Chapter 20: The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform

England had brought Ireland under direct rule in 1800 , abolishing the separate Irish Parliament and allowing the Irish to elect members to the British Parliament. Irish nationalists wanted independence or at least more self-government. The "___ ___" would haunt Britain for the next two centuries.

"Irish problem"

The wartime footing had allowed all the belligerent governments to exercise firm control over their populations. War furnished vast areas of employment in armies, military industries, and agriculture. The onset of peace meant citizens could raise new political issues and that economies were no longer geared to supplying military needs. The young were no longer growing up in a climate of war and could think about other issues. The conservative statesmen who led every major government after ___ confronted new pressures

1815

In the years after the Congress of Vienna, the new congress system of mutual cooperation functioned well. The first congress took place in 1818 at ___ in Germany near Belgium. As a result of the gathering, the four major powers removed their troops from France which had paid its war reparations. Tsar Alexander I suggested that the Quadruple Alliance agree to uphold the borders and the existing governments of all European countries. Castereagh rejected the proposal.

Aix-la-Chapelle

Although liberalism and nationalism were not identical, they were often compatible. By espousing representative government, civil liberties, and economic freedom, nationalist groups in one country could gain the support of liberals elsewhere in Europe who might not otherwise share their nationalist interests. Many nationalists in Germany, Italy, and much of the Austrian Empire adopted this tactic. Nationalists in Greece made ____ their capital because they believed it would associate their struggle for independence with ancient Athenian democracy which English and French liberals revered

Athens

The uprising and its demand for social reforms united all conservative political groups in Mexico, both Creole and Spanish. These groups opposed reform that might diminish their privileges. However, the revolution in Spain already forced Ferdinand VII to accept a liberal constitution. Conservative Mexicans feared the new liberal monarchy would attempt to impose liberal reforms on Mexico. They rallied behind a former royalist general, ____ who declared Mexico independent of Spanish rule in 1821. He was declared emperor of Mexico which was governed by groups determined to resist significant social reform.

Augustin de Iturbide

In the German states and Austria, monarchs and aristocrats offered stiffer resistance to liberal ideas. A sharp social divide separated the aristocratic landowning classes which filled the bureaucracies and officer corps, from the small middle-class commercial and industrial interests. Little or no precedent existed for middle-class participation in the government or the military and there was no strong tradition of civil or individual liberty. Most German liberals favored a united Germany and looked to _____ or ____ as the instrument of unification. As a result, they were more tolerant of a strong state and monarchical power than other liberals. They believed unification would lead to a freer social and political order. The monarchies in Austria and Prussia refused to cooperate with these dreams of unification, forcing German liberals to settle for more modest achievements such as lowering internal trade barriers.

Austria Prussia

Polish nationalists, targeting primarily their Russian rulers, struggled to restored Poland as an independent nation. In eastern Europe, other nation groups like Hungarians, Czechs, Slovenes, and others sought either independence or formal recognition with the ____ ____

Austrian Empire

German nationalists sought political unity for all German-speaking peoples, challenging the multinational structure of the Austrian empire and pitting Prussia and Austria against each other. Italian nationalists sought to unify Italian-speaking peoples on the Italian peninsula and to drive out the ____

Austrians

To widen their bases of political support, the monarchs of three southern German states: ____, ____, and ___ had granted constitutions after 1815. None however recognized popular sovereignty and defined political rights as the gift of the monarch. Many young Germans continued to cherish nationalist and liberal expectations. University students read writings of early German nationalists. Many of them or their friends had fought Napoleon. They formed Burschenschaften of student associations

Baden Bavaria Wurttemberg

Bolivar deliberately allowed the political situation in Peru to fall into confusion and in 1823, he sent in troops to establish his control. In 1824, at the ____, the liberating army crushed the main Spanish royalist forces. This battled marked the end of Spain's effort to retain its South American empire.

Battle of Ayucucho

In 1816, with help from Haiti, Bolivar returned to the continent. He first captured ___, capital of New Granada (including modern Colombia, Bolivia, and Ecuador), to secure a base for an attack on Venezuela. By 1821, his forces captured Caracas and he was named president.

