sumer by religious beliefs, patriarchy. women enjoyed more rights than sumer. could be merchants, traders, scribes. parents arranged marriage, although women could leave with property without getting divorced. skilled astronomers-could accurately predict movement of planets and eclipses, devising a lunar calendar. astronomy was linked to astrology and fortune-telling.

kush

dependent on egypt, establishing some political and cultural independence by 1000 bce. kush conquered egypt briefly before overthrown by assyrians in 663 bce. became important economically, trading with roman empire, india, and arabia, even without control of egypt. exported slaves, ivory, gold, and cattle. mined iron ore making tools and weapons in timber fueled furnaces. meroe was an important trade center. greatest power from 300 bce to 100 ce. power and influence declined from deforestation from wood fro charcoal used in smelting iron. 340 ce-conquered by axum

the hebrews

descendants became known as israelites -> jews lived in canaan(isreal, palestine, lebenon). what's known comes from sacred writings (hebrew sculptures)(old testament). canaan was founded by abraham who left mesopotamia to settle in 2000 bce. jews, christians, and muslims trace religious heritage to him. canaan drought forced egypy migration where they were slaved for several centuries. moses introduced ten commandments. early hebrews=polythesitic -> 1st groups to adopt monothesism. division and diaspora.

niles early governments

desertification brought more people to settle near nile. local chiefs emerged for the need to work together to feed large population. strong leaders united towns into two kingdoms. lower egypt in the north, where nile flows into mediterranean. upper egypt farther south and more upstream. 3100 bce, king menes united kingdoms(turning point). menes established memphis capital at the southern edge of nile delta. 3 long periods of stability.

indus valley civilizations

developed near water and core and foundation of later civilizations in the region 2500-2000 bce-dravidians established 2 sophisticated urban centers: harappa and mohenjo-daro. written language, in the form of pictographs, not yet deciphered, but loosely connected to dravidian language. in contemporary southern and central india. 1920-archaeologists come to know about harappan societies existence. evidence comes from artifacts and remains of city walls and numerous buildings. remains reveal evidence of advanced civilization with division of labor. jewelers, potters, architects, and artists resided. can infer social hierarchy existed because of houses in varying sizes. sophisticated technology and urban planning because of private toilets draining into municipal sewage system.

sumerian social structure

distinctions between classes became sharper as they became more specialized in their work. as society grew wealthier, rich and poor gap increased. one sign of social stratification increase was new class of nobles and wealthy landowners who joined priests and kings at the top. middle class = merchants, farmers, and professionals, like architects. lower class = hired workers. bottom = slaves. many were needed to build stone structures and irrigation systems. -> 40% (prisoners, debt) that formed the basis of wealth.

city-states

each sumerian city and the land it controlled, which typically covered several hundred square miles. independent, each with its own government. sumerians believed that land belonged to the gods, so the first rulers were the city-states priests. assigned fields to farmers, distributed harvested crops at temples, and managed all trade. city-states began to compete for land and water as they grew in size and number = war to defend. built massive stone walls around cities and organized armies.

nubia

emerged in upper nile valley around 3500 bce. egyptian traders went to nubia in search of gold, ivory, incense, cattle, animal skins, and slaves. were required to serve as missionaries in egyptian forces. agricultural country, same crops and animals as egypt, but didn't have same flood plain, so farmers had to make use of irrigation networks to water fields. influenced by egyptian culture. because of their close proximity to pharaohs language.-built egyptian-type pyramids and palaces. worshiped same gods and adapted burial practices, but retained some of their own gods too. used hieroglyphics, but also developed alphabetic script. lasted for nearly a thousand years before falling and reemerging as kush around 2500 bce.

moksha

eternal peace and unity with brahma. believes can attain moksha through intense meditation and casting off of worldly pleasures.

the end of the shang dynasty

experienced a rise and fall. kings became weaker overtime. 1045 bce-wu(military man) raised army and challenged rule. king killed, shang ended, wu established zhou.

chinas first rulers

faced no outside threat, but villages along huang he were sometimes attacked by nomads in the nearby hills. legend=yu brought order to region aroun 2100 bce-organized road projects for trade, create ditches for flooding, and drain swamps for farmland. organized villages into zones for defense and placed each zone under local leader who'd report to him. yu passed power, which led to start of xia dynasty.

karma

fate, in the next life. if someones soul carries heavy karmic burden, one can perhaps be reborn lower class or life-form. person who performs good deeds has good karma; may help soul in future life. souls ultimate goal is to attain moksha.

