Chapter 2 Instructional Environments

2.5 teacher roles: tutor

tutors offer their expertise to help others but take the role of partner in learning rather than an expert or an instructor. Tutoring often is used when some students are strong in a subject but others are in need of some type of remediation. Tutoring is most effective when the tutor establishes a good rapport with the tutee. Students can be assigned to tutor peers or students of a different age (typically secondary students tutor Elementary or middle school students).

competency 2.3

identify strategies and Technologies for facilitating learning for students with various characteristics and needs and given instructional contexts: important to this competency is an understanding of how to Foster specific skills with appropriate selection of instructional strategy. •pointing out connections between new information and information they already know •providing organizers, outlines, or guides to structure assignments •modeling a strategy by thinking out loud most important is that teachers accurately assess students needs and Tailor the instructional strategy to meet those needs. teachers need to provide more guidance and Scaffolding to promote student learning. Examples of effective scaffolding include • structuring assignments to begin with simple tasks and progress to more complex tasks •offering partly complete examples for students to finish •providing mnemonics, reminders, or cues to facilitate encoding and retrieval • modeling and directly teaching students to ask themselves questions as a steady

table 2.2 - occasionally asked you to study instructional material in pairs or small Cooperative learning groups.

in a unit on the human muscular system, 7th graders are given "starters" (e. G., Describe xxxx in your own words"; "Compare xxxx with respect to xxxx" to help them formulate elaboration promoting questions to ask a study partner. The students then break into pairs to study together. Many of them generate and are able to answer such elaborative questions as "why are muscles important?" and "how are the skeletal muscles and cardiac muscles the same?"

Skill 2.1 Learning is constructive

in other words, children don't simply absorb information exactly as it is presented. Rather, they are active participants in the creation of knowledge, using the experiences to develop theories and beliefs about the world and how it works. Furthermore, students' metacognitive skills (i. E., Ability to reflect on their own learning) help them construct knowledge mindfully. Teachers employed Construction principles when they provide basic resources or examples and asked units to make inferences, test hypotheses, or draw conclusions. Wolfolk (2011, p. 380) summarizes five constructivist strategies to support learning: •Embed learning IN complex, realistic and relevant learning environments. •provide for social negotiation and shared responsibility as a part of learning. ○Support multiple perspectives and use multiple representations of content. • nurture self-awareness and an understanding that knowledge is constructed •encourage ownership in learning.

2.5 teacher roles: self-directed learner

independent work--whether seat work in class, homework, or individual projects-- requires that students manage their time, monitor their behaviors, and evaluate their outcomes. Students have primary control of their activities when they take this rolling research suggests that they become more confident motivated and goal-oriented.

symbolic interaction

interaction between people that takes place through the use of symbols

B.F. Skinner (1938) and Operant Conditioning

-created the Skinner Box, which is a conditioned environment for studying conditioning -(rat experiment with button that gave food and button that shocked=>at first rats pressed each button randomly, then followed Thorndike's Law of Effect)

2.3- provide resources and teach students strategies for self evaluation.

necessary for self-regulation, as students need to become aware of any Tendencies to stray from the tasks in order to redirect their attention. Self-evaluation is also necessary for students to determine whether they have completed a task in the best way they can.

2.3 - explain and model how to set reasonable goals.

students often have difficulty identifying goals that are both challenging and attainable. Providing examples of appropriate goals and engaging and think-alouds while setting goals both help students learn to set their own goals.

2.5 student roles: active listener

students should be active listeners anytime someone else is communicating with them. Active listening can include taking notes offering verbal feedback asking questions and a number of other strategies that keep the listener involved as a partner in dialogue or discussion.

exercise 2.1: #2 "learning involves the development of integrated bodies of knowledge and beliefs that may or may not be accurate and useful understandings of the world."

this statement reflects a constructivist approach to learning. According to this Theory, the individual learner takes an active role in creating or constructing a framework for information presented to the senses.

exercise 2.1: #6 " students who are good Learners can quickly perceive, interpret and mentally manipulate information."

this statement reflects information processing Theory; perception, memory, and other operations are the focus of this learning theory.

exercise 2.1: #3 "to understand learning, we must consider not only the learner but cultural, and historical contexts in which the learner lives."

this statement would likely be made by a theorist from the socio-cultural perspective on learning. According to this Theory, Learners and counter culturally appropriate ways of thinking and social interactions within their communities.

exercise 2.1: #5 " students won't learn to follow rules unless they are punished for misbehavior."