Bogota

In 1819 Metternich persuaded the major German states to issue the ____ ____ which dissolved the Burschenschaften. The decrees also provided for university inspectors and press censors. The next year, the German Confederation issued the Final Act which limited the subjects that the constitutional chambers of Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden could discuss. The measure asserted the rights of the monarchs to resist demands of constitutionalists. Secret police of the German states harassed political dissenters seeking even moderate social or political change

Carlsbad Decrees

After the passage of the Six Acts, the ___ ____ ____ was unearthed. Under the guidance of a possibly demented man named Arthur Thristlewood, a group of extreme radicals had plotted to blow up the entire British cabinet. The plot was foiled and the leaders were arrested and tried and five were hanged.

Cato Street Conspiracy

The Charter provided for a hereditary monarchy and a bicameral legislature. The monarch appointed the upper house, the ______ modeled on the British House of Lords. A narrow franchise with a high property qualification elected the lower house, the ______

Chamber of Peers Chamber of Deputies

When Louis XVIII died in 1824, his brother, the count of Artois, the leader of the ultraroyalist faction, succeeded him as ____. The new king believed in divine right

Charles X

After the abdication of Napoleon in 1814, the new Bourbon king was the former count of Provence and a brother of Louis XVI. Royalists had regarded Louis XVI'S deceased son as Louis XVII and so his uncle became Louis XVIII. He understood that he could not turn the clock back to 1789 so he agreed to become a constitutional monarch but under a constitution of his own making called the ____

Charter

In 1816, an unruly mass meeting took place at Spa Fields near London. This unruly disturbance gave Parliament an excuse to pass the ___ ___ of 1817 which temporarily suspended habeas corpus and extended existing laws against seditious gatherings

Coercion Acts

Between 1791 and 1803, the French colony of Haiti achieved independence. It was sparked by policies of the French Revolution overflowing into the New World Empire. The Haitian Revolution demonstrated that slaves of African origin could lead a revolt against white masters and mulatto freemen. The revolution terrified slaveholders throughout the Americas. The French colonial masters frequently used racial divisions between black slaves and mulatto freemen to their own political advantage. The French National Assembly in 1791 decreed that free property-owning mulattoes on Haiti should enjoy the same rights as white plantation owners. The __ ___ in Haiti resisted the orders from France.

Colonial Assembly

In 1799 the ___ ___ outlawed workers' organizations or unions. During the war, wage protection had been removed.

Combination Acts

At the Congress of Vienna, Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain agreed to consult with each other from time to time on matters affecting Europe. As differences arose among the powers, the consultations became more informal. This new arrangement for resolving mutual foreign policy issues was known as the ________. It prevented one nation from taking a major action in international affairs without obtaining the assent of others. The main goal was to maintain the balance of power against new French aggression and against the military might of Russia.

Concert of Europe

Early 19th century nationalism opposed the principle upheld at the ______ that legitimate monarchies or dynasties rather than ethnicity provide the basis for political unity. Nationalists protested multinational states such as the Austrian and Russian empires. They objected to peoples of the same ethnic group, Germans and Italians, dwelling in political unit smaller than that of the ethnic nation.

Congress of Vienna

The execution of King Louis XVI at the hands of radical democrats convinced most monarchs they could trust only aristocratic governments or governments of aristocrats in alliance with the wealthiest middle class people. All conservatives spurned the idea of a written constitution unless they were permitted to write the document themselves. Some even then rejected the concept. The Church feared and hated most of the ideas associated with the Enlightenment because those rational concepts and reformist writings undermined revealed religion.

Conservative outlooks

After 1815, Great Britain experienced two years of poor harvests. Discharged soldiers and out-of-work industrial workers swelled the ranks of the unemployed. In 1815, Parliament passed a ____ ____ to maintain high prices for domestically produced grain by levying import duties on foreign grain. The next year, Parliament replaced the income tax that only the wealthy paid with excise or sales taxes on consumer goods that both wealthy and poor paid.

Corn Law

Between 1804 and 1824, France was driven from Haiti, Portugal lost control of Brazil, and Spain was forced to withdraw from all its American empire except ___ and ___.

Cuba Puerto Rico

Nicholas ordered the cavalry and the artillery to attack the insurgents. 60+ people were killed. In 1826, Nicholas presided over the commission that investigated the ___ ___ and the secret army societies. 5 of the plotters were executed and 100+ were exiled to Siberia. The instigators of the revolt wanted a constitutional government and the abolition of serfdom.

