Chapter 2: Causes of Abnormal Behavior
psychological paradigms include:
- Assumptions about human nature - Assumptions about causation - Assumptions about appropriate treatment - Assumptions about how to do research
reciprocal causality
transactional process Other examples: -Depression causes marital problems (or vice versa), which in turn causes more depression (or vice versa) -Anxiety causes marijuana use, which in turn causes more anxiety -Social anxiety causes avoidance, which in turn causes greater social anxiety -Child's misbehavior causes anger and/or disengagement in parents, which causes additional behavioral issues -And so on...
modern psychological paradigms (a sample)
- Biological (19th century...now) - Psychoanalytic (1895 - 1960s...and now) - Behavioral (1950s to 1970s...and now) - Humanistic (1940s to 1960s...and now) - Cognitive behavioral (1950s to present; stemmed from Behavioral) Many others also exist based in more nuanced theories (or nuances of these theories) - Still others have existed well before the 20th century Cognitive-behavioral really is behavioral morphed into something more as research provided more evidence for the role of cognitions in certain mental health disorders...both are based in theories of learning.
problems with each of the paradigms
- Biological paradigm = Can overemphasize the medical model - Psychodynamic paradigm = Can be unyielding in focusing on childhood and the unconscious conflicts - Cognitive behavioral paradigm = Can overlook social and biological context of human behavior - Humanistic paradigm = Can be antiscientific
beware!: single-cause explanations and the media
- Depression is based in the brain! - Alcoholism is genetic. - The "divorce" gene? - Conduct disorder is caused by poor parenting. Is any of this even true!? Please understand...THERE IS RARELY A SINGLE-CAUSE EXPLANATION FOR ANY MENTAL DISORDER
biological factors: genes
- Each and every behavior we study in this course will have some genetic basis - Common (and sometimes controversial) to conclude that psychological disorders are "genetic" - But again, beware of single-gene explanations! - How do we determine "how genetic" something may be?
basic genetic concepts
- Genotype = genetic architecture - Phenotype = observable expression of genotype - Dominant/recessive inheritance: Mendel's peas - Genes are ultramicroscopic units of DNA that carry information about heredity. - Behavior genetics studies genetic influences on normal and abnormal behavior. - Genotypes and phenotypes: •Genotype is an individual's actual genetic structure. •Phenotype is an expression of the given genotype. - Dominant and recessive genes: •Genes have alternate forms known as alleles. •Dominant/recessive inheritance occurs when a trait is caused by a single or (autosomal) gene. - Polygenic inheritance •Produces characteristics falling along a dimension •Appears to be multiple genes involved in the risk for mental disorders Very few psychological conditions show Mendelian inheritance patterns, however. Exception: Huntington's Disease and Phenylketonuria Most disorders (and psych characteristics) appear to be polygenic (involve multiple genes) - Examples: ADHD, depression, intelligence etc. - Height of peas also is polygenic: Mendel's experiments would have failed if he studied height Polygenic leads to: - Quantitative not qualitative differences - Dimensions not categories - This is critical distinction in diagnosis
systems theory: developmental psychopathology
- How abnormal behavior develops and changes over time - there are many contributors to abnormal behavior - Developmental Psychopathology = Emphasizes the importance of developmental norms—age-graded averages—to understanding influences on abnormal behaviors: Abnormal behaviors (Premorbid history, Prognosis)
evolutionary psychology
- The application of principles of evolution to our understanding of the animal and human mind - Species-typical characteristics = Genetically influenced motivations that people share in common - Individual differences = What makes people different from one another - Natural selection = Successful inherited adaptations to environmental problems passed over successive generations
psychodynamic paradigm
- Unconscious conflicts stemming from early childhood experiences. Freud was trained by Jean Charcot, a neurologist. - Asserts that abnormal behavior is caused by unconscious mental conflicts that have roots in early childhood Structure of personality - Id: biological drives, Sex and aggression, Influenced by Darwin - natural and sexual selection - Ego: sense of self, More conscious; defense mechanisms, Neurotic anxiety (id - ego conflict) (DSM-II: Many "neurosis" diagnoses) - Superego: conscience, Moral anxiety (ego - superego conflict) - Id operates according to the pleasure principle (instinctual urges, value free, only focus is on gratification, obeys the pleasure principle). - Ego operates on the reality principle (organized and rational, obeys the reality principle: urges may be gratified in appropriate ways, includes executive functioning such as planning and judgment; mediates id, superego, and the demands of the world). - Superego contains societal standards of behavior (the conscience, guided by morality and use of guilt to keep the id in check). - Conflict between superego and ego leads to moral anxiety (fear that one will not conform to the standards of conscience). - Conflict between id and ego leads to neurotic anxiety (concern that id impulses will be expressed unchecked and thus lead to trouble from the environment). - Ego protects itself from neurotic anxiety by utilizing various defense mechanisms.
free will
- We control, choose, and are responsible for our actions. - Posits that it is difficult to understand human behavior scientifically
what causes your own maladaptive qualities?