this statement would most likely be made by a strict behaviorist who focuses on operant conditioning. Operant conditioning suggests that behaviors that are punished will decline or disappear. B. F. Skinner

social learning theory

Bandura's version of learning theory, which emphasizes the role of modeling, or observational learning, in behavior, emphasizes interaction

spatial intelligence

Involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas end states- navigator, sculptor

exercise 2.4: teaching organizational skills. consider the following case scenario then answer the questions that follow. Josh, a 10th grader, is having a tough time adjusting to high school. When he does an assignment, he usually receives a good grade. However, far too often, his notebook is Messy and incomplete, and he forgets to do his assignments and to study for his tests. In addition to his classes, Josh participates in extracurricular activities and occasionally works at a local restaurant. He seems to be having difficulty setting priorities and getting organized. His family and teachers, frustrated by his erratic performance, decide that a weekly schedule will help Josh organize his activities and complete his school work. Each Monday, Josh meets with Miss Gates, one of the teachers, to plan his schedule. They divide each day into hourly time slots, list class assignments and tests, and outline after school and home activities as well as job-related assignments. They then determine which activities have specific time commitments and record them in the schedule. Next, they list Josh's weekly assignments and due dates and estimate the amount of time needed to complete them. Josh and Miss Gates then establish priorities and enter the items in the schedule. Finally, they review the schedule to ensure that all activities have been given sufficient time, and that there is a balance among activities. Throughout the week, Miss Gates checks Josh's progress and following the schedule. - #1- how does meeting with Ms. Gates foster Josh's self-regulation skills, what is she offering that he can't do himself? justify your response.

Josh certainly knows what his activities are knows when school assignments are due. It is less clear that he can accurately estimate how much time each activity will take; learning to make accurate time predictions requires practice. It is also not clear that Josh can independently determine how important each activity is. Many teens need to work to contribute to family income and struggle to prioritize school work. Others value extracurricular activities more than studying, especially during adolescence when they are establishing identity. Because the meetings are collaborative (i. E., Miss Gates does not simply provide a schedule or set the priorities for him). Josh has an example to follow but also has input into the process. In addition, her monitoring his progress makes him a can of his actions.

interpersonal intelligence

The ability to understand and interact effectively with others end states- therapist, salesman

sociocultural theory

Vygotsky's theory of how contextual factors affect children's development; the approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture

chapter 2 - using observational learning - make sure students see that positive behaviors lead to reinforcement for others.

examples 1. point out the connections between positive behavior and positive consequences and stories. 2. be fair in giving reinforcement. The same rules for rewards should apply to both the students with problems and the students who did not cause trouble.

table 2.2: learning strategies scaffolding - scaffold students' attempts to use new strategies--for instance, by modeling the strategies, giving clues about when to use them, and providing feedback on appropriate and inappropriate strategy use.

a 7th grade language arts teacher gifts for students note-taking forms they can use to take notes in a unit on Greek mythology (see figure 8.1).

table 2.2: usefulness and learning strategies - explain the usefulness of very strategies in an age-appropriate way.

a 9th grade history teacher asks his class, "who can tell me why the American colonists were so upset about the Quartering Act of 1765? we talked about that last week. does anyone remember?" when no one responds, to teacher continues, "a lot of kids don't realize this, but we human beings can't always remember everything we're taught. It's time we started getting serious about taking notes in this class." the teacher gives some initial pointers on how and when to take notes and continues to scaffold the students' note taking over the course of the school year, sometimes simply by saying "this is an important point that you should be sure to include in your notes."

2.2-regulatory learning strategies- suggest a wide variety of strategies taking notes, thinking of new examples, forming mnemonics, summarizing, administering self-check quizzes, and so on-- each of which is apt to be useful in different situations and for different purposes.

a high school social studies teacher acknowledges that some aspects of geography, such as names of European Capital Cities, can be hard to remember. She suggests the key word mnemonic and illustrates this process with the capital of Belgium, which is Brussels: "think of a large Bell with eyes and a mouth, and a picture eating some brussel sprouts." but in addition, the teacher points out that many aspects of geography makes sense and should be understood rather than memorized. For example, when presenting a map of Europe one day, she says, "notice how most European capitals--for instance, Paris, Rome, Brussels, Prague--are on major rivers. Why do you suppose that is?

classical conditioning

a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.

information processing theory

a perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

chapter 2 - using observational learning - enlist the help of class leaders in modeling behaviors for the entire class.

examples 1. ask a well-liked student to be friendly to an isolated fearful student. 2. Let high-status students lead an activity when you need class cooperation or when students are likely to be reluctant at first. Popular students can model dialogues in foreign language classes or be the first to tackle dissection procedure in biology.