Decembrist Revolt

In 1820, a revolution occurred in Portugal and its leaders demanded Joao's return to Lisbon. They also demanded the return of Brazil to colonial status. Joao, who had become King Joao VI in 1816, returned to Portugal but left his son ____ as regent in Brazil and encouraged him to be sympathetic to the political aspirations of the Brazilians. In 1822, ___ embraced the cause of Brazilian independence against the recolonizing efforts of Portugal. He had become emperor of an independent Brazil, which remained a monarchy under his son ____.

Dom Pedro Dom Pedro II

Ottoman weakness and instability troubled European diplomacy throughout the 19th century, raising what was known as "the ____ ____": What should the European powers do about the Ottoman inability to assure political and administrative stability in its possessions in and around the eastern Mediterranean? Mot of the major powers had a interest in those territories. Russia and Austria coveted land in the Balkans. Another issue was the treatment of the Christian inhabitants in the empire. The goals of the great powers conflicted with the desire for independence of the national groups in the Ottoman Empire. Yet, because the powers had little desire to strengthen the empire, they were often more sympathetic to nationalistic aspirations there than elsewhere in Europe.

Eastern Question

The major pillars of 19th century conservatism were legitimate monarchies, landed aristocracies, and established churches. The institutions themselves were ancient but the self-conscious alliance of throne, land, and altar was new. In the 18th century, these groups often quarreled. Only the French Revolution and upheaval of Napoleonic era transformed them into natural allies. The more theoretical political and religious ideas of the conservative classes were associated with thinkers such as ____ and ____

Edmund Burke Friedrich Hegel

In fact, it was nationalists who created nations in the 19th century. A group of nationalistically minded writers during the early part of the century established a national literature by scholars who established a national literature by collecting and publishing earlier writings in the people's language. They gave a people a sense of their past and a literature of their own. Schoolteachers spread nationalistic ideas by imparting a nation's official language and history.

Emergence of nationalism

When the Bourbon ____ of Spain was placed on his throne after Napoleon's downfall, he had promised to govern according to a constitution. Once in power, he ignored the pledge, dissolved the Cortes (parliament), and ruled alone. In 1820, army officers who were about to be sent to suppress revolution in Spain's Latin American colonies rebelled. Once again, Ferdinand announced he would abide by the provisions of the constitution. The revolution had succeeded.

Ferdinand VII

In 1815, _____, caught up in the exhilaration that followed the War of Liberation as Germans called the last part of their conflict with Napoleon, had promised some form of constitutional government. Instead, he created a new Council of State which although it improved administrative efficiency, was responsible to him alone.

Frederick William III

The final postwar congress took place in 1822 at Verona. It primary purpose was to resolve the situation in Spain. Britain balked at joint action. Shortly before the meeting Castereagh had committed suicide. ____, the new foreign minister, was much less sympathetic to Metternich's goals. At Verona, Britain in effect withdrew from continental affairs. Austria, Russia, and Prussia agreed to support French intervention in Spain. In 1823, a French army suppressed the Spanish revolution. French troops remained in Spain to prop up Ferdinand until 1827. The great powers authorized these interventions to preserve/ restore conservative regimes, not to conquer territories.

George Canning

Spain and Great Britain attempted to intervene in Haitian events to expand their own influence in the Caribbean. Both were opposed to the end of the end of slavery and coveted Haiti's sugar-producing lands. Toussaint L'Ouverture and his force of ex-slaves supported the French against the Spanish and the British. By 1800, his army achieved dominance throughout the island of Hispaniola, He imposed an authoritarian constitution on Haiti and made himself ___-___ for life but preserved formal ties with France.

Governor-General

When Napoleon was at war with Britain in 1803, he decided to abandon his American empire, selling Louisiana and withdrawing his forces from Haiti. The Haitian rebellion became the first successful assault on colonial government in Latin America. France formally recognized Haitian independence in 1804

Haitian independence

To safeguard dynastic integrity, Austria had to dominate the newly formed German Confederation to prevent the formation of a German national state that might absorb the German-speaking heart of the empire and exclude the other realms the Habsburgs governed.The Congress of Vienna had created the German Confederation to replace the defunct ____ ___ __. It consisted of 39 states under Austrian leadership. Each state remained more or less autonomous. Austria was determined to prevent any constitutionalism

Holy Roman Empire

The French government under Napoleon distrusted L'Ouverture and feared that his example would undermine French authority elsewhere in the Caribbean and North America. In 1802, Napoleon sent an army to Haiti and captured L'Ouverture who was sent back to France where he died in prison. Other Haitian military leaders of slave origin including ____ continued to resist.

