Chapter 21: Study Guide
John Stuart Mill
"On Liberty". Absolute freedom of opinion on all subjects. People can do whatever they want, as long as it doesn't harm society or their peers. Tyranny of majority and censorship = very bad.
Carbonari
"charcoal burners" secret societies that believed in nationalism and conspired for another Revolution.
Why was there a religious revival during this time?
1. Catholics--romanticism encouraged people to be nostalgic for the past...beautiful churches, etc. 2. Protestants--hellfire and damnation sermon from evangelical missionaries had a large effect
What type of prison reforms were attempted?
1. Separate cells (Walnut system modeled after US) 2. solitary confinement
Romantic artists (two characteristics)
1. all artistic expression was a reflection of the artist's inner feelings 2. rejected classicism (beauty not timeless--a reflection of the artist's time)
Why did revolts of 1848 all over Europe fail?
1. divisions among the revolutionaries (propertied classes would not give suffrage to working classes) 2. divisions among nationalities (Austrians, Hungarians, Czechs, etc. could not work together)
Romanticism (characteristics)
1. emphasis on emotion, sentiment, inner feelings 2. individualism--unique traits of each person 3. passionate interest in the past
Name some different explanations for poverty
1. laziness 2. moral degeneracy 3. lack of spiritual education
Conservatism (principles)
1. obedience to political authority 2. organized religion important to social order 3. no to revolutionary ideas 4. community more important than individual 5. supported by monarchs, aristocracies, churches, etc.
Thomas Malthus
1766-1834, he wrote "Essay on Principles of Population" stated that food supply increases much more slowly than population. Misery + poverty = law of nature, government shouldn't interfere because it will figure itself out.
How many sovereign states did the Congress of Vienna recognize in the former Holy Roman Empire?
38
How many states did the Congress of Vienna create in Italy?
9
Frankfurt Assembly
A convention of liberals and nationalists to prepare a constitution for a united Germany. Dispute over including Austria (Grossdeutsch, "Big German") or not (Kleindeutsch, "Small German"). The Austrians withdrew from this convention which allowed them to continue with Kleindeutsch. Frederick William IV then refused to be "emperor of the Germans" and ended the convention in March 1849.
Romanticism
A new intellectual movement known as Romanticism came about to challenge the Enlightenment's preoccupation with reason. Romanticism stressed the importance of intuition and person feeling, emotion, and imagination as the sources of knowing. Romantic writers emphasized emotion, sentiment, and inner feelings in their work.
France's July Revolution of 1830
A response to Charles X's July Ordinances which dissolved legislature, reduced electorate, and censored the press. Provisional government set up shop, asked for Louis-Phillippe. Charles X fled to Britain.
Gothic Literature
A result of an interest in the bizarre and unusual. Works from Edgar Allen Poe (1808-1849) and Frankenstein by Mary Shelley (1797-1851). Led people to pursue abnormal mind states, use of drugs such as cocaine and opium.
Schutzmannschaft (1848)
A state-financed police group established for Berlin that took on a military approach to police forces; they were used for political purposes.
The Death of Sardanapalus by Eugène Delacroix
Account of the last moments of the Assyrian king, the king orders women and horses to go to their death with him.
London Mechanic's Institute
After reformers tried to get people from the "dangerous classes" out of the streets and into work and workhouses failed, a group of secular reformers believed education was the answer, and creates things like the London Mechanic's Institute to enlighten people.
Louis XVIII and Charles X
After the fall of Napoleon, the Bourbon family was restored to power in France, this time it was Louis XVIII. He accepted the Civil Code, and made a bicameral legislature. Ultraroyalists and liberals opposed him. Louis died and Charles X became King and he fell in line with ultraroyalists. He created ministerial responsibility but then violated it. Another Revolution to happen?
On the Subjection of Women
An essay by Mill after his attempt to include women suffrage in the voting reform failed. Differences between men and women were only social practices, not natural. Women + education = equal to men
Jacksonian Democracy
Andrew Jackson was elected President of the US in 1828, and this created the era of mass democracy. Property qualifications for voting were dropped, almost all white males could vote. Improvement of human beings was also established. Juvenile detention centers and new prisons and penal systems were established.