2.5 teacher roles: advisors

advisors offer suggestions and help students (and others) clarify their own thinking; they are not decision-makers. Teachers often advise secondary students on their course selections, career options, and college choices.

metacognitive skills

an ability to manage one's own thinking and problem solving efforts

Constructivism

an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be. the learner takes an active role in creating on constructing a framework for information presented to the senses.

competency 2.2

apply knowledge of processes by which young adolescent and adolescent students construct meaning and develop skills, including the use of different types of learning strategies, and techniques for making knowledge accessible and meaningful for all students, including English language Learners and students with exceptionalities: important to this competency is an understanding of learning from information processing and constructivist perspectives. You will be expected to recognize specific learning tactics and strategies, such as elaboration, organization, and rehearsal. You may be asked to identify instructional strategies or activities that enhance students' metacognitive skills. Some questions May provide a classroom scenario and asked you to identify the principle of learning that underlies a teachers use of a particular instructional strategy.

competency 2.4

apply knowledge of strategies for promoting students' development of independent thinking and learning, reflection and higher order thinking skills, organizational and time management skills, and sense of ownership and responsibilities with regard to their own learning: you'll be expected to know instructional strategies that encourage students to engage in self-regulated learning and self-evaluation. you may be asked to identify the most effective teaching practice to achieve a particular learning objective or goal.

competency 2.5

apply knowledge of the wrist teacher and student roles in the learning process and how different roles may affect student moving and outcomes teachers can direct learning: decision maker, problem solver, resource person, facilitator, advisors, coach, model, disciplinarian, and tutor students active role is constructing meaning and guiding their own learning: model, observer, active listener, collaborator, self-directed learner

table 2.2 - ask students to share their strategies with one another.

at a school that serves a large number of minority-group students who are at risk for academic failure, faculty and students create a minority achievement a committee (MAC) program designed to make academic achievement a high priority. Participation in the program is selective ( i. E., Students must show a commitment to academic Improvement) and prestigious. In regular meetings, high-achieving 11th and 12th graders describe, model, and encourage many effective strategies, and they help younger students who are struggling with their school work.

2.1 learning can be conditioned

behaviorist theory proposes two Central learning processes: classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning occurs when a formerly neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally or reflexively evokes a Behavior or feeling. Classical conditioning can be used effectively in the classroom (e. G., Turning off lights to get attention, ringing a bell to Signal end of class), but teachers should be aware of situations where negative outcomes are unintentionally conditioned. For example, a student who has repeatedly sent to the principal's office for discipline May begin to associate the principal with punishment and experience fear and anxiety anytime the students sees the principal. This response can then generalize, with the student experience anxiety simply upon arriving at school. •operant conditioning occurs when a particular behavior is either reinforce leading to reoccurrence of behavior or punished leading to extinction of behavior. For example, teachers who reward student effort with high grades have students who learn to work hard if they want a high-grade. Students who do not work hard, then, are not reinforced-- in fact, in Operant terms, they are punished with a bad grade. Research on operant conditioning in the classroom suggests that reinforcing expected behaviors is more effective for class management than punishing undesirable behaviors. Research also suggests that teachers should limit the use of external rewards to encourage intrinsic motivation (see chapter 7 of this study guide).

Thorndike's Law of Effect

behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Regulating Learning

causes increase in metacognitive skills which causes self reflection. •teach and model effective strategies for learning. •Scaffold student efforts. •Design classroom activities to encourage exploration of multiple perspectives and self-regulated learning. •Emphasize critical thinking processes and reflection rather than memorization and recall.

2.5 teacher roles: coach

coaches lead activities. In the classroom dresses on the sports field, coaches encourage and guide student interactions, often by scaffolding or other Hands-On methods that allow them to teach students new behaviors that provide time for practice and feedback.

Skill 2.2 - core content: strategies for processing information for long term retention

common methods for adolescents to process information include: rehearsal, elaboration, organization and visual imagery .

skill 2.3 identifying effective classroom practices-#6- in this exercise, you will read short descriptions of teachers classroom practices. Decide whether each one is consistent or not consistent with what you have learned about learning, memory and cognition. justify your decision. Miss Sanderson tells students in her French class that they can remember that marcher means "to walk" but by thinking about "marching".

consistent. She is helping students make the connection between marcher and walk by providing a verbal mediator.

skill 2.3 identifying effective classroom practices-#1- in this exercise, you will read short descriptions of teachers classroom practices. Decide whether each one is consistent or not consistent with what you've learned about learning, memory, and cognition. Justify your decision. Miss Montgomery says, "okay, students, we've studied a number of basic elements, including aluminum, Boron, calcium, carbon, copper, iodine, iron, potassium, silicon, tin and zinc. let's classify.