Jean-Jacques Dessalines

The Portuguese royal family along with government officials and members of the court, fled to Brazil in 1807. Their arrival turned Rio de Janeiro into a royal city. The prince regent ___ addressed many of the local complaints. In 1815, he made Brazil a kingdom which meant it was no longer to be regarded as a colony of Portugal. This change was overdue since Brazil was larger and more prosperous than Portugal.

Joao

In 1811, Father Hidalgo was captured and executed. Leadership of his movement then fell to ____, a mestizo priest. Far more radical, he called for an end to forced labor and land reforms. He was executed in 1815.

Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon

These early defeats did not discourage the Buenos Aires government which was determined to liberate Peru, the stronghold of royalist power and loyalty of the continent. By 1817, ____, the leading general of the Rio de la Plata forces, led an army in a march over the Andes mountains and occupied Santiago in Chile where the Chilean independence leader Bernardo O'Higgins was established as the supreme dictator.

Jose de San Martin

Since the late 18th century, Serbia had sought independence from the Ottoman Empire. During the Napoleonic wars, its fate had been linked to Russian policy and Russian relations with the Ottoman Empire. Between 1804 and 1813, a Serbian leader, _____, had led a guerrilla war against the Ottomans. Although unsuccessful, this revolution helped build national self-identity and attracted the interest of the great powers.

Kara George

In 1819, a student named ______, a Burschenschaft member, assassinated the conservative dramatist August von Kotzebue who ridiculed the Burschenschaft movement. Sand was tried and executed, becoming a nationalist martyr. Metternich used the incident to suppress institutions associated with liberalism

Karl Sand

The early 19th century statesman who more than any other epitomized conservatism was the Austrian prince ________. To no other country were the programs of liberalism and nationalism potentially more dangerous. Germans, Hungarians, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Italians, Croats, and other ethnic groups peopled the Habsburg domains. Through client governments, Austria also dominated those parts of the Italian peninsula. For Metternich and other Austrian officials, the recognition of the political rights and aspirations of any of the national groups would mean the dissolution of the empire. If Austria permitted the representative government, Metternich feared the national group would fight their battles internally at the cost of Austria's national influence.

Klemens von Metternich

From Santiago, San Martin organized a fleet that in 1820 carried his army by sea to Peru. The next year, San Martin drove royalist forces from ___ and became Protector of Peru

Lima

The famous English poet, George Gordon or ____ ___ was one of many European liberals who went to Greece to aid the cause of its independence. He died there in 1824. His association with liberal causes indicated that Romantic writers who often supported conservatism could also embrace liberal movements.

Lord Byron

Nationalism wasn't logically linked to liberalism. Indeed, it often was opposed to liberal political values. Some nationalists wanted their own particular ethnic group to dominate minority national or ethnic groups within a particular region. This was true of the ___ who sought political control over non-____ peoples living within the historical boundaries of Hungary. Nationalists often defined their own national group in opposition to other national groups whom they might regard as cultural inferiors or historical enemies. Conservative nationalists might seek political autonomy for their own ethnic group but have no intention of establishing liberal political institutions thereafter

Magyar

Creole priest ____ in 1810 issued a call for rebellion to the Indians in his parish. They and other repressed groups- blacks, mestizos, urban and royal workers- responded. He set forth a program of social reform including changes in landholding. He stood at the head of a loosely organized group of followers who captured several major cities and then marched on Mexico City.

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla

In 1815 and 1816, a new leader, _____ succeeded in negotiating greater administrative autonomy for only some Serbian territory. In 1830, the Ottoman sultan formally granted independence to Serbia, and by the late 1830s, the major powers granted it diplomatic recognition. Serbia's political structure, however, remained in doubt for many years.

Milos Obrenovitch

George Canning intended to take advantage of these South American revolutions to break Spain's old trading monopoly with its colonies and gain access for Britain to Latin American trade. He supported the American ___ __ in 1823 which prohibited further colonization and intervention by European powers in the Americas. Britain soon recognized the Spanish colonies as independent states. Through the rest of the century, British commercial interests dominated Latin America. Canning is said to have ended the War of Jenkins's Ear.