Beethoven (1770-1827)
Austrian composer..originally a classicist by 1804 was a romantic...eventually burdened by deafness
Metternich (1773-1859)
Austrian foreign minister...conceited and self assured...believed in balance of power...leader of the Congress of Vienna
Louis Blanc and Flora Tristan
Blanc wrote "The Organization of Work" and believed that social problems could be solved with government assistance. State financed workshops, communal worker ownership. Tristan tried to foster a "utopian synthesis of socialism and feminism." Wanted to reconstruct both family and work. Absolute equality was her idea. Ignored by contemporaries.
Louis XVIII (18)
Bourbon monarch restored to French throne by Quadruple Alliance (1814)
Petite Roquette (France) & Pentonville (Britain)
Britain and France realized that their system of capital punishment was becoming ineffective, so they looked to America to see how they can improve their prisons. In their prisons you had to wear a leather mask while exercising, you sat in different stalls when in the chapel and Solitary confinement was used because they noticed the impact it could have on a prisoner's mental state. The French ended up going back to sending prisoners to New Guiana.
Louis-Phillipe
Called Bourgeois monarch because all of his support came from the upper middle class. Louis even dressed like upper middle class.
Catholicism & Protestantism Revival
Catholicism had lost its attraction in the 18th century but it was revived by the romantic passion for religion. Catholicism echoed a harmony of all things. Protestantism was revived by emotional experiences of Methodism, also an increased amount of missionaries being sent out with messages of hellfire and emotional conversion.
Which of Napoleon's reforms did Louis XVIII keep?
Civil Code, property rights of those who had purchased confiscated land during the revolution, bicameral legislature...
serjents, "bobbies" and schutzmannschaft
Civilian police forces! Well trained forces who's purpose was to make Europe a disciplined and well ordered society. Serjents in France, dressed in all blue uniforms and served to protect France's citizens at all times. In Britain, the failures of the constables (unpaid selected peace keepers) led to the "bobbies" being put on the streets. Their primary goal was to prevent crime. They were called bobbies because Sir Robert Peel created the legislation to create them. The Schutzmannschaft was the police force in Germany, and was initially modeled after Britain's bobbies. This soon turned into a more military force, that was also used for political purposes. Their heavy weaponry (swords, pistols, brass knuckles, etc) also made them more military-like.
Ludwig von Beethoven
Composed in the transition period from 18th century Classicism and 19th century Romanticism. Music reflected his deepest inner feelings. He was influenced greatly by Haydn and Mozart. His work was mainly within the classical framework but his Third Symphony (1804), called Eroica, demonstrated his Romanticism touch through his use of uncontrolled rhythms to create dramatic struggle and uplifted resolutions.
Classical economics
Concept of laissez-faire in which the state should not interfere with the economy and only exist for national defense, police protection, and public construction that was too expense for individuals to pay for.
German Confederation
Consisted of thirty-eight states from the now dissolved Holy Roman Empire. Governed by a federal diet which could not take action without the consent of all member states. Used by Metternich to suppress rebellion.
The Great Western Railway- J.M.W. Turner, Rain, Steam, and Speed
Conveys the impression of a train rushing toward the viewer.
Suzanne Voliquin and Reine Guindorf
Created a newspaper dedicated to the emancipation of women
Zoe Gatti De Gamond
Created her own phalanstery.
Conservatism (origin)
Edmund Burke (Britain) wrote Reflections on the Revolution in France...argued that government should be changed only gradually...people have obligation to future generations
Edmund Burke and conservatism.
Edmund Burke wrote his "Reflections on the Revolution in France" after the French Revolution. He argued that the state did have a contract with the people, but that it was with all people and all generations, and that one generation should not be able to upset the buildings or traditions of the past. Sudden change = bad. Gradual, evolutionary change = good.
Andrew Jackson (1767-1845)
Elected president in 1828, he opened a new era of mass democracy. Traditional property qualifications for voting were dropped, improvement for human beings was an accepted idea, and new penal systems were put into place to maintain this idea of improvement.