- Your biology? Your genes? - Your family history? - Your (behavioral) reinforcement history? - The way you think about things (e.g., your cognitive style)? - Your cultural background? - Situational imperatives? Yes. All of these contribute to our behavior!
diathesis-stress model
- diathesis = vulnerability - mental disorders develop when a stress is added on top of a predisposition - For example, a genetic predisposition toward depression coupled with death of a spouse
humanistic paradigm
- sometimes called experiential - a reaction against determinism - An explicitly positive view of human nature Humanity is defined by free will - Dysfunctional or abnormal behavior is caused by society, not by a problem residing in the individual - Emphasis on personal responsibility and the here and now - Carl Rogers - unconditional positive regard - Lends itself best to philosophical discussions of the nature of pathology, rather than explicit and testable research hypotheses.
examples of positive and negative reinforcement and punishment
-Positive Reinforcement: Mood improvement positively reinforces exercise (i.e., experiencing good mood following a workout makes you MORE likely to work out) -Negative Reinforcement: Reduced anxiety negatively reinforces avoidance (i.e., reduced anxiety after leaving my spider-infested basement makes it MORE likely that I will avoid spiders) -Positive Punishment: Spanking a child positively punishes misbehavior (not condoning or condemning this practice! I was spanked as a child) (i.e., ADDITION of the spanking makes the misbehavior LESS likely to occur) -Negative Punishment: Placing a child in timeout negatively punishes misbehavior (i.e., taking away fun time makes the misbehavior LESS likely to occur) -Sidenote: punishment (particularly positive punishment) is not as effective for shaping behavior as reinforcement. Most psychologists agree that placing children in timeout (or taking away privileges when older) is better than introducing something like spanking or extra chores, but reinforcement schedules are superior ways for shaping behavior.
paradigm
A set of shared beliefs that includes both the substance of a theory and beliefs about how scientists should collect data and test a theory
bottom lines (part 2)
A systems approach/biopsychosocial model is current way of conceptualizing multiple contributing causes - Biological factors - Psychological factors - Social factors - Not a theory but a method of organizing information Levels of analysis - Bio, psycho, and social factors may interact - Or may be different ways about talking about same thing
cognitive-behavioral paradigm
Abnormal & normal behavior result from one's learning history. (Q: Are thoughts a form of internal behavior?) - Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) - Operant Conditioning (Skinner) - Modeling (Bandura) *all lead to behaviorism (first outlined by Watson) Psychological problems like anxiety and depression are based on a core belief system that has been reinforced by experiences - I'm worthless - Spiders might kill me - I have to have a drink in order to relax Prominent early contributors to learning theory: - Wilhelm Wundt (German physiologist and philosopher, Father of Psychology): Scientific study of psychological phenomena -> used introspection (which was later criticized as being too non-scientific) - Ivan Pavlov (Russian physiologist): Classical conditioning (US -> UR, CS + US -> UR, CS -> CR, Extinction: Occurs once a CS no longer elicits the CR) - B. F. Skinner (American psychologist): Operant conditioning (Asserts that learned behavior is a function of its consequences: Positive reinforcement, Negative reinforcement, Punishment, Extinction) - John Watson (American Psychologist, Founder of Behaviorism): Little Albert (1920), Tabula rasa - Albert Bandura (Canadian-American Psychologist): Social Learning Theory Behaviorism = Observable behavior is the only appropriate subject matter for the science of psychology Classical Vs. Operant Conditioning: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H6LEcM0E0io
classical conditioning
Classical conditioning involves associating an INVOLUNTARY behavior (like salivating) with a stimulus. ex: Little Albert, Heroin - conditioned compensatory response
systems theory
Bio-Psycho-Social Model - Need to understand ecology of human behavior - Emphasizes holism vs. reductionism - Emphasizes multiple levels of analysis - Incorporates elements of each of the major paradigms More realistic theory of causality - Recognizes multiple pathways (Equifinality, Multifinality) - Recognizes transactional processes - Stress-diathesis model - Equifinality = The view that there are many routes to the same destination (multiple pathways) - Multifinality = The view that the same event can lead to different outcomes Diathesis-Stress Model - Diathesis: A predisposition toward developing a disorder - Stress: A difficult experience; risk factors may contribute to mental disorders Reciprocal causality - Causality operates in both directions Systems theory is best way (currently) of incorporating multiple causes of abnormal behavior. What else? - Offers important perspective on causes of abnormal behavior - Includes biopsychosocial model - Includes elements of each of the four paradigms - very integrative - Highlights the need to understand the ecology of human behavior Holism = The whole is more than the sum of its parts. - Reductionism = Understands problems by focusing on smaller and smaller units, viewing the smallest possible unit as the true or ultimate cause - Levels of analysis = Appreciate these for understanding psychological problems
biological paradigm
Biological abnormalities are the cause of abnormal behavior. General Paresis - Brain disease occurring as a late consequence of syphilis - Characterized by dementia, progressive muscular weakness, and paralysis - Spurred pursuit of biological explanations for mental illness Reductionistic approach -- assumes whole is the sum of its parts; understanding problems by reducing them to their smallest level - Can you see any problems with this approach? General paresis once diagnosed as a part of "lunacy" -Diagnosis refined based on symptoms (delusions of grandeur, dementia, paralysis), and was eventually tied to STI syphilis -Bacteria (spirochete) causing syphilis isolated (around 1910) -Treatments discovered (arsphenamine, antibiotics) - general paresis essentially eliminated after antibiotics became widely available after WWII The Biological paradigm has caused a great deal of trauma to patients as well, despite (hopefully, but not always) good intentions (if wildly uneducated by today's standards) by their providers. -Trephination - practiced in prehistoric times up to 7000 years ago -Frontal lobotomies (developed 1930s, practiced regularly into the late 1950s) -Blood letting (roots in Greek medicine, practiced in Western society 1600s through 1800s) -Insulin coma therapy (1927 through 1960s) -Hydrotherapy (early to mid-20th century?) -Other surgeries (e.g., hysterectomy for damaged or misplaced "wandering" uterus) -Metrazol (seizure) therapy (precursor to ECT [an effective treatment of last resort for some disorders]) - Metrazol removed from use by FDA in 1982 -Inappropriate uses of ECT (e.g., treating homosexuality, punishment for poor behavior)