Monroe Doctrine

Great Britain already had a limited monarchy and most individual liberties were secured. With reform, Parliament could provide more nearly representative government. France already had structures liberals favored. The ______ ____ gave France a modern legal system. French liberals could justify calls for greater rights by appealing to the widely accepted "principle of 1789." The problem for liberals in both countries was to protect civil liberties, define the representative powers of the monarch and the elected legislature, and expand the electorate moderately while avoiding democracy.

Napoleonic Code

The Congress of Vienna was followed by a decade in which conservative political forces controlled virtually all of Europe. These forces sought to maintain peace and the authority of monarchs and aristocracies after turmoil of French Revolution and Napoleon. ____ wished to redraw the boundaries of nationalities or ethnic groups. ____ sought moderate political reform and freer economic markets.

Nationalists Liberals

In 1825, Tsar Alexander I died unexpectedly. He had no direct heir. His brother Constantine, the next in line and the commander of the Russian forces in occupied Poland, had married a woman who was not of royal blood. He had thus excluded himself from the throne and was willing to renounce any claim to it. Through a series of secret instructions, Alexander made his younger brother, ____, as the new tsar

Nicholas

Another secret society, the ____ was more moderate. It favored constitutional monarchy and the abolition of serfdom, but wanted to protect the interests of the aristocracy. Both societies were small and often in conflict with each other.

Northern Society

In place of reform, Nicholas and his advisers embraced a program called ___ ___. Presiding over this program was Count S.S. Uvarov, minister of education. Its slogan was "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationalism." The Russian Orthodox Church was to provide the basis for morality, education, and intellectual life. Since the days of Peter the Great, it was an arm of the secular government and controlled schools and universities. Young Russians were taught to accept their place in life and reject social mobility. Autocracy meant the unrestrained power of the tsar. Political writers stressed that only under the autocracy of Peter the Great, Catherine the Great, and Alexander I had Russia prospered and exerted a major influence in world affairs.

Official Nationality

In 1830, after news of the French and Belgian revolutions of that summer had reached Poland, an insurrection of soldiers and students broke out in Warsaw. The Polish diet declared the revolution a nationalist movement. The diet deposed Nicholas as king of Poland. The tsar sent troops into the country and suppressed the revolt. In 1832, Nicholas issued the ___ ___, declaring Poland to be an integral part of the Russian Empire. Although it granted certain Polish liberties, in practice, the Russian government ignored them.

Organic Stature

In politics, conservatism is the desire to maintain, or conserve, the existing order. Conservatives value the wisdom of the past and are generally opposed to widespread reform. Modern political conservatism emerged in the nineteenth cent. in reaction to the political and social changes associated with the eras of the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. By 1850 the term conservatism, probably first used by Chateaubriand, generally meant the politics of the right. The original tenets of European conservatism had already been formulated by Edmund Burke, Joseph de Maistre, and others. They emphasized preserving the power of king and aristocracy, maintaining the influence of landholders against the rising industrial bourgeoisie, limiting suffrage, and continuing ties between church and state.

Origin of Conservatism

In 1830, a second Treaty of London declared Greece an independent kingdom. Two years later, ___, the son of the king of Bavaria was chosen to be the first king of the new Greek kingdom.

Otto I

In southeastern Europe on the Balkan peninsula and eastward, national groups including Serbs, Greeks, Albanians, Romanians, and Bulgarians sought independence from ____ and ____ control

Ottoman Russian

In 1819 there was a meeting in the city of Manchester at Saint Peter's Fields demanding the reform of Parliament. Royal troops and the local militia were on hand. As the speeches were about to begin, a local magistrate ordered the militia to move into the audience. The result was panic and death. At least 11 people in the crowd were killed. The event became known as the ___ ___ which drew comparison to Wellington's victory at Waterloo. Most of the radical leaders were imprisoned.

Peterloo Massacre

In light of these policies and the postwar economic downturn, it's hardly surprising that the lower social orders of Great Britain began to doubt the wisdom of their rulers and to demand political changes. Mass meetings called for the reform of Parliament, Radical newspapers like William Cobbett's ___ ___ demanded change. The government only saw images of sans-culottes ready to hang aristocrats in the hungry agricultural and industrial workers.

Political Registrar

Many in the taxpaying classes wanted to abolish the ___ __ that provided public relief for the destitute and unemployed.

Poor Law

Creole leaders read the Enlightenment philosophes and regarded their reforms as potentially beneficial to the region. Napoleon invaded ____ in 1897 and made his brother king of Spain in 1808. The Portuguese royal family fled to Brazil and established its government there, but the Bourbon monarchy of Spain had, for the time being, been overthrown. That situation created an imperial political vacuum throughout Spanish Latin American and gave Creole leaders both the opportunity and the necessity to act.