Police Forces
European states began to establish groups of well-trained law officers who were meant to preserve property and lives, maintain domestic order, investigate crime and arrest officers. (19th century)
What were the two divisions in the United States and what European nation did they support?
Federalists (Hamilton) wanted a strong central government and favored Britain. Republicans (Jefferson) wanted states rights and favored France.
War of 1812
Federalists, who were led by Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804), wanted a more centralized government and Republicans, who were led by James Madison (1751-1836), feared one. Tensions were between them because the Federalists were Pro-British and the Republicans were Pro-French. Federalism ended as the war came to a conclusion.
Man and Woman Gazing at the Moon by Caspar David Friedrich
Figures present the human longing for infinity.
Klemens von Metternich
Foreign minister of Austria who led the Congress of Vienna
Giuseppe Mazzini and Young Italy
Founder and organization whose goal it was to unify Italy. Eventually failed to work as the Austrians regained control over Italy.
ultras
French conservatives who wanted to go back to the way things were in pre-revolutionary France
serjents
French police force in 1820s...blue uniformed...lightly armed
The Reform act
Gave explicit recognition to the changes wrought in British life by the industrial revolution
Burschenschaften
German student society wishing to create a united Germany. This group, with the motto "Honor, Liberty, Fatherland," gathered to burn books in 1817 and was closed by Metternich when a deranged student assassinated a playwright.
Who dominated Latin America's commerce after Spain was defeated?
Great Britain
Quadruple Alliance (against France)
Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia
What revolution did the conservative Great Powers support?
Greece from Ottoman Turks
Phalanstery
Group living establishment created by *Charles Fourier*
Joseph de Maistre and conservatism.
He believed that only absolute monarchy and hereditary (divinely sanctioned) monarchy could "guarantee order in society" and avoid chaos and revolution.
J. M. W. Turner
He produced over twenty thousand paintings, drawings, and watercolors that expressed his concern with nature. He did not idealize nature or reproduce it with realistic accuracy but focused on the interplay of light and color to convey various moods.
Eugene Delacroix
He was fascinated by the exotic and had a passion for color. His Death of Sardanapalus shows his use of light and its patches of interrelated color. He combined theatricality and movement with his daring use of color.
Sir Walter Scott
His novels became European best sellers in the first half of the 19th century. Many Romanticists (including Scott) were historically minded.
Balance of power
Idea which kept any one country from dominating Europe. Prussia and Austria balanced Russia and a barrier consisting of the new kingdom of the Netherlands balanced France
Ricardo's "iron law of wages"
Idea written in "Principles of Political Economy" in which population increases which brings more workers. An excess of workers decreases the wages below subsistence levels, causing starvation and a reduction in population. The number of workers declines and wages increase again. This encourages workers to have larger families, thus increasing the population and completing the cycle. Believed wages must be kept constant in order to prevent this cycle.
revolutions of 1848
In France, Louis-Phillippe's government was protested and forced out, he fled to Britain. New composition of the National Assembly closed down the government workshops created by Louis Blanc- these emptied the treasury. Workers revolted in the streets, thousands killed, 4,000 deported to Algeria in North Africa.
Goethe's "The Sorrows of Young Werther"
In Goethe's novel, Werther is a Romantic who seeks to free himself from society to fulfill himself. He believed in himself, but society didn't, and he eventually commits suicide. Goethe later rejects Romanticism in favor of Classicism.
Greek Revolt
In this case, the principle of intervention was used to support revolution instead of extinguish it. The Greeks revolted against the Ottoman Turks in 1821, and Britain and France helped out by defeating Turkish armada. Russia also invades, and Turks let European powers decide fate of Greece. Greece becomes and independent country, and this was basically the only time the principle of intervention was used to support revolution.
Individualism
Interest in the unique traits of each person.
Giuseppe Mazzini
Italian nationalist whose writings spurred the movement for a unified and independent Italy (1805-1872)
Giuseppe Mazzini and Young Italy
Leader of Italy's resurgence, he was a nationalist that founded Young Italy in 1831. Goal was creation of a united Italian Republic. Wanted Italians to love their country! Revolts followed, but eventually counterrevolutionary forces like Austria were able to win out.