vaccines and autism: case study
Case study - proves nothing - Case studies good for generating hypotheses - Burden of proof lies with hypothesis proponent Know about changes in diagnostic criteria and "epidemics" Be an inquiring skeptic - Generally and based on past "easy" answers for autism (e.g., meds) - Be skeptical of conspiracy theories: Breakthroughs will be championed not hidden Bring dubious ideas to my attention. - I'll share. Good practice. Finally, get your child vaccinated! Not doing so is simply irresponsible, and dangerous to your child and to society! This is an example of correlations resulting in devastating consequences. 21 million people might have died of measles alone (likely, due to more individuals being able to pass infection on to others) as (well-meaning, hopefully) individuals advocated for a stop to MMR vaccine use to save (well, as it turns out, no one) from developing Autism. To put this in perspective: •Adolf Hitler (1941-1945) = 12 million non-combatant deaths •Joseph Stalin (1922-1953) = 20+ million •Mao Zenong (1958-1962) = 45 million •Spanish Flu (1918) - 50-100 million •COVID-19 (2019-2021) = 2.23 million •Bubonic Plague (14th century) = 75-200 million deaths •HIV/AIDS = 32 million •Cambodian Genocide (1975-1979) = 2 million •Rwandan Genocide (April to July 1994) - 1 million •Great Potato Famine in Ireland (1845-1849) - 1 million All American war conflicts combined = 1.26 million
gene-environment interaction: diathesis-stress in action
Combination of genes and environment produce most (and most interesting) behaviors - E.g., genes involved in ADHD and school environment that demands attention - E.g., PKU Search for candidate genes - a specific gene or set of genes involved in a disorder - Hot topic, lots of original research - Problem: Not a lot of replication (lots of chance findings) Gene-environment interaction (GxE) - impact of genes becomes stronger or more relevant in environments that promote expression, or weaker or less relevant in environments that inhibit expression - Genetic differences in ADHD symptoms (or lack thereof) may be more evident in school environments that push the limits of individual's attentional capacity - PKU - if consuming proteins or aspartame, genes become very important in this disorder
behavior genetics
Common debate in abnormal psychology: Nature vs. Nurture? - Essential BG question instead is: How much of each? Family incidence studies = Compare frequency of disorder among families of normal and ill probands - Do problems run in families? - But families share genes and environment - inconclusive regarding role of genes - But family members share both genes AND environment - Environment may be a confound when drawing conclusions about genetics contributing to mental illness - Surely there must be a way to parse genes from environment? Adoption studies (important but harder to do) = compare adopted individuals to biological and adoptive parents - Are children more like biological or adoptive parents - More like biological = genetics - More like adoptive = environment (shared environment) - But certainly there is unshared environment that is important? Twins studies - compare MZ and DZ twins = compare twins in same family (you can also extend this to other relationships as well) - How much can we attribute problems to genetics, family environment, and unique environmental experiences? - Monzygotic (MZ), or identical, twins have identical genotypes. - Dizygotic (DZ), or fraternal, twins share 50% of their genes. - Provide a concordance rate for two sets of twins - Differences attributed to genes/environment: Shared environment, Nonshared environment - Equal environments assumption: Do MZ and DZ twins experience same trait-relevant environment? Concordance Rates: - When MZ>DZ -- genetics at play (plus some unique environment, most likely) - When MZ > DZ (but less than twice as much), shared environment also at play - When MZ concordance rates are not 100% -- unique environment at play *IMPORTANT: Typically all play a role (in adult phenotypes, shared environment does not show up as much) Comparing these concordance rates tells us about what percent of variation in some behavior we see is attributable to genes (A), shared or common environment (C), or unique or nonshared environment (E). Mary-Kate & Ashley Olsen (MZ) Lucy & Maria Aylmer (DZ)
a note about establishing causation in the study of mental disorders...
Correlational study vs. experiment - Correlational study = correlation (r = -1.0 to +1.0) - Experiment = causation - Research on the causes of mental disorders is necessarily correlational: The relation between two factors is studied systematically, Correlation coefficient (r = -1.0 to +1.0), Causation cannot be inferred! But we will talk more about this next time... Correlation coefficient - Why does correlation not mean causation? - Reverse causality - Third variable confounds - The correlational method has the weakness that correlation does not mean causation, but the strength that it can be used to study many real-life circumstances. example: vaccines and autism Autism: https://www.autism-society.org/what-is/ -Persistent differences in communication, interpersonal relationships, and social interaction across different environment: Being nonverbal or having atypical speech patterns, having trouble understanding nonverbal communication, difficulty making and keeping friends, difficulty maintaining typical back-and-forth conversational style -Restricted and repetitive behavior, patterns, and interests: Repeating sounds or phrases (echolalia), repetitive movements, preference for sameness and difficulty with transition or routine, rigid or highly restricted and intense interests, extreme sensitivity to or significantly lower sensitivity to various sensory stimuli -According to DSM-5, symptoms often begin to be noticed during 12-24 month range Epidemic of Autism? Prevalence of autism has risen since 2004...something must be causing this increase, right? Most likely, it's awareness of the disorder, and not some sort of environmental or societal cause.