axum

founded on plateau of present-day ethiopia 1st century ce. capital=axum. agricultural economy, with farmers using plows to cultivate wheat, barley, and millet. established successful trading colony adulis on red sea, where traders sold products from african interior: hides, ivory, slaves. in exchange for money or products from india, arabia, and roman empire. axum and adulis grew rich together by taxing foreign trade and requiring conquered land to pay tribute. some converted to chirstianity because of trading connections with rome. religons popularity helped create more cohesive society. 330 ce- christianity decreed as official language by the king ezana. 340s ce-axumites defeated kushites in meroe. 500s-expanded territory to yemen, an arabian peninsula. borrowed script for written language from arabia. 600 ce- began declining, but remain strong enough to counter islamic conversion in 7th and 8th century. christianity dominate in ethiopia today.

osiris

god of life and death.

pictographs

graphic symbols, which each represented an idea, concept, or object. very complicated, as mesopotamia and egypt with scribes. forerunner of script used today.

the new kingdom (1570-1070 bce)

hyksos occupied egyptians for short time period, until egyptians beat them with same battle technology. expanded southward into nubia and north into mesopotamia with newly powerful army. gained access to highly prized resources like bronze and wood through negotiation and conquest. 1350-pharaoh akenaton called for worship of aten(sun god), which would cause dramatic change of preist's role, priests opposed, and his struggle disrupted egypt and weakened power. old religion restored after death, priests becoming more powerful. 1200 bce-ramses the great. empire became tempting target for invaders. hitities-who had a military advantage because they began using iron. long period of decline after ramses death. carried out expensive and failed wars against neigbors. invasions by libyans, kushites, asssyrians, persians, macedonians, romans...this with internal revolts dismantled empire, not regaining independance until modern times.

mandate of heaven

idea that just rulers power bestowed by gods. kings referred to as "sons of heaven". key element in zhou success. used to conquer shang.

the first american civilizations

in response to varied climate and geographic regions in america, people evolved into distinctive cultures as they moved. 3000bce-some indigenous, possibly first in mexico, discovered food could be grown and harvested, not simply gathered from wild plants. first important plants=maize(corn). native to western hemisphere. domesticated from wild types into several different varieties. other important native crops: beans, potatoes, peppers, pumpkins, cotton, and tobacco.

dravidians

indigenous people of the indian subcontinent.

aryans

indo-european speaking people originally from central asia. travelled from persia through hindu kush mountains over period of several centuries beginning in 1500. nomadic pastoralists.

pharoah

king or queen leading government. term coming into use in new kingdom.

zhou government

kings expanded territory that they couldn't control directly. kingdom divided into regions controlled by relatives or local friends, who owe allegiance to king, like city-states. local rulers governed as they wished, paying taxes to kings and solders for army. regional leaders had to visit kings courts to proclaim loyalty from time to time. leaders made alliances with surrounding kingdoms for protection from nomads north and west. feudalism. system broke down as regional authorities began asserting themselves. some stopped sending collected taxes to keep for themselves, other stopped sending solders for their own armies. metal development affected central-regional power balance; bronze was important, but iron began. regional rulers grabbed iron and bronze centers. sometimes used against themselves and rulers.

the zhou dynasty

kings ruled for about 900 years(longest in chinese history). first 200 years=golden age. success from ability to centralize and hold power, bringing stability. expanded, larger than shang. success of mandate of heaven. invasions or natural disasters(earthquakes) were signs rulers weren't in mandate of heaven anymore. became precedent. rulers overthrew, justified by loss of mandate of heaven.

ziggurats

large stepped pyramids with temples and alters in them.

xia dynasty

lasted for about 400 years. little is known because they had no writing system. only written information about xia kings recorded more than 1000 years later. in recent times, archaeologists have unearthed evidence that a xia kingdom existed.

sumerian economy and trade

learned to farm land intensely -> an agricultural surplus (division of labor). made pottery, wove cloth, cast utensils in bronze, and other crafts. agricultural surplus = extensive trade throughout the region of mesopotamia and interregionally with other civilizations over land and in 7-person canoes -> mediterranean -> persian gulf -> arabia. egypt - gold. traded for beads, wood, resin, lapis, lazuli, and obsidian from south. persia - tin. easter africa (mazambique). india - pearls, copper, and ivory. -> used by artists to create sculptures and jewelry, which mostly had religious significance.

continuous egyptian culture

long periods of unity under 3 kingdoms. allowed stable culture to develop. culture remained largely intact, even when egypt was ruled by outsiders, invaders often adapted aspects of egyptian culture.

savanna

made up of broad grasslands with small trees and shrubs. two major bands are located north of tropical forest zone. 10000 years ago, norhtern savanna was larger covering most of sahara.

aryan and dravidian beliefs

many aspects of aryan language, religious traditions, and social organizations continue today in south asia. interactions with indigenous people of india(especially dravidians) had long impact on society. late vedic age (800-400 bce) marked by aryans growing of dravidian belief. interaction of both traditions come to fruition in upanishads.