Klemmens Von Metternich
Leader of the Congress of Vienna in 1814, he was a prince and the Austrian foreign minister. Had very conservative views, and a poor outlook on humanity. He was also very conceited and self absorbed. Strongly believed in the principle of legitimacy.
Louis Kossuth
Led the Hungarian liberals, he argued for "commonwealth" status. Hungarians were willing to keep the Habsburg monarch but wanted their own legislature. Metternich was dismissed! They got the right to have their own national army, have their own legislature, and control their foreign policy and budget. Habsburg monarch means their still Austrian.
John Stuart Mill
Liberal who wrote "On Liberty". Believed in absolute freedom and protection from censorship and tyranny of the majority. Also published "On the Subjection of Women" advocating for women's rights, arguing that the differences between men and women were because of the lesser amount of education provided to women. Believed women could achieve as much as men if they had equal education.
The Repeal Of The Corn Laws
Lowered prices of bread and helped out the middle class by lowering food prices.
Congress of Vienna
Meeting between the victors against Napoleon (Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia) to decide how to reestablish the old order before Napoleon and prevent another French Revolution from occurring.
"legitimacy"
Metternich considered it necessary to restore the "legitimate" monarchs that would preserve traditional institutions and conservative values.
Legitimacy
Metternich's guiding principle...restoring monarchs to preserve traditional institutions
Tsar Nicholas I
Monarch of Russia who went from conservative to reactionary due to the Decembrist Revolt. Feared revolution so much that he created a secret political police who deported suspicious people in order to prevent rebellion.
Louis XVIII and Charles X
Monarchs of France after the Bourbon dynasty was restored following the abdication of Napoleon. They kept the Napoleonic Civil Code but were criticized for reintegrating the Catholic Church and granting indemnities to those who lost land in the French Revolution. They returned France to the point of another revolution.
Utopian socialism
Movement advocating the adoption of cooperative living. Charles Fourier, Robert Owen, Louis Blanc, and Flora Tristan believe in this movement. They felt they could fix everything by removing capitalism.
Utopian Socialists
Name that Marxists called socialists, and the name sticks to this day.
bobbies
New English police in 1820s
Schutzmannschaft
New German police force in the 1850s (more like military than other countries)
Serjents, "bobbies", Schutzmannschaft
New civilian police forces developed as a result of the many revolutions of the nineteenth century. They were to preserve property, arrest criminals, and maintain domestic order.
France's Second Republic
New constitution created the "Second Republic" with a one house legislature composed of 750 reps elected by universal male suffrage (term of 3 years) and a president elected the same way for 4 years. Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte elected president, soon to become Emperor.
the Decembrist Revolt
Nicholas was to become King of Russia, but it was not known that Constantine abdicated, so military leaders of Northern Union rebelled. Crushed by Nicholas' forces. Made Nicholas become a reactionary.
Did the Italian revolts of 1848 succeed?
No--Austria and France reclaimed control of their Italian areas...Pope took back control of Rome
Louis Blanc and Flora Tristan
One believed that workshops should be paid for and opened by the government and owned and operated by the workers. The other advocated for women's rights and absolute equality. She was ignored throughout the beginning of the nineteenth century.
July Revolution of 1830
Overthrow of King Charles X due to his set of edicts called the July Ordinances (edicts to restrict freedom of speech, press, and assembly). This replaced Charles X with Louis-Philippe who believed that he was a bourgeois who happened to also be a king.
Romantic Poets (loved nature)
Percy Shelley (1792-1822) Lord Byron (1788-1824) William Wordsworth (1770-1850)
Concert of Europe
Political alliance between Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria which decided to return France to a normal status and induct it into the alliance. Used to crush potential revolutions that could threaten the status quo in Europe.
Monroe Doctrine
President James Monroe of the new United States of America guaranteed the independence of these new Latin American states, and warned Europe about trying to get them back. However, the British naval fleet did much more to prevent re-colonization than this outgoing document.
Defensive Barriers Against French Expansion (East)
Prussia was strengthened by giving it control of the territory along the east bank of the Rhine
The July Revoloution
Rebellion caused by Charles X's edicts.