consistent. She's helping students organize what they've learned.

skill 2.3 identifying effective classroom practices-#2- in this exercise, you will read short descriptions of teachers classroom practices. Decide whether each one is consistent or not consistent with what you have learned about learning, memory and cognition. justify your decision. Ms. Flanagan is trying to give her students an idea of how long humans have populated the Earth. She tells them, "think of the Earth's history as being a 24-hour day. Human beings have been in existence only between 11:59 p. M. And midnight."

consistent. She's using an analogy to help students relate the incomprehensible length of the Earth's history to something they already know.

skill 2.3 identifying effective classroom practices-#4- in this exercise, you will read short descriptions of teachers classroom practices. Decide whether each one is consistent or not consistent with what you have learned about learning, memory and cognition. justify your decision. mr. Sawyer has his middle school students wear short story about a bar mitzvah. Knowing that many of the students are not Jewish, he first describes what a typical Bar Mitzvah is like.

consistent. mr. Sawyer is providing a script that should help the students make sense of the story.

2.5 teacher roles: decision maker

decision-makers plan the curriculum and instructional activities, determine assessment measures and grades and arrange and manage the classroom. Teachers play this role to a greater or lesser extent and nearly all class activities, although they often share the role with administrators (e. G., Determining curricula) staff (e. G., Counselors), and the students themselves (e.g., in student-directed or Independent Learning).

competency 2.6 - core content: home, school and community

demonstrate awareness of factors in the home school and community that can affect student learning and the implications of these factors for teaching and learning: •you will be expected to know the importance of a supportive home in classroom environment for student learning •important to this competency is an understanding of how the environment in which students are raised and educated affects their learning. teachers can recognize and accommodate family and Community influences on student learning by •building School family Partnerships •recognizing when family resources are limited • being alert to changes and students' behavior that suggest changes and family structure •developing parent education workshops and seminars •recognizing differences in communication style, practices, and beliefs and in some cases open classroom behaviors or instructional strategies to accommodate student needs. •Providing curricular and extracurricular programs that encourage positive interaction with the community, address traumatic or controversial events, or offer opportunities that students might have not otherwise had

competency 2.1

demonstrate knowledge of major theories and concepts related to the learning process and their application and educational contexts: important to this competency is an understanding of how general principles of learning effect instructional design. you Will be expected to know basic learning theories, including behaviorism, social learning theory, and information processing Theory and to apply theoretical principles to classroom practices. You may be asked to select the most effective instructional strategy for a student with particular characteristics, such as a type of cognitive style or a particular strength in one area. Some questions may require you to apply principles of learning theory to a particular classroom scenario.

Howard Gardner's theory of intelligence

devised theory of multiple intelligences: logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic

2.3- be flexible in your use of grouping strategies.

examples 1. review work of students often and experiment with new groupings. 2. Use different groups for different subjects. 3. Use mixed-ability groups in Cooperative exercises.

skill 2.2 tactics for learning procedural information

examples 1. pattern learning •hypothesizing •identifying reasons for actions use when •to learn attributes of Concepts • to match procedures to situations 2.self-instruction • comparing own performance to expert model use when •to tune improve complex skills examples •part practice •whole practice use one •when few specific aspects of a performance need attention • to maintain and improve skill

skill 2.2 (table 2.1) learning verbal information

examples 1. attention focusing •making outlines underlining • looking for headings and topic sentences use when? •with easy, structured materials; for good readers •for poor readers; with more difficult materials 2. schema Building •Story grammars • Theory schemas • networking and mapping use when? •with poor text structure, goal is to encourage active comprehension examples 3. idea collaboration •self-questioning • imagery use when? •to understand and remember specific ideas

2.3- use information about students from tests, cumulative folders, and other teachers very carefully.

examples 1. avoid reading cumulative folders early in a year. 2. be critical and objective about the reports you hear from other teachers.

2.3- make sure all students are challenged.

examples 1. don't say, "this is easy, I know you can do it." 2. offer a wide range of problems, and encourage all students to try a few of the harder ones for extra credit. Find something positive about these attempts.