Freudian defense mechanisms
Defense mechanisms are a way of protecting against neurotic anxiety (conflict between the ego and the id). -Defense mechanisms divert psychic energy from constructive activities and distort reality -Operate without individual's awareness Anna Freud, daughter of Sigmund Freud, identified several "defense mechanisms" that were present in her father's writings. People often mis-credit naming the defense mechanisms to Sigmund. Many more have also been identified by theorists (e.g., humor, altruism). Rationalization and sublimation are considered "healthier" defenses because they do not distort reality Examples: -Denial = You are arrested for drunk driving several times but don't believe you have a problem with alcohol. -Displacement = When you have a bad day at school, you come home and yell at your roommate -Projection = You get really mad at your romantic partner, and scream at them they are the one who is angry with you -Rationalization = I always study hard for tests and I know a lot of people who cheat so it's not a big deal I cheated this time. -Reaction formation = You hate your boss and therefore treat them in an ingratiating manner. -Repression = A child who is abused by a parent later has no recollection of the events, but has trouble forming relationships. -Sublimation = Intense rage redirected in the form of participation in sports such as boxing or football
components of emotion
Emotion has three important and overlapping components: behavior, cognition, and physiology
biological factors: endocrine system
Endocrine System - Produce hormones into bloodstream - Adrenal gland = fight or flight response - Hormones are neuromodulators or chemicals that affect the functioning of distant body systems - Hormones produce psychophysiological responses. - Adenal gland is activated by stress and helps prepare the body to respond to an emergency •Adrenaline (increases alertness and energy) and cortisol (increases sugars and their usage and availability of substances that repair tissues) -- take seconds to minutes to kick into play - Certain abnormalities in the functioning of the endocrine system are known to cause psychological symptoms. •Hyperthyroidism = too much thyroxin = restlessness, agitation, & anxiety •Hypothyroidism = too little thyroxin = lethargy, depression - And of course chronic stress (i.e., chronically elevated cortisol levels) can lead to health problems
gene-environment correlation: are our experiences actually random?
Experience is not random - correlated with various background factors, including genes - A specific and important example of why correlation does not mean causation - Pervasive: Marriage benefit example - A major challenge for research - Twin studies as an almost-perfect solution Gene-environment correlation (rGE) - when genetics result in you selecting into particular environments. - Example: internalizing problems and parental overinvolvement - Passive rGE - parents provide children with both genes and environments that are correlated with genetically-influenced characteristics of parents (e.g., anxious parents pass on internalizing genes to their children and also expose their children to an overbearing env which may in turn result in the child becoming more likely to develop anxiety) - Evocative rGE - individual directly shapes their environment (e.g., anxious children may elicit overinvolvement from parents) - Active rGE - individual actively selects their environments for genetically-influenced reasons (e.g., does not work in current example, because parents and kids do not choose each other...so consider this instead: anxious individuals may seek out different environments from those who are not anxious). Marriage benefit - does marriage make people happier, or do happier people get married? More specifically, people who are genetically predisposed toward happiness may select into marriage (and those predisposed toward depression select out of relationships). - Any time the two variables you are looking at have genetic components, there is the potential for rGE Another example - SES and health is nearly always correlated via family pathways (i.e., genes, family environments). That is, being poor is not a causal factor in having poor health status.
some bottom-lines: genetics and abnormal behavior
Genes appear to contribute to all disorders - And to just about every behavior (divorce, politics) Single gene may cause (unidentified) subtypes - Huntington's, PKU... Rett syndrome But most disorders are likely polygenic - Dimensions vs. categories Genetic mechanisms a ? in BG research - Complex, indirect, environmentally mediated - Divorce and early menarche Wrong to divide into genes vs. environment - Heritability ratios are not fixed - Genes and environment work together Gene-environment interactions - PKU - paired recessive genes plus diet Gene-environment correlations - Cloud interpretation of environmental influences - Does marriage improve mental health, or are better adjusted people more likely to marry?
back to biological factors
How do we know how "genetic" a behavior or mental disorder is? - We use genetically-informed research study designs to help answer these questions à Behavior Genetics (BG research) BG is the study of genetic (G) and environmental (E) contributions to complex behavior - Focus = individual differences (i.e., what makes ppl different) Contrast with Evolutionary Psychology - Focus = genetically-influenced motivations that all ppl share (i.e., what makes ppl similar) All behaviors are partly genetic (i.e., are heritable).