Reform Act of 1832
Recognized changes in British society that came about by the industrial revolution. disenfranchised 56 rotten boroughs and created 42 new towns and cities. Industrial urban communities now have a say in government. Property voting, number of voters is 814,000. Benefitted upper middle class.
neo-Gothic architecture
Revival of gothic architecture in turn led to neo-gothic cathedrals, parliamentary buildings, and even railway stations.
The Decembrist Revolt
Revolt against Nicholas I's accession to the Russian throne which took place because his brother's abdication was not made public.
Greek Revolt
Revolt against the Ottoman Turks which was supported by the Concert of Europe armies. Only revolution to succeed in Europe; succeeded because of the help of the Concert.
Alexander I
Romanov Tsar...ruled from 1801-1825...initially favored reform...after defeat of Napoleon become very conservative (reactionary)
Nicholas I
Romanov Tsar...ruled from 1825-1855...feared revolt after Decembrists...known as the policeman of Europe for his willingness to crush rebellion
Decembrist Revolt
Russia...reformers trying to replace Alexander I with a reformer...crushed by troops loyal to Nicholas I
Robert Owen's New Lanark
Scottish factory town transformed into a flourishing community due to the idea of cooperative living.
Carbonari
Secret societies in Italy which conspired to revolt against Austrian dominance of Italy.
Latin America Revolts
Simón Bolívar was called the Liberator, and led the fight for independence in Latin America. He and José de San Martín successfully freed all of Latin America from the Spaniards, including Mexico, Colombia, Peru.
Charles Fourier's phalansteries
Small, self-contained cooperative communities containing 1620 people. People in these communities worked together for mutual benefit and rotated jobs to prevent one person from doing undesirable jobs.
Neo-Gothic architecture
Some Romantics possessed a passionate interest in the past. This historical focus was manifested in many ways, resulting in the revival of medieval architecture. European countrysides were adorned with pseudo-medieval castles and cities bedecked with this type of grandiose cathedrals, city halls, parliamentary buildings, and railway stations.
Charles Fourier
Sought to create voluntary associations that would demonstrate advantages of cooperative living. These houses were called phalansteries. Inhabitants would live together and work together for the good of the group.
Jose de San Martin
South American general and statesman, born in Argentina: leader in winning independence for Argentina, Peru, and Chile; protector of Peru
John Marshall
Strong force for US national unity--most important Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
Burschenshaften
Student assosiations formed who dreamt of a united germany and tried to spread their ideas
Burschenschaften
Student societies dedicated to uniting a free Germany. "Honor, Liberty, Fatherland." Held assemblies and conservative book burnings. Metternich made the Karlsbad Decrees which silenced and broke up the Burschenschaften.
"dangerous classes"
The "dangerous classes" were basically the lower class/ the people in poverty. The middle classes called them this because they feared the lower class posed a threat to them. To combat the lower class, the middle class took more classes in applied sciences to up their place in society.
Corn Laws and the Peterloo Massacre
The Corn Law of 1815 put high tariffs on foreign grain, which made it even more expensive for the working class. Things got bad when calvary attacked 60,000 people protesting at St. Peter's Fields in Manchester. 11 people got killed and the government decided it would be a good idea to ban pamphlets for poor people and public gatherings.
Tsar Nicholas I
The Emperor/King of Russia. Crushed the Decembrist Revolt, became reactionary. Strengthened bureaucracy and political police. He wanted to interfere in all revolution everywhere- he hated revolution. Called "Policeman of Europe"
Second Republic
The French government which consisted of a uni-cameral legislature of 750 people elected by universal male suffrage for a term of three years along with a president elected similarly for four years. The first and only president was Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte.
Brothers Grimm
The Grimm brothers in Germany, like other Romantics, had an interest in the past. They collected local fairy tales and published them.
Caspar David Friedrich
The artist devoted his life to using God and nature as his subjects of painting. He painted landscapes with an interest that transcended the mere presentation of natural details. In his Man and Woman Gazing at the Moon, nature was a manifestation of divine life. The artistic process depended on one's inner vision.