the olmec

mesoamerica began site of many advanced civilizations, foundation, core, of all olmec. language, beliefs, art, and athletics influenced later civilizations; maya and aztec. flourished in east and central mexico 1200-400 bce. primarily agricultural. like others; corn, beans, squash, and avocado in warm, humid climate. near water, several small rivers crossed land, so fresh water plentiful and easy transportation. traded 250 miles away,; jade and obsidian: small jewelry, sculptures, religious symbols of jaguars, snake, feathered serpent, half-human, half-animals. most famous for large basalt head monuments. 17 found, largest 10ft + 1000s of lbs. 1000s of slaves used to drag and float heavy blocks from 50 miles away. built large earthen pyramids under which buried jewelry, sculptures, mirrors, mosaics, areas for play religious ball game, developed a calendar, number system with zero (rare); using glyphs. language: use of feathered serpents. ritual ball games, provided core and foundation of later mesoamerican cultures, later writing systems didn't seem to be based on olmec.

mediterranean climate zone

mild seasons and temperate weather, consists of a strip of land along the northern edge of africa-southern coast of mediterranean.

kings

military leaders

feudalism

network of regional rulers, with relationships based on mutual defense agreement.

compound composite bow

new weapon that appeared. this bow combined wood with animal bone or horn to make a stronger, deadlier bow. either developed in mesopotamia or by nomadic pastoralists in central asia. gave its first users an advantage over rivals. appeared sometime several centruies after sumers decline.

the phoenicians

occupied parts of today lebanon, israel, and jordan-3000 bce. developed wide-trading network across mediterranean into eastern atlantic with strong sailing ships. exported cedar logs, colorful textiles, glass, pottery, etc. 1200-1100=peak-expanding around mediterranean. carthage. remembered for alphabetic script.

division and diaspora

over following centuries, hebrews divided into 2 kingdoms, weakening power. both conquered by assyrians and babylonians and abraham descendants enslaved again=isrealites-many fled or were driven out of thier homes->jewish diaspora. persian rule didn't last, jews suffered discrimination as less tolerant rulers ruled. migrated to north africa, south europe... because of movement. ideas and culture spread throughout the world, maintaining a strong sense of identity, even though they didn't have their own country.

the book of the dead.

paper book that egyptians put in coffins of pharaohs and nobles, each version was different since it told story of dead.

shang religion

polytheistic like other early river civilizations. believed several gods controlled forces of nature: gods of sun, moon, clouds, and winds. communication efforts with gods=earliest known writing. oracle bones. ancestor veneration. know they believed in afterlife because objects buried for use. some servants and pets killed to travel with kings or nobles.

sumerian religion

polytheistic, believed gods controlled natural fores around them. priests explained gods will to people and directed worship at temple. made offerings and prayed that the gods would flood rivers at the time of growing crops to win their favor. satisfying gods was important because floods were important and uncertain. might explain why they devoted so much effort and wealth into monumental architecture. temples and alters in ziggurats. believed that gods punished in this life, but after death, people simply turned to dust.

egyptian religion

polytheistic, like mesopotamians: ra, osiris, and isis represented by statues and small idols. believed gods were present in objects praying and making offerings to gods to win favor and protection. believed in life after death. first applied to pharaohs and later to everyone and animals, but must be preserved-mummified and buried in tombs.

astrology

predicting the future by studying movements of stars and planets.

shang economy, technology, and trade

primarily based on agriculture, most people were peasants, but others worked as skilled crafts, pottery, carving jewelry from ivory, and jade, and crafting weapons, tools...in bronze. artisans and merchants lived in capital and towns across empire. bronze technology from southwest asia from migrating indo-europeans settling in now western china. tin from southeast asia and jade from central asia by trade.

the austronesian speakers

probably originated in southern china, later moving to taiwan and philippines around 5000-2500 bce. also began migrating to new guinea. introduced agriculture to new guinea's. assimilated with existing population, but agriculture didn't spread to aboriginals-remained hunter-foragers. next 1000 years-migrated over 10000 miles by boat. went from one pacific island to another east, now using double-hull canoes going vast distances, reaching polynesian islans: samoa, hawaii, easter island, and new zealand. another group went west to african island madagascar. took pigs, chicken, yams and taro everywhere to maintain agriculture. supplemented food by hunting and fishing.

egyptian scientific contributions

pyramids and temples were engineering markers with great accuracy using simple tools and surveying instruments. cut massive stone blocks in distant quarries in desert and transported them to the construction site, then moved heavy blocks up ramp to place on pyramid. developed math and engineering skills to build pyramids. developed number system based on 10. knowledge on concept of fractions and whole numbers. geometry helped build pyramids and restore boundaries of fields after flood. calendar based on 365 day year created to track stars for religious purpose and monitor nile flooding. mummification taught human body-knowledge that future civilizations would draw upon and benefit from. physicians could set bones, amputate, and suture. soaked cloths in honey for infections. plants and herbs for pain and asthma-like conditions. adult life expectancy was 35 years and 1/3 died in infancy.