psychological factors
Human nature - Evolutionary psychology (Natural selection) - Dominance (or affiliation and dominance): The hierarchical ordering of a social group into more- and less-privileged members - Attachment theory: John Bowlby (1907-1990), Attachment style also relates to temperament/ personality Evolutionary psychology - The application of principles of evolution to our understanding of the animal and human mind - Species-typical characteristics = Genetically influenced motivations that people share in common - Individual differences = What makes people different from one another - Natural selection = Successful inherited adaptations to environmental problems passed over successive generations Dominance - The hierarchical ordering of a social group into more- and less-privileged members - Dominance observed in human as well as other animal social groups. - Dominance competition is basic to sexual selection. Attachment theory - Infants form attachments early in life—special and selective bonds with caregivers. - Theory based on ethology, the study of animal behavior. - Bonds, coupled with distress when separated, keep the parent and infant in proximity. - Proximity has survival value. - Attachment behavior is inborn.
huntington's disease
Huntington's Disease (Huntington's Chorea) = inherited disease that causes degeneration of nerve cells in the brain - Can result in movement, cognitive, and psychiatric disorders (e.g., depression, OCD, mania) - Typically develops in 30s or 40s - Dominant inheritance pattern, single-gene - 50% chance of inheritance with heterozygous parent, 100% with homozygous
attachment theory
Insecure or anxious attachments - Uncertain or ambivalent parent-child relationships - Inconsistent or unresponsive parenting - Can make children mistrustful or dependent Research indicates supportive relationships that promote mental health throughout the lifespan.
bottom lines: levels of analysis
It's all in the brain! - Where did you think it was? - Where is love located?? - Is it still love if we locate love in the brain? Mind-body dualism - Can the two be separated? "Systems approach" also refers to interdependence or "holism" - Ecology in the environment - Human ecology - whole is more than sum of parts: Example: Reciprocal causality; Troubled relationships contribute to mental disorders, mental disorders strain relationships Major paradigms dominated explanations of abnormal behavior until recently - That is changing, but you should know outline of paradigms for historical understanding - And psychologists still often ask each other: What is your "theoretical orientation"? Note that from a treatment perspective, it is helpful to organize symptoms in terms of causes which can be addressed through therapeutic techniques
social factors
Labeling Theory = emotional disorders are enactments of prescribed social roles - Suggests that people's actions conform to the expectations created by the label, a process termed self-fulfilling prophesy - Roles we play (e.g., gender, race, social class, culture) help to shape who we become Close relationships: - Marital status and psychopathology -> factors are clearly correlated. Does marital status cause problems? What is the role of genes? (Gene-environment correlation) - Social support = The emotional and practical assistance received from others Gender/Gender Roles may influence the development, expression, or consequences of psychopathology. - E.g., traditional women's roles may foster dependence or hopelessness - E.g., social expectations may allow women to become depressed but expect men to pull themselves up by the bootstraps when faced with adversity - People view gender-typical expressions of psychopathology less favorably and more under control than the reverse Prejudice and Povert increase the risk for psychological disorders. - Minority families more likely to fall below poverty level, particularly when family is headed by single parent - Minorities at greater risk for mental health problems, especially LGBTQ+ - Poverty increases exposure to stressors and chemical toxins (e.g., lead and automotive exhaust) (Poverty correlated with trauma) Society - Societal practices, beliefs, and values help shape the definition of abnormal behavior.
psychological factors part 3
Learning - E.g., modeling (watching Dr. Horn freak out over spider can result in you developing arachnophobia) - Use of heuristics that may be off-mark Cognition - E.g., automatic and/or distorted perceptions or interpretations of reality may cause depressive symptoms - Attributions (which are often inaccurate) can also cause distorted assumptions about reality Modeling: Albert Bandura à Learning through imitation Cognition can help to regulate emotion, but we cannot wholly control emotions intellectually - Forms the basis for CBT-based interventions, however - Consistent with the idea that emotions are experienced in an older (in terms of evolution) portion of the brain (subcortical structures) than where most of our cognitions occur (cerebral cortex) Attributions = beliefs about cause-effect relations - Require little effort, but are often inaccurate Automatic thoughts or beliefs about a situation can contribute to depression, anxiety, and other symptoms - BUT, some theorists say that depressed people see things more accurately than others (and that this is why they feel depressed!) Sense of Self - Erikson - identity; integrated sense of self - Other theorists: Many "selves" that correspond to different roles, Many relational selves that are linked with different relationships - May reside in frontal lobe (Degeneration of the frontal lobe has caused patients to lose self-reflection and self-control.) Self-control = Learned through the process of socialization; externalized rules become internalized Self-esteem = Valuing one's abilities
biological factors: brain structures
Major brain structures - Forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain - Forebrain includes: Limbic System; Cerebral cortex; Hemispheres Hindbrain - Bodily functions involved in sustaining life, regulation of stages of sleep Midbrain - Involved in the control of some motor activities (fighting and sex), regulation of sleep Forebrain - what makes us unique from other species! - Site of most sensory, emotional, and cognitive processes - Limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and cingulate gyrus) •Regulates emotion and learning •Amygdala may be involved in emotional disorders - Hypothalamus (basic biological urges like eating, drinking, sexual behavior; autonomic arousal) Cerebral hemispheres - Forebrain is composed of two cerebral hemispheres. - Cerebral functions are lateralized - Hemispheres are connected by corpus callosum - Chambers (ventricles) are connected in the forebrain - Cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital Cerebral cortex divided into four lobes: - Frontal (reasoning, planning, emotion, speech, movement) - Parietal (receives and integrates sensory info, spatial reasoning) - Temporal (processes sound and smell, regulates emotions, involved in learning, memory, and language) - Occipital (receives and interprets visual info) Two hemispheres, with lateralized functioning: - Left cerebral hemisphere = more associated with language and related functions - Right cerebral hemisphere = more associated with spatial organization and analysis - Comprehension Question: if we are noticing problems with aphasia (problems with understanding/expressing speech), what may be going on? Answer: possible damage to right hemisphere, particularly parietal or temporal lobes Chambers, or ventricles, are connected in the forebrain -> filled with cerebrospinal fluid Only the most severe mental disorders have clearly been linked to abnormalities in the neuroanatomy. - Stroke - Alzheimer's disease - Schizophrenia
modeling
Modeling is a method of social learning. We can also learn how to interact with our environments, however. Consider: -Do we learn gender-typical ways of managing emotions (e.g., on average, women express emotions, men express more thru actions) -Do we learn how to be in relationships from our parental figures? -Do we become afraid of something because we saw an attachment figure afraid of that thing? -Do we become less afraid of something because we saw an attachment figure react to the object calmly? -Other examples? Endless...