Portugal

Metternich turned to the other powers for support. Led by Tsar Alexander, the members of the Holy Alliance issued the _____. This declaration asserted the stable governments might intervene to restore order in countries experiencing revolution. Yet even Russia hesitated to authorize Austrian intervention in Italian affairs. A decision was reached in 1821. Austrian troops marched into Naples and restored the absolutist rule of the king of the Two Sicilies.

Protocol of Troppau

In 1822 the armies of San Martin and Bolivar joined as they moved to liberate ___, the capital of what is today Ecuador. At a meeting in Guayaquil, the two liberators disagreed about the future political structure of Latin America. San Martin believed the peoples of the region required monarchies; Bolivar maintained his republicanism. After the meeting, San Martin retired from public life and went into exile in Europe.

Quito

The first region to assert itself was the ____ or modern Argentina. The center of revolt was the city of Buenos Aires whose citizens, as early as 1806, had fought off a British invasion and thus had learned they could protect themselves rather than have to rely on Spain. In 1810, the junta in Buenos Aires thrust off Spanish authority and sent forces into Paraguay and Uruguay to liberate them from Spain. These armies were defeated but Spain lost control of both areas. Paraguay asserted its own independence. Brazil took over Uruguay.

Rio de la Plata

In 1833, Milos, now a hereditary prince, pressured the Ottoman authorities to extend the borders of Serbia which they did. These new boundaries persisted until 1878. Serbian leaders continued to seek additional territory, creating tensions with Austria. The status of minorities like Muslims within Serbian territory was a problem. In the 1820s, ____, which like Serbia was a Slav state and Eastern Orthodox in religion, became Serbia's formal protector. In 1856, it came under the protection of the great powers.

Russia

While the army of San Martin had been liberating the southern portion of the continent, ______ had been pursuing a similar task in the north.He had been involved in the organization of a liberating junta in Caracas, Venezuela, in 1810. He was a firm advocate of both independence and a republic.

Simon Bolivar

In 1819, Parliament passed a series of laws called the ___ ___ which forbade large unauthorized public meetings, raised the fines for seditious libel, speeded up the trials of political agitators, increased newspaper taxes, prohibited the training of armed groups, and allowed local officials to search homes in certain disturbed counties.

Six Acts

On the South American continent, the Creole elite- merchants, landowners, and professional people of Spanish descent- led the movements against Spain and Portugal. Few Native Americans, blacks, mestizos, mulattoes, or slaves became involved in or benefited from the end of Iberian rule. The Creoles were determined that any drive for political independence from Spain and Portugal should not cause social disruption or the loss of their privileges.

South American revolutions

As Russian forces drove Napoleon's army across Europe and then occupied and defeated France, many Russian officers were exposed to the ideas of the French Revolution and Enlightenment. Some, realizing how economically backward and politically stifled their country remained, developed reformist sympathies. They formed secret societies. One of these, the _____, led by an officer named Pestel, advocated representative government and the abolition of serfdom. Pestel favored limited independence for Poland and democracy

Southern Society

Constantine acknowledged Nicholas as the tsar. Once Alexander was dead, the legality of these instructions became uncertain. During this family muddle, continued and Russia had no ruler. The army command told Nicholas about a conspiracy among officers. Nicholas declared himself as tsar. Junior officers had plotted to rally the troops under their command to the cause of reform. In 1825, the army was to take the oath of allegiance to Nicholas who was less popular than Constantine and regarded as more conservative. Most regiments took the oath but the Moscow regiment marched into the Senate Square in ____ and refused to swear allegiance. They called for a constitution and Constantine as tsar.

St. Peterburg

Nicholas came to symbolize the most extreme form of 19th century autocracy. He knew economic growth and social improvement in Russia required reform, but he was afraid of change. In 1842, he told his ___ ___"there is no doubt that serfdom in its present form is an evil, yet to attempt to remedy it would be an evil more disastrous. Removing serfdom would undermine the nobles' support for the tsar.

State Coucil

In 1791, a salve rebellion shook Haiti. Francois-Dominique ____ ____, a former slave, emerged as its leader. Although the slave rebellion collapsed, mulattoes and free black people on Haiti, who hoped to gain the rights the French National Assembly promised, took up arms against the white colonial masters. French officials sent by the revolutionary government backed them. Slaves now came to the aid of an invading French force and in 1793, the French abolished slavery in Haiti.