Socialism
The belief that all working conditions should be equal, similar to Marxist ideas, and that capitalism was bad.
Concert of Europe
The concert of Europe was established as a means to keep the status quo in Europe. They were to meet and discuss common interests and ideas that would keep Europe peaceful. Met 4 times b/t 1818 and 1822.
Congress of Vienna
The meeting of the Quadruple Alliance (England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) in 1814 to arrange a peace settlement to stabilize Europe. Led by Klemmens von Metternich, ultra conservative.
Romanticism
The new intellectual movement that emerged to challenge the Enlightenment's preoccupation with reason in discovering truth. This movement tried to balance the use of reason by stressing the importance of intuition, feeling, emotion, and imagination as a source of knowledge.
Karlsbad decrees
These decrees required the thirty-eight German member states to root out subversive ideas in the universities and newspapers an established a permanent committee with spies and informers to investigate and punish any liberal or radical organizations
Corn Laws and the Peterloo Massacre
These laws were passed by the Tory-dominated British Parliament to place tariffs on foreign grain in response to falling agricultural prices. They were met by protests and one in front of St. Peter's Fields in Manchester (1819) led to 11 people being killed by cavalry, an event later known as this.
Reform Act of 1832
This act of British Parliament redistricted the boroughs in order to give new industrial cities a fair representation in Parliament. Still only allowed votes from upper middle class property owners.
Why were new police forces introduced in Europe?
To try to halt the increase of property crime.
Germanic Confederation
Together the 38 sovereign Germanic countries were the Germanic Confederation. Little power, no executive so relied on federal diets, and it needed the consent of all to do anything. Metternich's instrument to repress revolution.
What were the two political factions in the British Parliament?
Tories and Whigs
Robert Owen's New Lanark
Transformed a squalid factory town into a healthy community. Believed humans would reveal their true goodness if they live in a cooperative environment.
Britain's Tories and Whigs
Two different political factions of parliament: Tories and Whigs. Both still aristocratic, but whigs being supported by industrial middle class. Tories didn't want to change government, and they controlled a lot of it. Tories became unpopular because of their response to economic difficulties. Still managed to not reform the government.
Parties of Movement and Resistance
Two distinct parties in the Chamber of Deputies. Both were composed of upper-middle class representatives. Party of Movement (Aolphe Thiers) wanted ministerial responsibility and an active foreign policy + limited expansion. Party of Resistance (Francois Guizot) thought that France had reached perfect form of government and that no changes were necessary. Party of Resistance dominated and Francois worked closely with Louis-Phillippe.
Tories and Whigs
Two political factions in British Parliament during the nineteenth century. The faction which dominated the government refused to make reforms and were eventually met by rebellion.
Andrew Jackson
US President...his presidency characterized by the participation of the common man in politics
Frankfurt Assembly
Universal male suffrage allowed delegates to be elected in each nation in the German confederation. Frankfurt Assembly's purpose was to create a unified Germany. Frankfurt Assembly created an idea for a new united Germany after the Big German and Small German debate ended when Austria withdrew. Happiness short lived, because Prussia's King Frederick William IV refused to become Emperor of Germany.
Simon Bolivar
Venezuelan statesman who led the revolt of South American colonies against Spanish rule
Flora Tristan
Wanted equal rights for women and even preached about it, she however, like others, was ignored by most.
Robert Owen
Was British cotton manufacturer who turned a squalid town into a bustling community. He tried to do the same in the US, but bickering within the community destroyed it.
Balance of Power
When the Congress of Vienna re-distributed land going along with the principle of legitimacy, it was to preserve a balance of power that would prevent one country from dominating Europe. That was the goal.
Thomas Malthus
Wrote "Essay on the Principles of Population". Believed population increased at a geometric rate while food supplies increased at an arithmetic rate. Thought misery and poverty were part of nature and no one should interfere with that.
David Ricardo's "Iron law of wages"
Wrote "Principles of Political Economy". More population, more workers, poorer conditions, more misery, more starvation, less workers, better wages, people have more kids, cycle repeats itself.