2.3-be especially careful about how you respond to little cheating students during class discussions.

examples 1. give them prompts, cues, in time to answer. 2. Give ample praise for good answers. 3. Call on low achievers as often as high achievers.

chapter 2 - using observational learning - use peers, especially class leaders, as models

examples 1. in group work, pair students who do well with those who have are having difficulties. 2. ask students to demonstrate the difference between "whispering" and "silence---no talking."

chapter 2 - using observational learning - modeling

examples 1. show enthusiasm for the subject you teach. 2. Be willing to demonstrate both the mental and physical tasks you expect the students perform. I once saw a teacher sit down in the sandbox while her four-year-old students watched her demonstrate the difference between "playing with sand" and "throwing sand". 3. When reading to students, model good problem-solving. Stop and say, "now let me see if I remember what happened so far," or "that was a hard sentence. I'm going to read it again." 4. model good problem-solving-- think out loud as you work through a difficult problem.

2.5 teacher roles: facilitator

facilitators guide students as they take on more responsibility for themselves. Teachers facilitated activities that are primarily student-directed.

2.6 - core content: home, school and community- building school-family partnerships

family engagement students' education is one of the greatest predictors of academic achievement in student motivation. Teachers should ask opinions, solicit ideas, and engage in collaborative problem-solving with students' families

2.6- core content: home, school and community - recognizing when Family resources are limited

for example, students whose families are experiencing poverty, homelessness, or job loss may be lacking motivation, resources, or even the basic necessities of food and shelter. Teachers may need to contact support services in extreme situations.

2.6 - core content: home, school and community- developing parent education workshops or seminars.

for example, teachers can offer programs that help parents with College Planning and financial aid. Families and schools can also join together for educational programs on gang activity, substance abuse, sexual behavior, and similar issues.

2.3- provide resources to track progress toward a goal.

for example, teachers can provide a checklist or calendar and which students record their activities. Some teachers require students to keep reflective journals, in which they both track and evaluate their progress.

2.6 - core content: home, school and community- being alert to changes in students' behavior that suggest changes in family structure.

for example, when parents divorce adolescents often feel confusion, anger, or depression. Their grades me suddenly fall, and they mean stop completing work or show inappropriate behavior in the classroom. Teachers should offer support to students and to their families during the adjustment period.

2.5 student roles: model

just as teachers serve as models for students at all times, students serve as models for each other. Those students who plan well, develop organizational tools that help them succeed or have established good work habits, demonstrate for others routines that contribute to academic success.

core content: general perspectives on learning

learning involves a relatively permanent change in Behavior/ knowledge has result of experience. Educators recognize and debate many different theoretical perspectives on learning. Some theories such as behaviorist theories or general learning theories that apply to humans and non-human animals equally. Others, such as information processing Theory, largely address human behavior and thinking. The application of basic learning theories to the field of education enriches and informs teaching, curriculum development, and academic Administration. In general, Educators believe: learning is constructive, conditioned and modeled.

competency 2

learning involves relatively stable and long-lasting change to mental representations, resulting from experience. The process of learning begins in utero and continues throughout the lifespan, becoming more directed and purposeful as individuals grow and develop new strategies and skills. Teachers must recognize and understand basic learning processes, and the factors that influence learning outcomes, to identify individual student needs and took plan, Implement, and evaluate strategies and Technologies for facilitating learning for secondary students. Competency 2 requires that you demonstrate an understanding of the major theories of learning and can apply them to describe and evaluate instructional strategies and environments appropriate for young adolescents and adolescents. Questions on major Concepts and learning address well-known and foundational theoretical approaches as they are relevant for young adolescents and adolescents. Particular emphasis and placed on how students construct meaning. You may be asked to identify individual environmental factors that affect student learning. Questions on learning strategies focus on techniques to facilitate learning and promote development of independent thinking, including the roles of both the students and teachers. Application questions require you to reflect on ways in which class classroom practices and instructional strategies to promote student learning and self-regulation. Given a scenario you may be asked to identify the most effective or developmentally appropriate strategy for particular discipline or goal.

2.3- encourage risk-taking while acknowledging that failure is common and okay.

many students, especially High Achievers, have difficulty regulating their own learning because they are motivated by performance goals and anxious about making mistakes. They're better at regulating their behavior as they work towards challenging goals that when they understand that struggling or even failing at a difficult task is an important part of the learning process.