the old kingdom (2600-2160 bce)

strong central government with pharoahs. kings and queens ruled as theocrats from memphis. kings wielded considerable authority to undertake extensive building projects, including famous pyramids. egyptians believed pharoahs were immortal and desended from gods, so they supported great effort to preserve and honor bodies after death by mummification and jewelry in tombs for afterlife. most large pyramids built in old kingdom were for pharoahs. all land belonged to pharoahs, with governors and government officials in each province of the kingdom, some rewarding officials with land as payment. land and positions began getting passed down over time, with noble class developing. some nobles began challenging pharaoh's authority as they got stronger. pharaoh's power weakened by drought-famine, and starvation leading to civil unrest, province rivalries and collapse splitting into 2 parts again. for more than 100 years. civil wars swept egypt as nobles competed for power.

sumerian decline

supplies of water and fertile land attracted other groups who wanted control of the region. sumerian city-states fell to invaders around 2300 bce due to few natural barriers and the independent nature of the city-states. the culture they developed became the core and foundation of later empires in the region.

alphabetic script

systems of symbols (letters) that represent the sounds of speech, as an alternate to cuneiform around 1000 bce. 22-letter alphabet was help to increase trade, later modified by greeks and romans, who spread it across their empire. now used by much of the western world. arabic and hebrew alphabets evolved from basic phoenician system.

kingdom

territory kings ruled

desertification

the creation of desert-like conditions.

epic of gilgamesh

the oldest written story on earth. originally composed on 12 clay tablets in cuneiform. adventures of king gilgamesh who ruled urak between 2750-2500 bce. historians know about those who lived in mesopotamia in the 2nd and 3rd century milleniums bce and what they valued in a leader.

jewish diaspora

the spreading of jews throughout the mediterranean world and the middle east began after many isrealites fled or were driven out of their homes. jews returned to jerusalem after persians, who were more tolerant of religious diversity, conquered in 539 bce.

astronomy

the study of objects outside earths atmosphere.

ra

the sun god.

aryan religious traditions

the vedas. rig-veda is the most famous; sheds light on ancient indian society, particularly conflicts between dravidians and aryans. outlined proper priestly(brahmin) behavior: performing several daily rituals honoring gods. responsibilities placed brahmins in position of authority. vedas importance in spiritual life waned a bit by 500 bce as vedic knowledge began melding with spiritual contributions by dravidians.

cuneiform

the worlds first writing system consisting of marks carved into wet clay tablets (gives expression of "set in stone")

urbanization

trade among regions led to grow of towns and cities. urban areas needed artisans and metal production workers. although class stayed small, merchants set up shop in towns and cities, selling goods from around china. cities were seat of national or regional power attracted administrators, solders, scribes...

aryans importance of clans

tribes divided into clans, each with its own territory and headed by male chief, ruling with advice from committe of clan members. no central government, and often clans fought. first aryans continued herding lifestyles, raising horses, cattle, goats, and sheep. eventually, most settled in villages and began farming, intermingling with native people. wheat and barley=main crops, grew sugar cane, gourds, peas, beans, and other vegetables. poor transportation made trade difficult, but other types of goods appeared. early trade was by barter. 500 bce- use of silver and copper coins led to trade increase and number of craftspeople and merchants.

oracle bones

turtle shells, oxen bones, animal bones that people would inscribe questions to gods. would insert heated pins that'd crack, which was interpreted to gain an answer. kings relied on them to tell whether to attack an enemy or if crops will grow.

sumerian men and women

upper-class women enjoyed freedom=could own property and have seperate income. only boys could attend school=girls were homeschooled. arranged marriage by men.

aryan migrations and interactions

very few features of society are found today in south asia. aryans arrived 500 years after decline leaving a mark. brought first horses into india. native indians were no match for aryan warriors on horseback and horse-drawn charriots. settlements and cultures spread east along ganges river and surrounding plains.

isis

wife of osiris. goddess of nature.

nile transportation and trade

wind blowing south through nile from mediterranean allowed transportation and trade. moved south against current by sails. moved north by current. allowed egyptians to trade locally and through region of northeast africa. traders engaged in interregional trade with mesopotamia from the mouth of the nile. nile promoted egypts prosperity because it flowed through a vast desert, providing natural barriers against attack. egypt developed for more than 1300 years before its first major invasion.

polytheistic

worshipping many gods.

shang cultural and scientific contributions

written script of pictographs. standard systems of measurement helped rule. calendar had 12 alternating months of 29-30 days(days added by royal astronomers for 365). made arts contributions. artisans created bronze and iron casting, silk garments, and white clay pottery. first instruments appeared: drums, bells, stone chimes, ocarina. played melodies. lost to time.