Edmund Burke and conservatism
Wrote "Reflections on the Revolution in France." and Believed that the state was a partnership between the dead, the living, and those not yet born. Believed it must be passed down to the next generation. Also advocated slow change instead of violent revolution.
Louis Blanc
Wrote *The Organization of Work*, and thought that socialism should have interference of the governemmnt, and that all products should be made public.
classical economics
also called economic liberalism. Primary principle was laissez-faire. Government was not to interfere in the economy at all, because the greatest good would come when there was no interference with consumers and customers.
Tories
conservative...landed aristocracy...supported Corn Law of 1815...
Caspar David Freidrich
considered the greatest german Romantic painter. Focused ont power of nature. Inspired viewer with a sense of mystery and awe.
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How was France to be controlled after Napoleon?
enlarged Netherlands to the north, enlarged Piedmont to the southeast, Prussia strengthened to the east by giving it the Rhineland, new League of German states
utopian socialism
equality in social conditions, human cooperation was better than industrialist capitalism. Against private property and competitive industrial spirit. Wanted to establish a better society.
Congress of Vienna (1815) success
established a European order that managed to avoid a general European conflict for almost a century
Hector Berlioz (1803-1869)
french composer and conductor who wrote 1st text book on orchestration...a romantic
Young Italy (1831)
group founded by Mazzini devoted to a united Italy
Chateaubriand's "Genius of Christianity"
his book was soon labeled "The Bible of Romanticism" He defended Catholicism on Romantic sentiment in its justification of Catholicism. "As a faith, Catholicism echoed the harmony of all things." The grandiose of the cathedrals seemed divine.
Monroe Doctrine
issued by United States and supported by Great Britain...discouraged European intervention in the Americas
What was Metternich opposed to in central Europe?
liberalism and nationalism
Concert of Europe
met 4 times between 1818 and 1822...eventually affirmed principle of intervention (except Britain)...intervened in Italy and Spain
Romantics (favorite literary form)
poetry--direct expression of the soul
Charles Fourier's phalansteries
proposed the creation of small model communities called phalansteries. Consisted ideally of 1,620 people. Communally housed, work assignments. Didn't get tested because no financial backing.
the congress system
the 4 congresses that were held by the concert of Europe were meant to promote peace and order in Europe, and further the conservative agenda.
Prison reform and police forces were geared toward what common goal?
the creation of a more disciplined society
The chamber of deputies
the legislature during the rule of Louis-Phillipe
Cristina Belgioioso
worked with Mazzini wor Italian unification
John Stuart Mill
•*Wrote On Liberty*, as well as argued for complete and utter freedom of speech and expression •Worked to expand the rights of women, wrote *On The Subject Of Women* with his wife Harriet Taylor •He argued that the differences between the rights of women and men were based off of social practices, and that they can do just as much as men
Economic Liberalism
•Also known as classical economics •State should not interfere with the free play of economic forces, especially supply and demand •The government should only have three primary functions: defense of the country, police protection of individuals, and maintenance of public works too expensive for individuals to undertake
Prince Klemens von Metternich
•Australian foreign minister who dominated the congress at Vienna •guided by the principle of legitimacy •supported the principle of intervention
Nationalism
•Became prominent in french revolution •makes people want to be part of a community, city state, or empire even •After the French revolution, made each nation want to just be its own nation, which upset big empires who owned many smaller nations
Important Figures in Romantic Music
•Beethoven(1770-1827): Came from a family of musicians who worked for the electors of Cologne, he set out to make his music express his inner emotions. He started out composing music that fit the guidelines of his century, but then composed the Third Symphony/ Eroica (1804) which expressed Romanticism through the use of uncontrolled rhythm to create emotion. •Hector Berlioz (1803-1869): Berlioz was meant to study medicine but rebelled against his fathers wishes and became a composer. One of the founders of program music, which used moods and instrumental sound effects to depict actions and emotions in a story, event or experience. Most famous work was the Symphonie Fantastique.
Important Characteristics of Romantic Poetry
•Believed to be written from the soul, passionate/dramatic. •Expressed a love for nature (very important to remember!) •Pantheism: Identifying the force of nature with God. •Criticized science for making the study of nature seem cold and mechanical.
