Chapter 2-Psychology

Questions such as, "What is the average level of extraversion in this sample?" call for the use of which kind of statistics? a. descriptive b. influential c. deterministic d. inferential

a. descriptive

The only research designs that allow us the possibility of drawing cause-and-effect inferences are a. experimental designs. b. correlational designs. c. naturalistic designs. d. survey methods.

a. experimental designs.

Jorge's classmate arrived late to class and threw her backpack down as she slid into her seat in the third row. Jorge immediately assumed that his classmate was irresponsible and had slept late after a night of partying. Jorge relied on __________ to reach his conclusion. Jorge later found out that his classmate was late because her appointment at the hospital for her cancer treatments had started late. a. reflective thinking b. System 1 thinking c. analytical thinking d. System 2 thinking

b. System 1 thinking

Nobel prize winner Daniel Kahneman refers to intuitive thinking as System 1. What type of thinking does Kahneman refer to as System 2? a. speculative b. analytical c. impressionistic d. descriptive

b. analytical

Descriptive Statistics

numerical characterizations that describe data

Random Selection

procedure that ensures every person in a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate

Random Assignment

randomly sorting participants into two groups

Independent Variable

variable that an experimenter manipulates

Dependent Variable

variable that an experimenter measures to see whether the manipulation produces an effect

Naturalistic Observation

watching behavior in real-world settings without trying to manipulate the situation

Double-Blind

when neither researchers nor participants are aware of who's in the experimental or control group

What does a correlational coefficient of 1.0 mean?

+1.0 is a perfect positive correlation.

What about -1.0?

-1.0 is a perfect negative correlation

Informed Consent

informing research participants of what's involved in a study before asking them to participate

Naturalistic Observation

Experiment in which researchers watch participants' behavior in real-world settings without trying to manipulate their actions adv.-High in external validity dis.-Low in internal validity Doesn't allow us to infer causation

How is experimental research different than descriptive and correlational research (be sure to answer this question with regards to random assignment)?

Experimental design- When performed correctly, they permit cause-and-effect inferences. Correlation research-researchers are measuring preexisting differences in participants, like age, gender, IQ, and extraversion. the differences among participants are measured, but in experimental designs they're created

What is the third variable problem in terms of correlational research?

Its a variable that comes into play when A has nothing to do with B but it is C instead

What about 0.0?

This zero correlation means there's no association whatsoever

The APA Ethical Principles for Human Research indicate that psychologists must take reasonable steps to a. avoid harming participants. b. use human subjects instead of nonhuman animals whenever possible. c. use deceptive techniques. d. ensure accurate data collection.

a. avoid harming participants.

Operational Definition

a working definition of what a researcher is measuring

When evaluating a story about psychology research, we should generally place more confidence in a reputable science journal than a popular magazine. Which phrase encapsulates that idea? a. Consider the source. b. There are two sides to every story. c. Every cloud has a silver lining. d. You get what you pay for.

a. Consider the source.

Dr. Rand conducts a study to determine the relationship between the hours of sleep a student gets the night before an exam and their actual performance on the exam. Dr. Rand graphs her data to make it easier to see the relationship between the two variables. She finds that the two variables are positively correlated. Her data is best represented by a graph with a. a line that slopes up from left to right. b. a line that runs perpendicular to the bottom axis of the graph. c. a line with no slope that runs parallel to the bottom axis of the graph. d. a line that slopes down from left to right.

a. a line that slopes up from left to right.

One primary purpose of sending research articles to peer reviewers prior to publication is to a. identify flaws in the research. b. give everyone an equal chance to publish her or his research. c. maintain leadership among experts in the field. d. give those with opposing views equal time for rebuttal.

a. identify flaws in the research.

Which group at every major American research college and university reviews all research carefully to protect participants against abuses? a. institutional review board b. institutional research bureau c. investigative research board d. investigative review bureau

a. institutional review board

We say that a result has practical significance if it a. makes a difference in the real world. b. results from manipulating a single variable. c. would occur by chance less than 5 times in 100. d. is not statistically significant.

a. makes a difference in the real world.

The two ingredients that make a research study an experiment are 1) random assignment of participants to conditions, and 2) __________. a. manipulation of an independent variable b. manipulation of a dependent variable c. external validity gained through real-world control d. high inter-rater reliability

a. manipulation of an independent variable

Questionnaires fall into which category of measurement tools? a. self-report measures b. interrater reliability measures c. validity measures d. test-retest measures

a. self-report measures

To be sure that we are not fooled by popular media reports about psychology research, we should be on the lookout for a. sharpening and leveling. b. dumbing down. c. the placebo effect. d. deliberate deception.

a. sharpening and leveling.