biological factors and psychopathology
NTs and psychopathology - Disruptions in the functioning of various neurotransmitters are present among some people with mental disorders.: E.g., serotonin in depression (too little); E.g., dopamine in psychosis (too much); E.g., acetylcholine (too little) and glutamate (too much) in Alzheimer's - Medication treatment: E.g., selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs - antidepressants) BUT, mental health problems are not necessarily caused by "a chemical imbalance in the brain." Schizophrenia - DA hypothesis -Too much DA in mesolimbic pathway can cause positive sxs (we'll discuss these later) -Too little DA in mesocortical pathway can cause negative sxs (we'll discuss these later) Depression -Low levels of 5-HT -Also, low levels of NE can contribute to depression (and can be treated with selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, SNRIs) Alzheimer's Disease -Acetylcholine (ACh) activates muscles and helps with arousal, short-term memory, and learning. Plaques increase production of acetylcholinesterase, which breaks down ACh, thus lowering levels and causing some the the characteristic AD sxs -Glutamate is the most common neurotransmitter in the brain and is involved in learning and memory. As the brain cells of someone with Alzheimer's Disease die, they release excess amounts of glutamate. The excess glutamate becomes harmful because it overstimulates healthy brain cells (a phenomenon called excitotoxicity), causing them to become damaged or to die.
negative
Negative means you are TAKING AWAY something
biological factors of abormal behavior
Neuron and neuronal transmission - Neurotransmitters (NTs) (e.g., 5-HT, DA, NE, ACh, GABA, Glu) - Communication within neurons = electrical (nerve impulse; action potential) - Communication between neurons = chemical (NTs) The neuron and neurotransmitters •Neurons are the basic building blocks of the brain. •Soma is the cell body. •Dendrites receive the messages from other cells. •Axon is the trunk of the neuron that transmits the messages. •Synapse is a small gap filled with fluid. •Neurotransmitters are chemical substances released into the synapse. •Receptors receive the neurotransmitters once they are released. •Electrical nerve impulse reaches the end of the neuron: Synaptic vesicles of sending neuron release neurotransmitters into the synapse. Neurotransmitters travel to receptor sites on receiving neuron. Synaptic transmission - Communication within a neuron is electrical. - Communication between neurons is chemical. 5-HT = serotonin DA = dopamine NE = norepinephrine ACh = acetylcholine GABA = Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Glu = Glutamate There are others, too!
what does "genetic" mean
Not likely a depression or ADHD gene - Except maybe for a (very) refined diagnosis - Mostly polygenic - After all divorce, criminality, and political preferences are genetic too! Always need to consider genetic mechanism - Eating disorders; early menarche Predisposition, not predestination - Environments affect genetic expression (PKU) - Environment can modify genetic disorders (early stimulation programs for intellectual disability) Heritability ratio (h2) - proportion of variance in a sample attributable to genetic variation - NOT a fixed number - Consider: If everyone had the same opportunities, the same environment, all differences between people would be due to... Genes (h2 = 100%), PKU would be perfectly genetic too (Every child exposed to phenylalanine, MZ and DZ twins concordance would be... MZ - 100%; DZ - 50%)
bottom lines...
One hope is that a single, specific cause will be discovered to lead to more refined diagnoses - To date, medical model has largely failed to accomplish this, however (with some exceptions): E.g., discovery of cause of general paresis (The Great Imitator); E.g., 50% of intellectual disabilities ("idiocy", historically) have known cause - Medical model may work okay for some Dxs (e.g., depression, schizophrenia): Starting point will be refined diagnoses (e.g., Rett Syndrome) One hope is that a single, specific cause will be discovered for more refined diagnoses: - Discovery of the cause of general paresis is one model -General paresis once diagnosed as a part of "lunacy" -Diagnosis refined based on symptoms (delusions of grandeur, dementia, paralysis) -Eventually tied to STD of syphilis -Bacteria (spirochete) causing syphilis isolated -Treatments discovered (arsphenamine, antibiotics) "Medical model" has failed to uncover specific causes of other mental disorders (to date) - Except many intellectual disabilities - "idiocy" -Over 50% cases ID cause known (250+ specific causes) -Example: "mongolism" (1866), Down's syndrome (1959) -I believe medical model will work (partially) for some disorders like depression or schizophrenia -Starting point will be refined diagnosis (Rett syndrome) -Rett syndrome: non-inherited genetic disorder that is associated with neurological issues beginning around 12-18 months For now, mental disorders are mostly thought to be "lifestyle diseases" - Multifactorial causes: like heart disease and cancer Like your own less attractive qualities, mental disorders likely have many causes - BEWARE: Looking for "the" cause for depression (etc.) is almost certainly futile (even though that's the current "state of the art"...)