2.5 teacher roles: model

models perform the behaviors they expect to see from students. Teachers can model skills during instructional activities and serve as role models with their daily appearance, communication skills, enthusiasm, and other characteristics-- teachers are truly models for their students at all times.

exercise 2.4: teaching organizational skills. consider the following case scenario then answer the questions that follow. Josh, a 10th grader, is having a tough time adjusting to high school. When he does an assignment, he usually receives a good grade. However, far too often, his notebook is Messy and incomplete, and he forgets to do his assignments and to study for his tests. In addition to his classes, Josh participates in extracurricular activities and occasionally works at a local restaurant. He seems to be having difficulty setting priorities and getting organized. His family and teachers, frustrated by his erratic performance, decide that a weekly schedule will help Josh organize his activities and complete his school work. Each Monday, Josh meets with Miss Gates, one of the teachers, to plan his schedule. They divide each day into hourly time slots, list class assignments and tests, and outline after school and home activities as well as job-related assignments. They then determine which activities have specific time commitments and record them in the schedule. Next, they list Josh's weekly assignments and due dates and estimate the amount of time needed to complete them. Josh and Miss Gates then establish priorities and enter the items in the schedule. Finally, they review the schedule to ensure that all activities have been given sufficient time, and that there is a balance among activities. Throughout the week, Miss Gates checks Josh's progress and following the schedule. - #2- As Josh Masters the steps in planning and implementing his schedule, ms. gates encourages him to develop his own schedule and monitor his own performance. How might their weekly meetings changes this occurs?

ms. gates could ask Josh to come to the Monday meeting with a sample schedule already completed. They could then review it to get together and discuss any problems or make any needed changes. as Josh learns to check off each activity as it's completed, ms. gates can stop monitoring his progress, and they can schedule time on Mondays to review the progress together and to discuss problems with the prior week's plans. Eventually, the planning meetings can be eliminated.

skill 2.3 identifying effective classroom practices-#5- in this exercise, you will read short descriptions of teachers classroom practices. Decide whether each one is consistent or not consistent with what you have learned about learning, memory and cognition. justify your decision. Miss Tipton warns Sam, an Avid Reader, that he may be reading too much. She tells him, "I'm afraid that you're mine will get so cluttered with the things that you read that you won't have room in your brain to the things that you need to learn in school."

not consistent. Long-term memory has a capacity that is Unlimited in capacity. Furthermore, a rich knowledge base facilitates meaningful learning and elaboration.

skill 2.3 identifying effective classroom practices-#10- in this exercise, you will read short descriptions of teachers classroom practices. Decide whether each one is consistent or not consistent with what you have learned about learning, memory and cognition. justify your answer. a middle school language arts teacher encourages students to study their new vocabulary words by repeating the definitions over and over to themselves.

not consistent. Rehearsal is a commonly used learning strategy in the Elementary grades, but as a form of rote learning, it is relatively ineffective. Older students are capable of elaboration, a far more effective strategy.

skill 2.3 identifying effective classroom practices-#8- in this exercise, you will read short descriptions of teachers classroom practices. Decide whether each one is consistent or not consistent with what you have learned about learning, memory and cognition. justify your answer. mr. huang is teaching a unit on buoyancy and asks his students why it's easier to to swim in saltwater. marla replies, "it's easier because the salt holds you up." Mr Huang realizes that her understanding of buoyancy isn't quite right but he lets it go because he figures that a more correct understanding will evolve over time.

not consistent. Students are unlikely to correct their misconceptions if they get no feedback that their beliefs are incorrect.

skill 2.3 identifying effective classroom practices-#9- in this exercise, you will read short descriptions of teachers classroom practices. Decide whether each one is consistent or not consistent with what you have learned about learning, memory and cognition. justify your answer. mr. Li's class is studying South America. He has them study a different aspect of the continent each month--the topography in September, the culture in October, major cities in November, economics in December, and so on--so that they won't get all these things confused.

not consistent. Students can probably better understand South America if they see how its various characteristics are related. They will have difficulty recognizing relationships in what they learn if they study different characteristics at different times.

skill 2.3 identifying effective classroom practices-#7- in this exercise, you will read short descriptions of teachers classroom practices. Decide whether each one is consistent or not consistent with what you have learned about learning, memory and cognition. justify your decision. mr. Rangel begins a unit on mountains by telling his class, "before we look at how mountains are formed, I want you to try to erase from your memories anything you think you already know about mountains. Let's all begin as blank slates on this subject and start totally from scratch."

not effective. Students are more effective Learners when they relate new information to what they already know. Mr rAngel is urging his students not to make such meaningful connections.