Tousaint L'Ouverture

In 1828, Russia sent troops into the Ottoman holdings in what is today Romania, ultimately gaining control of that territory in 1829 with the ____. The treaty also stipulated the Turks would allow Britain, France, and Russia to decide the future of Greece.

Treaty of Adrianople

Eventually, Britain, France, and Russia concluded that independent Greece would benefit their strategic interests and would not threaten their domestic security. In 1827, they signed the ____, demanding Turkish recognition of Greek independence and sent a joint fleet to support the Greek revolt.

Treaty of London

Tsar Alexander I had come to the throne in 1801 after a palace coup against his father ___. After flirting with Enlightenment ideas, Alexander turned permanently away from reform. At home and abroad, he suppressed liberalism and nationalism.

Tsar Paul

In 1820, revolution erupted in Naples where the king of the ___ ___ quickly accepted a constitution. There were other, lesser revolts in Italy but none succeeded. These events scared Metternich. Austria hoped to dominate the peninsula to provide a buffer against the spread of revolution on its own southern flank Britain opposed joined intervention in either Italy or Spain.

Two Sicilies

In the months after Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo, royalists in the south and west carried out a ___ ___ against former revolutionaries and supporters of the deposed emperor.

White Terror

Literary and political censorship and a widespread system of surveillance by secret police flourished throughout his reign. His only significant reform was a ___ of Russian law published in 1833

codification

RESPONSIBLE constitutional government existed nowhere in Europe in 1815. Even in Great Britain, the cabinet ministers were at least as responsible to the monarch as to the House of Commons. ____ were suspicious of written constitutions, associating them with the French Revolution and Napoleon. They were also certain that no written constitution could embody all the political wisdom needed to govern a state

conservatives

Conservatives were often educated, relatively wealthy people. Liberal were often academics, members of the learned professions, and people involved in the rapidly expanding commercial and manufacturing segments of the economy. They believed in and were products of a career open to talent. The monarchical and aristocratic regimes as restored after the Congress of Vienna, often failed both to recognize their new status sufficiently and to provide for their economic and professional interests

conservatives and liberals

19th century liberals derived their political ideas from writers of the Enlightenment. They sought to establish a political framework of legal equality, religious toleration, and freedom of the press. Their general goal was a political structure that would limit the arbitrary power of government against the persons a d property of individual citizens.The basis of government was to be expressed through elected representative or parliamentary bodies. Most importantly, free government required government ministers to be responsible to the representatives rather than to the monarch. Liberals sought ____ and constitutional governments installed across the Continent.

constitutionalism

Even in 1850, less than half of the inhabitants of France spoke the official French language. Language could become an effective cornerstone in the foundation of nationalism thanks to the print culture. The presence of printed books fixed language in a more permanent fashion. This uniform language found in printed works could overcome regional spoken dialects and establish itself as dominant. Spoken and written proficiency in the official language became a path to social advancement

creating nations

Liberals did not advocate _____. What they wanted was to extend representation to the propertied classes. Second only to their hostility to the privileged aristocracies was their contempt the lower, unpropertied classes. By the middle of the century, European liberals had separated themselves from both the rural peasant and urban working class.

democracy

Most of Poland was partitioned in late 18th century. It remained under Russian domination after the Congress of Vienna but was granted a constitutional government with a parliament called the __ that had limited powers. Under this arrangement, the tsar also reigned as king of Poland. The Grand Duke Constantine, brother of Alexander and Nicholas was delegated to run Poland's government. Polish nationalists still wanted change

diet

In 1823, Frederick William III established eight provincial estates or ____. These bodies were dominated by the Junkers and exercised only an advisory function. The old bonds linking monarchy, army, and landholders in Prussia had been reestablished. The members of this alliance would oppose the threats the German nationalists posed to the conservative and political order.

diets

In 1820, the _____, son of the count of Artois and heir to the throne after his father, was murdered by an assassin. The ultraroyalists persuaded Louis XVIII that the murder was the result of his ministers' cooperation with liberal politicians. New electoral laws gave wealthy electors two votes. Press censorship was imposed. The government placed secondary education under the control of the bishops. By the early 1820s, liberals were being driven out of politics and into a near illegal status

duke of Berri

The goals of nationalists and liberals threatened the dominance of landed aristocracies and the rule of monarchs who governed by ____ inheritance rather than by nationality.