Clarice has just designed a questionnaire to measure stress in children. She wants to make sure that it truly measures stress and not something like anxiety, fear, or frustration. She is wanting to make sure her measure is a. valid. b. able to be replicated. c. rigorous. d. reliable.

a. valid.

Surveys/Interviews

adv.-Allow us to infer causation High in internal validity dis.-Can sometimes be low in external validity

What is a correlation?

adv.-Can help us to predict behavior dis.-Don't allow us to infer causation

Case Study

adv.-Can provide existence proofs Allow us to study rare or unusual phenomena Can offer insights for later systematic testing dis.-Are typically anecdotal Don't allow us to infer causation

Heuristic

mental shortcut or rule of thumb that helps us to streamline our thinking and make sense of our world

The cases of facilitated communication and lobotomies demonstrate that good research design is important because intelligent, well-trained people __________. a. usually do not conduct experiments b. can be swayed into believing that a treatment is effective when it is not c. can be passively cruel in their pursuit of an outcome d. only seek confirmatory evidence of their beliefs

b. can be swayed into believing that a treatment is effective when it is not

Carlotta wants to determine if achievement is associated with a child's birth order in their family. It would be best if Carlotta conducted a(n) __________ study. a. naturalistic b. correlational c. experimental d. case

b. correlational

A mental shortcut or "rule of thumb" is referred to as a(n) __________ by psychologists. a. intuition b. heuristic c. deliberation d. algorithm

b. heuristic

Because carefully controlled studies generate more trustworthy results, the high internal validity of these studies can lead to a. correlation of causation. b. high external validity. c. further studies. d. lack of falsifiability.

b. high external validity.

The two kinds of statistics used by psychologists are descriptive statistics and __________ statistics. a. ethical b. inferential c. distributed d. variable

b. inferential

The type of thinking that allows us to operate on "autopilot" and make snap decisions is called a. analytical. b. intuitive. c. System 2. d. analogical.

b. intuitive.

Freda is reading a journal article in psychology, and sees that a statistically significant outcome would have occurred by chance alone only 5 out of 100 times. This statement would be summarized in the journal article as a. p > 0.05. b. p < 0.05. c. p = 5%. d. p x 5 = 100.

b. p < 0.05.

The process of soliciting feedback from qualified experts in a research area prior to publishing the results of a research study is called a. vetting for publication. b. peer review. c. editorial correction. d. professional critique.

b. peer review.

The story of how facilitated communication was debunked is a powerful illustration of the triumph of science over a. autism. b. pseudoscience. c. child abuse. d. affliction.

b. pseudoscience.

One important aspect of a research study that peer reviewers consider is whether the study considers alternate explanations. This is called a. diminishing internal validity. b. ruling out rival hypotheses. c. generating counterfactuals. d. rendering external validity.

b. ruling out rival hypotheses.

Which term indicates applying mathematics to describe and analyze data? a. science b. statistics c. research d. information

b. statistics

If subjects' scores on a self-esteem scale are consistent over time, the scale has high __________ reliability. a. interlocutor b. test-retest c. interrater d. Meehl-determinant

b. test-retest

The following scores are obtained when observing reaction time after participants consume alcohol. Data set: 2.4, 3.2, 1.8, 2.9, 10.9, and 3.1. What is the technical term for the 10.9 measure, which lies outside the range of the other scores? a. the range b. a skewer c. an outlier d. a variable

c. an outlier

When we perceive a reliable association between two events (although none exists), such as the presence of rainy weather and arthritis flare-ups, we are experiencing the phenomenon called a. invalid assumption. b. ethical mirage. c. illusory correlation. d. statistical anomaly.

c. illusory correlation.

Prior to participating in a study, Danielle received a form that describes what she is expected to do or encounter during the study. Danielle is participating in a. debriefing. b. scientific method. c. informed consent. d. institutional review.

c. informed consent.

You are wanting to study how people respond to being frightened. You set up a scenario where people who are just turning the corner of the building are met with a realistic-looking snake toy. You record their behavior from the time they see the snake toy to when they finally calm down. This type of study is known as a(n) a. experiment. b. self-report. c. naturalistic observation. d. case study.

c. naturalistic observation.

Analytical thinking is __________ compared to intuitive thinking. a. heuristic b. immediate c. slow d. painful

c. slow

Mark Twain referred to three kinds of untruths: "Lies, damned lies, and statistics," because a. descriptive statistics are generally wrong. b. inferential statistics are generally wrong. c. statistics sometimes can be used to mislead people. d. statisticians are generally unethical.

c. statistics sometimes can be used to mislead people.