2.2 - organization

orderly structure shown by living things

logical-mathematical intelligence

potential for deductive reasoning, problem analysis, and mathematical calculation end states- scientist, mathematician

musical intelligence

potential to appreciate, compose, and perform music end states- composer, violinist

intrapersonal intelligence

potential to understand and regulate oneself end states- person with detailed accurate self-knowledge

bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

potential to use mind and body to coordinate physical movement end states- dancer, athlete

Naturalistic

realistic, abilities to recognize plants and animals, to make distinctions in the natural world, to understand systems and Define categories (perhaps even categories of intelligence). end states- botanist, farmer, hunter

exercise 2.1: #4 " thought processes cannot be directly observed."

this statement is characteristic of the behaviorist theory of learning. Behaviorists argued that, because thoughts can't be observed directly, researchers should focus on overt visible behaviors to understand how particular stimuli lead to specific, learned responses. Contrast this approach with the information processing approach, which Thrift in first mental processes and postulates specific mechanisms (e. G., The memory model) to explain those processes.

2.5 teacher roles: resource person

resource people collect, review, and distribute information. Teachers commonly serve this role during student-directed learning activities and through both independent and service learning projects.

exercise 2.1: #7" students who believe they can successfully accomplish a particular task or activity are more likely to be motivated and to achieve their goals."

self-efficacy is an important part of social learning theory.

2.1 learning can be modeled.

social learning theory proposes that students learn by observing appropriate behavior performed by models. For example, students will intentionally imitate procedures that are demonstrated in class, and they will (perhaps unintentionally) imitate teachers' use of grammar and expressions-- both positive and negative. Figure 2.1 shows guidelines for modeling in the classroom. Note, too, that children learn by observing each other and will model their behavior on that of peers they admire.

2.3- model and teach strategies for rewarding successes.

students are more likely to stay on Taos if they are rewarded for reaching sub goals, for example. Rewards can be tangible (e. G., Go out for ice cream after finishing 4 more chapters) or based on feelings of Mastery (e. G., Personal satisfaction).

2.5 student rules : observer

students are observers of their teachers and their parents at all times. When they observe strong positive models, they are likely to develop similar values and behaviors. Observation is less effective in some forms of direct instruction, as when the teacher models a skill that but does not provide an opportunity for students to practice it.

Exercise 2.5: Active Roles in the Classroom: in this video clip, a group of seventh-graders work collaboratively on an inquiry from simple pendulums. Joint meaning-making and opportunities for experimentation encourage the students to correct their misconceptions and develop a conceptual understanding. As you watch the video, consider how the students can the teacher all take an active role in knowledge construction. They answer the questions following. - #2- how does the dialogue between students benefit both the students and the teacher?

students benefit from classroom dialogue in this case because they develop a more conceptual understanding of content. The teacher benefits by being able to monitor students' comments and questions and address any misconceptions, which may interfere with students' acquisition of Knowledge and Skills in the future.

2.5 student roles: collaborator

students collaborate with each other, as in Cooperative learning activities, and in some cases they collaborate with their teachers to plan and Implement activities, rules, or classroom environments. Research suggests that active learning, in which students service collaborators, is effective for increasing motivation and academic achievement.

2.5 teacher roles: disciplinarian

teachers have the ultimate Saiyan determine rules encouraging adherents to them and deciding what to do if they are violated. Effective discipline Arians have well-managed classrooms where students feel they are treated fairly and rule-breaking is rare.

2.5 teacher roles: problem solver

teachers often play this role as part of the classroom management, especially when students have difficulty resolving problems independently. Teachers also serve as reflective problem solvers when evaluating their own performance and planning instructional changes for the future.

2.2- rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

2.2 - elaboration

the formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding. a type of constructive, meaningful learning that typically involves using known information to add details to new information.

2.1 Learners are diverse

the general principles above apply to all learners but teachers also need to be aware of individual differences that can affect learning. Examples include: • students show differences and talents or intelligence. Gardner, for example, proposed the theory of "multiple intelligences," arguing that individuals may have strengths or weaknesses in a variety of different areas, such as linguistic, musical, visual-spatial, or interpersonal skills. Gardner's recommendations for applying this Theory to classroom practice are shown in figure 2.2. ○students show differences in learning styles or preferences. For example, research supports the idea that some students process verbal information easily, whereas others are better at processing visual information. Research also shows that some students process information more holistically ( i. E. Field dependent) whereas others are more analytic (i. E., Field independent) and that some students are more impulsive, whereas others are more reflective. Teachers who respect learning style differences use multiple presentation methods and allow students to choose a preferred method for displaying their knowledge.

exercise 2.1: #1 differentiating among learning theories, identify the learning theory associated with each of the following statements. You may want to review behaviorism, social learning theory, information processing Theory, constructivism and the social cultural theory of learning before you begin. "people learn by watching and imitating what others do."

the ideas are modeling and vicarious learning are characteristic of social learning theory. Social learning theorists focus on the ways in which people learn from observing one another