major brain structures and psychopathology: unhealthy brain
Only the most severe mental disorders have clearly been linked to abnormalities in the neuroanatomy. Stroke - Can cause rapid death in brain tissue due to blocked blood and oxygen supply, or by ruptured blood vessel in brain Alzheimer's Disease (only accurately diagnosable [differentiated from other types of dementia] by autopsy) - Development of amyloid plaques, tangles of diseased or dead neurons, and atrophied brain tissue Schizophrenia - Ventricles are often enlarged, and planum temporale asymmetry may be reversed
operant conditioning
Operant conditioning involves associating a VOLUNTARY behavior (like pressing a lever) with a consequence of that behavior (e.g., receiving food).
panic disorder
Panic attacks can occur because a cascade of autonomic arousal follows tachycardia (for example). So, a brisk walk might induce panic symptoms in a person for whom the original panic attack occurred after the experience of increased heart rate.
psychodynamic paradigm (pt. 2)
Penis Envy (Oedipal Complex) - "Girls hold their mother responsible for their lack of a penis and do not forgive her for their being thus put at a disadvantage" - "Women oppose change, receive passively, and add nothing of their own." Repressed Memories - We'll talk more about this later in the semester (trauma unit) It is impossible to understand Freud's theory and writings outside of the context of the time in which he lived - the repressed (sexually and otherwise) Victorian Era. This probably explains the large role that sex and aggression played in his theorizing. Criticisms of Freud - Relied on case studies - Many parts of theory are untestable - In decline in psychology And, as we will learn in Ch. 3, the psychodynamic paradigm has changed A LOT
psychological factors: stages of development
Periods of time marked by age and/or social tasks during which children or adults face common social and emotional challenges. Freud - Psychosexual Erikson - Psychosocial - Development continues throughout lifespan. - Developmental transitions mark end of one and beginning of another stage.
phenylketonuria (PKU)
Phenylketonuria (PKU) = inherited disorder that causes phenylalanine to build up in the body (body is not able to metabolize this amino acid) - Can lead to intellectual disability, seizures, behavioral problems, and mental disorders - Individuals with this disorder need to follow a diet that limits exposure to phenylalanine, which is found mostly in proteins and aspartame (Diet Coke!) - Discovery of this issue has decreased cases of intellectual disability related to this inherited disorder - Recessive inheritance pattern
positive
Positive means you are ADDING something
biological factors: psychophysiological responses
Psychophysiological Responses (involuntary! Autonomic arousal) - Pounding heart - Flushed face - Tears - Faster breathing - sexual arousal - Chronic over-arousal: Anxiety - Chronic under-arousal: ASPD? - Psychophysiology = The study of changes in the functioning of the body that result from psychological experiences - Psychophysiological responses (flight or fight...or freeze, etc.) - Autonomic nervous system preparing to deal with challenges - Autonomic NS responses related to panic disorder
punishment
Punishment means you are DECREASING a behavior or making that behavior less likely
reinforcement
Reinforcement means you are INCREASING a behavior or making that behavior more likely
correlation does not equal causation
Remember when we talked about correlational studies and random assignment? - We can't randomly assign some people to become depressed and others to stay "normal" - simply inhumane and unethical - Therefore, no real way to establish true cause-effect relationships for mental health - Based on what we've discussed today, can you think of any ways to reduce confounding factors? Twin studies! Twin studies are an imperfect solution to this problem, but allow researchers to eliminate many confounding variables (measured and unmeasured) from the relationship between, say, low SES and depression levels. (This association is confounded by genetic and shared environmental confounds between these phenotypes). IL = comparing unrelated individuals who are discordant for SES level MZ = comparing MZ twins who are discordant for SES level DZ = comparing DZ twins who are discordant for SES level Scenarios: A - All equal - socioeconomic deprivation causes depression B - MZ is zero (suggesting that differences MUST be related to genes and/or shared environments) C -- MZ is greater than zero (suggesting some causation), but well below IL (reflecting effect of genes) Twin studies reduce problem of correlation and causation - Compare concordance rates of MZ/DZ twins discordant an experience hypothesized to predict mental illness (E.g., adult SES and psychiatric illness) - Equivalent to using twins as controls (called the "co-twin control design") - Magnitude of differences across different pair types (MZ/DZ twins, unrelated ppl) reveal important conclusions regarding causality
psychological factors con't
Temperament/personality - Characteristic styles of relating to world - Big Five (OCEAN) Emotions = internal feeling states - Basic positive = love, joy, surprise - Basic negative = anger, sadness, fear Consists of five dimensions: The "Big Five" - Openness to experience - Conscientiousness - Extraversion - Agreeableness - Neuroticism Researchers have used statistical analysis to reduce our lexicon of feelings to six basic emotions: - Love - Anger - Joy - Sadness - Surprise - Fear Cognition can help to regulate emotion, but we cannot wholly control emosions intellectually - Forms the basis for CBT-based interventions, however - Consistent with the idea that emotions are experienced in an older (in terms of evolution) portion of the brain (subcortical structures) than where most of our cognitions occur (cerebral cortex)
determinism
The scientific assumption that human behavior is caused by potentially knowable factors
theoretical orientation
Theory, according to Merriam-Webster: - "a plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena" - "a belief, policy, or procedure proposed of followed as the basis of action" Theoretical Orientation, according to APA Dictionary: - "An organized set of assumptions or preferences for given theories... - that provides a counselor or clinician with a conceptual framework... - for understanding a client's needs... - and for formulating a rationale for specific interventions."