A central issue in considering medical and psychological research using nonhuman animals is balancing the advances gained through such experimentation against a. the backlash of animal rights activists. b. the exorbitant financial costs of animal research. c. the costs in death and suffering they produce for the test subjects. d. possibly negative publicity focused on the research center.

c. the costs in death and suffering they produce for the test subjects.

Reliability

consistency of measurement

Which term refers to the type of descriptive statistic that tells us where the scores tend to cluster in a set of measurements? a. measure of range b. variability c. standard deviation d. central tendency

d. central tendency

Demand Characteristics

cues that participants pick up from a study that allow them to generate guesses regarding the researcher's hypotheses

Bruno is asked to estimate which California city occupies a greater area: San Francisco or San Jose. "San Francisco is a big city," he muses, "whereas San Jose is out in the suburbs. San Francisco must be bigger." In actuality, San Francisco occupies about 48 square miles, compared to San Jose's 180 square miles. Bruno was mislead because he relied on a. System 2 thinking. b. hegemony. c. an algorithm. d. a heuristic.

d. a heuristic.

Sherri wants to design a self-report measure for her study of personality traits, but she knows she should be concerned that respondents might distort their answers, especially to paint themselves in a positive light. This tendency is known as __________. a. a legitimacy set b. the mediator effect c. the halo effect d. a response set

d. a response set

Dr. Sardonicus is designing a case study in order to demonstrate that a particular psychological phenomenon actually happens. Case studies can be useful in providing this kind of demonstration, also known as a. internal validity. b. peer review. c. external validity. d. existence proof.

d. existence proof.

You want to design a study that will be high in internal validity and will allow you to infer causation. Which research design should you use? a. correlational design b. case studies c. naturalistic observation d. experimental design

d. experimental design

Dr. Ingo Larsen is testing the effectiveness of a new memory-enhancing study technique. He greets each participant at the door and escorts them into either the control group (that receives the old memory technique) or the experimental group (that receives the new memory technique). He then conducts the experiment and analyzes the results. This is all quite problematic, because of the potential presence of a. nocebo outcomes. b. rival hypotheses. c. sharpening and leveling. d. experimenter expectancy effects.

d. experimenter expectancy effects.

When a politician makes the statement that the average tax return will be $5,000 for citizens of her state, we should be suspicious of her statistics. It would be more meaningful to report the __________ as a a. measure of central tendency. b. highest and lowest refunds average of refunds in all similar states c. refund of an individual "typical" taxpayer d. median or mode

d. median or mode

The media reports that new research shows cell phone usage is associated with tumor formation in the brain just above the ear. In the report, they describe the research findings and then publish interviews with three local cell phone distributors who voice concerns about how the study was conducted and who provided the primary funding for the study. This results in a. leveling. b. the placebo effect. c. balanced reporting. d. pseudosymmetry.

d. pseudosymmetry.

Megan wanted to get a measure of the amount of variability in her set of data, so she subtracted the lowest score from the highest score. Megan computed the a. standard of deviation. b. inferential. c. integral. d. range.

d. range.

Arno did a study to demonstrate the relationship between age and intellect. To best represent his data, Arno should use a a. truncated line graph. b. distribution curve. c. bar graph. d. scatterplot.

d. scatterplot.

In the popular media (as opposed to scientific journals), research results can be presented in a misleading way because reporters have the tendency to exaggerate the gist or central message of the study. This is called a. leveling. b. dumbing down. c. oversimplifying. d. sharpening.

d. sharpening.

What defines an experimental and control group?

experimental group; this group receives the manipulation. control group; this group doesn't receive the manipulation.

Validity

extent to which a measure assesses what it purports to measure

Internal Validity

extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study

External Validity

extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings

Scatterplot

grouping of points on a two-dimensional graph in which each dot represents a single person's data

Placebo Effect

improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement

Control Group

in an experiment, the group of participants that does not receive the manipulation

Experimental Group

in an experiment, the group of participants that receives the manipulation

What about an independent and dependent variable?

independent variable is the variable the experimenter manipulates. dependent variable is the variable that the experimenter measures to see whether this manipulation has produced an effect.

Inferential Statistics

mathematical methods that allow us to determine whether we can generalize findings from our sample to the full population

Illusory Correlation

perception of a statistical association between two variables where none exists

Experimenter Expectancy Effect

phenomenon in which researchers' hypotheses lead them to unintentionally bias the outcome of a study

Experiment

research design characterized by random assignment of participants to conditions and manipulation of an independent variable

Case Study

research design that examines one person or a small number of people in depth, often over an extended time period

Correlational Design

research design that examines the extent to which two variables are associated

Response Set

tendency of research participants to distort their responses to questionnaire items