2.2 - visual imagery encoding

the process of storing new info by converting it into mental pictures

Behaviorism

the science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only

Exercise 2.5: Active Roles in the Classroom: in this video clip, a group of seventh-graders work collaboratively on an inquiry from simple pendulums. Joint meaning-making and opportunities for experimentation encourage the students to correct their misconceptions and develop a conceptual understanding. As you watch the video, consider how the students can the teacher all take an active role in knowledge construction. They answer the questions following. - #3- what does a teacher in this video do when his students misconstruct knowledge? are the teacher's actions effective or not?

the teacher in the video asks his students questions that challenge their existing beliefs. This process is effective, as students must revisit their conclusions and adjust them accordingly. By correcting misconceptions, Educators ensure that students do not continue to build upon faulty beliefs.

table 2.2: promoting effective learning and study strategies - when teaching academic content, simultaneously teach students how to effectively study and remember that content.

when is second-grade teacher presents new spelling words for the week, he asks students to practice writing each word once by itself at once in a sentence. He also asks students to think about how some of the words are spelled similarly to words they already know (e. G., The word down ends in the letters o-w-n. What other words have you learned that end in those letters?") And he teaches his students the mneumonic "i before e except after C..." to help them remember the spellings of such words as believe and receive.

2.3 - certain instructional strategies effective for fostering self regulation.

•assigning complex tasks that have multiple steps. Students then must organize information and manage their time successfully to complete the task. •providing opportunities to work independently. seat work in class allows students to practice new skills in a semi-supervised situation. Homework typically requires students to set their own schedules for completion and often to work without supervision. Voluntary homework projects are very effective for promoting self-regulation. •Assigning term-length projects, perhaps with intermediate deadlines •developing cooperative learning projects that require students to gather their own resources and share them with pears • Linking coursework with authentic activities through community-based learning. Students need to organize their schedules to attend off campus sites and meet authentic deadlines.

2.3 co-regulator - helping students to set appropriate goals, specifically teachers can:

•explain and model how to set reasonable goals. •Provide resources to track progress toward a goal. • provide resources and teach students strategies for self evaluation

Exercise 2.5: Active Roles in the Classroom: in this video clip, a group of seventh-graders work collaboratively on an inquiry from simple pendulums. Joint meaning-making and opportunities for experimentation encourage the students to correct their misconceptions and develop a conceptual understanding. As you watch the video, consider how the students can the teacher all take an active role in knowledge construction. They answer the questions following. - #1- List the ways in which collaboration is on this activity enhance his students understanding of the topic.

•students must clarify and organize their thoughts to share their ideas with others. •Students are exposed to the views of others who might have a more accurate understanding. •Students discover flaws in their own thinking. •Conversation encourages students to internalized ideas. •Students can model effective ways of thinking for each other. •Students are more motivated to participate as their social needs also are being satisfied.

exercise 2.4: teaching organizational skills. consider the following case scenario then answer the questions that follow. Josh, a 10th grader, is having a tough time adjusting to high school. When he does an assignment, he usually receives a good grade. However, far too often, his notebook is Messy and incomplete, and he forgets to do his assignments and to study for his tests. In addition to his classes, Josh participates in extracurricular activities and occasionally works at a local restaurant. He seems to be having difficulty setting priorities and getting organized. His family and teachers, frustrated by his erratic performance, decide that a weekly schedule will help Josh organize his activities and complete his school work. Each Monday, Josh meets with Miss Gates, one of the teachers, to plan his schedule. They divide each day into hourly time slots, list class assignments and tests, and outline after school and home activities as well as job-related assignments. They then determine which activities have specific time commitments and record them in the schedule. Next, they list Josh's weekly assignments and due dates and estimate the amount of time needed to complete them. Josh and Miss Gates then establish priorities and enter the items in the schedule. Finally, they review the schedule to ensure that all activities have been given sufficient time, and that there is a balance among activities. Throughout the week, Miss Gates checks Josh's progress and following the schedule. - #3- what are some other strategies you can use to help students develop the organizational and self-regulatory skills? provide at least three specific examples. some effective strategies are listed you may think of others

•teach students to maintain calendars in which they list their homework exams, long-term assignments in classroom and school activities and encourage them to look at the calendar every day to determine daily activities in plan for long-term projects. •Use class time to review schedules, notebooks, folders and deaths in order to reorganize them and throughout our necessary materials. •give students space in materials in which to store items. For example, give them cartons to organize the desk materials or have them make a simple desk organizers and (see Williamson, 1997). •Teach students to use sticky pads to record self reminders. •Mark a notebook page that is 20 pages from the last sheet to remind students to purchase a new notebook.