vaccines and autism
Wakefield et al., Lancet (1998) - Autism caused by Measles/Mumps/Rubella (MMR) Vaccine?It contains Hg compound (thimerosal), so naturally, YES! - Speculation based on 12 case studies (remember what we learned about case studies?) - Absolutely no replication after repeated real attempts - By 2004, 10 of 13 authors retracted their speculation - But, the propaganda continued...and many children dangerously went without vaccination Side note... vaccine schedules and manifestation of autism - Symptoms of Autism typically become apparent at 12-24 mo. Note on Andrew Wakefield: - In 1990s, he was serving as a consultant to lawyers suing MMR manufacturers: Forgot to mention this to Lancet - January 28, 2010: British medical tribunal concluded he acted "dishonestly and irresponsibly" in his research: No longer licensed; February 2, 2010, Lancet (finally) retracted 1998 paper Authors publicly retract NYTimes: "We wish to make it clear that in this paper no causal link was established between MMR vaccine and autism as the data were insufficient. However, the possibility of such a link was raised and consequent events have had major implications" Danish study of .5 million children who did or did not receive vaccine - No relationship - Same with 2 major Japanese studies, 1 in U.K. Institute of Medicine 2004: No link •http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=10997 Autism's False Prophets: Bad Science, Risky Medicine, and the Search for a Cure. Paul A. Offit. - Professor of Pediatrics, U.Penn - Expert on immunology NICHHD (2006): "To date there is no conclusive evidence that any vaccine can cause autism." - Science rhetoric is less convincing than courtroom rhetoric! CDC (2013): - Over the years, some people have had concerns that autism might be linked to the vaccines children receive. One vaccine ingredient that has been studied specifically is thimerosal, previously used as a preservative in many recommended childhood vaccines. However, in 2001 thimerosal was removed or reduced to trace amounts in all childhood vaccines except for one type of influenza vaccine, and thimerosal-free alternatives are available for influenza vaccine. Evidence from several studies examining trends in vaccine use and changes in autism frequency does not support such an association between thimerosal and autism. Furthermore, a scientific review by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) concluded that "the evidence favors rejection of a causal relationship between thimerosal-containing vaccines and autism." CDC supports the IOM conclusion that there is no relationship between vaccines containing thimerosal and autism rates in children. Measles outbreak following Disneyland trip: https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CID/DCDC/Pages/Immunization/measles.aspx Coincides with "epidemic of autism" - Fear, spreads like wild fire (esp. w/ medical authority allies) - In fact, there was almost certainly no epidemic... But the definition broadened and diagnostic criteria changed, and so the numbers were much, much, much higher; One reason why "what's abnormal" matters! Enlightened Charlottesville (2005...after 2004 retractions) Epidemic of Autism? Prevalence of autism has risen since 2004...something must be causing this increase, right? Most likely, it's awareness of the disorder, and not some sort of environmental or societal cause.
some bottom lines about causes of abnormal behavior
We do not know the cause of most mental disorders - Likely have many causes - Equifinality and multifinality We do not know the cause of most mental disorders. So anyone who claims to know that X is caused by trauma, poor parenting, genes etc is either lying, overstating, or indulging wishful thinking DSM-5 diagnoses make no claim about cause: See Thinking Critically about DSM-5 in Chapter 2 DSM-5 diagnoses likely have many causes: - Looking for "the" cause for depression etc is almost certainly futile (even though that's the current state of the art...) - What is "the" cause of car accidents or house fires? - No single cause of many physical diseases (cancer) - Equifinality: many paths to same destination - Multifinality: same path leads to many destinations
psychodynamic paradigm: what Freud got right
What Freud got right (broadly) - Biological motivations behind behavior: Animal behaviors/programs - subcortical brain structures; Fight or flight; attachment (sex); dominance (aggression); And many more; the new unconscious? - Need control over biological motivations: Both individually and by society - Denial or distortion of true motivations: In self, in relationships - Change in motivations and tasks across development From The New Unconscious (Ran Hassin) book summary: According to this picture, unconscious processes seem to be capable of doing many things that were thought to require intention, deliberation, and conscious awareness. Moreover, they accomplish these things without the conflict and drama of the psychoanalytic unconscious. These processes range from complex information processing, through goal pursuit and emotions, to cognitive control and self-regulation