dynastic

The manufacturers of Great Britain, the landed and manufacturing middle class of France, and the commercial interests of Germany and Italy following the Enlightenment ideas of Adam Smith sought to abolish the economic restraints associated with mercantilism or the regulated economies of enlightened absolutists. They favored the removal of international tariffs. They opposed the old paternalistic legislation that established wages and labor practices by government regulation or by guild privileges. They saw labor as one more commodity to be bought and sold freely

economic liberals

The 19th century was the great age of "____." Secular ideologies began to take hold of learned population: nationalism, liberalism, republicanism, socialism, communism.

isms

The Creole elite feared a liberal Napoleonic monarchy in Spain would attempt to impose reforms in Latin American that would harm their economic and social interests. They feared a French-controlled Spain would try to drain the region of the wealth and resources Napoleon needed for his wars. To protect their interests and to seize the opportunity to direct their own political destiny, between 1808 and 1810 Creole ___ or political committees claimed the right to govern different regions of Latin America. Many insincerely declared they were ruling in the name of the deposed Spanish Bourbon monarch Ferdinand VII. The establishment of the ___ ended the privileges of the peninsulares whose welfare depended on the favors of the Spanish crown. Creoles now took over positions in the government and army.

juntas

The world _____ as applied to political activity entered the European and American vocabulary during the 19th century. 19th century European conservatives regarded the word as anyone or anything that challenged their own political, social, or religious values

liberal

Between 1811 and 1814, civil war broke out throughout Venezuela as both royalists, one one hand, and slaves and ____ (Venezuelan cowboys) on the other , challenged the authority of the republican government. Bolivar had to go into exile first in Colombia and then in Jamaica.

llaneros

As a political outlook, ____ was and is based on the relatively modern concept that a nation is composed of people who are joined together by the bonds of a common language, customs, culture, and history, and who, because of these bonds, should be administered by the same government. The idea came into its own during the late 18th and the early 19th centuries

nationalism

Nationalists argued that unification (ex-Germany and Italy) would promote economic and administrative efficiency.Adopting a tenet from political liberalism, certain nationalist writers suggested that nations determining their own destinies resembled individuals exploiting personal talents to determine their own career Some nationalists claimed that nations, like biological species in the natural world were distinct creations of God. A difficulty for nationalism was determining which ethnic groups could be considered nations with claims to territory and political autonomy. ___ came to be associated with groups that were large enough to support a viable economy, had a significant cultural history, possessed a cultural elite that could spread the national language, and that had the military capacity to conquer other peoples or to establish/protect their pwn independence.

nationhood

Creole discontent with Spanish colonial government had many sources. Latin American merchants wanted to trade more within the region and with north American and European markets. They wanted commercial regulations that would benefit them rather than Spain. They also resented increased taxation by crown. Creoles resented Spanish policies that favored ___ for political patronage, including appointments in the colonial government, church, and army. The royal patronage system represented another device with which Spain extracted wealth and income from America to benefit its own people in Europe rather than its colonial subjects

peninsulares

Behind the concept of nationalism lay the idea of ___ ___ since the qualities of peoples rather than their rulers determine a national character. Within many territories in which one national group has predominated, there have also existed ethnic minorities that the majority governs with or without their consent.

popular sovereignty

Charles X's first action was to have the Chamber of Deputies in 1824 and 1825 indemnify aristocrats who had lost their lands in the revolution. He did this by lowering the interest rates on government bonds to create a fund to pay an annual sum to the survivors of the emigres. Middle-class bondholders who lost income resented this. Charles restored the rule of ___, whereby only the eldest son of an aristocrat inherited family domains. To support the Church, he enacted a law that punished sacrilege with imprisonment or death.

primogeniture

The conservative view that _____ ____ was the responsibility of the privileged inspired passage of much humanitarian legislation, in which English conservatives usually led the way.

social welfare

The Charter granted most of the rights the Declaration of Rights of the Rights of Man and Citizen embraced. There was no religious toleration but Roman Catholicism was not designated as the nation's official religion. The Charter promised not to challenge the property rights of the current owners of land that was confiscated from aristocrats and the church.

the Charter

The ___ majority elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1816 proved so dangerously reactionary that the king soon dissolved the chamber. The second election brought a more moderate majority.

ultraroyalist