Karlsbad Decrees of 1819
•Burschenschaften pursued a variety of activities that alarmed German governments such as burning books written by conservative authors and assassinating a reactionary playwright which led to the Decrees, drawn up by the German Confederation •closed the Burschenschaften, provided for censorship of the press, and placed the universities under close supervision and control
Important Figures in Romantic Art
•Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840): Preoccupied with God and nature, painted landscapes transcended beyond natural details. •Joseph Malford William Turner (1775-1851): Dwelt on nature and made landscapes his main subject (created over 20,000 works). Used a skilled interplay of light and color to suggest natural effects to convey moods. •Eugène Delacroix (1798-1863): Most famous Romantic artist, fascinated by the exotic and color. He combined theatricality and movement with daring color.
Four Congresses of the Concert of Europe
•First congress held at Aix-la-Chapelle: Agreed to withdraw their army of occupation from France and to add France to the Quadruple Alliance (became Quintuple Alliance) •Second congress held at Troppau: Held to deal with revolution in Spain and Italy, Metternich wanted to use the Principle of Intervention, which Britain only wanted to use on France •Third congress held at Laibach: Held without Britain, authorized the sending of Austrian troops to Naples (restored Ferdinand I to throne) •Fourth congress held at Verona: Again without Britain, authorized France to invade Spain (restored Ferdinand VII to throne), restored the Bourbon monarch
Joseph de Maistre
•Frenchman who was the most influential spokesman for a counterrevolutionary and authoritarian conservatism •Wanted a hereditary monarchy, which he thought was a divinely sanctioned institution •Believed that only an absolute monarchy could guarantee "order in society"
Political Liberalism
•Had main belief that the basic rights of the people needed to be protected, Freedom of assembly, speech, and press; and freedom from arbitrary arrest(arrest without evidence or probable cause) •All of these beliefs should be put into a document i.e. The American Bill of Rights •Most Liberals wanted separation from Church and State, as well as freedom to disagree with government decisions and the making of laws via assembly. •Wanted checks and balances as well as limited suffrage •Mainly middle class •Only certain people could hold office •Were certainly not democrats
The Revolt in Greece
•In 1821, the Greeks revolted against their Ottoman Turkish masters •was soon transformed into a noble cause by an outpouring of European sentiment for the Greek struggle •In 1830, Greece was considered an independent kingdom
Austria's Compensation for Loss of Australian Netherlands
•Lombardy and Venetia
The Revolt in Latin America
•Much of North America had been freed by the American Revolution, But Latin America was still in the hands of Spain and Portugal •When the Bourbon Monarchy of Spain was toppled by Bonaparte, Spanish authority in its colonial empire was weakened, which led to Argentina's independence •Venezuela's fight for independence was led by Simón Bolívar, aka the Liberator; freed Colombia and Venezuala • José de San Martín freed Chile, Lima, and Peru •Mexico and the Central American provinces also achieved their freedom, and by 1825, after Portugal had recognized the independence of Brazil, almost all of Latin America had been freed of colonial domination
The Germanic Confederation
•New league of German states to replace the Napoleonic Confederation of Rhine
Defensive Barriers Against French Expansion (Southeast)
•Piedmont (officially styled the kingdom of Sardinia) was enlarged
Germanic Confederation
•Prussia and Austria were the two great powers, and the other states varied in size •confederation and little power, no real executive, and its only central organ was the federal diet, which needed the consent of all member states which made it virtually powerless •still came to serve as Metternich's instrument to repress revolutionary movements within the German states
Louis XVIII
•Restored the Bourbon family to the throne of France •Understood the need to accept changes brought to France by the revolutionary era and accepted Napoleon's Civil Code with its recognition of the principle of equality before the law •Property rights of those who had purchased confiscated lands during the Revolution were preserved •A bicameral (two house) legislature was established, consisting of the Chamber of Peers, chosen by the king, and the Chamber of Deputies, chosen by an electorate of wealthy people
Alexander 1
•Russian tsar •granted the new Polish kingdom a constitution guaranteeing independence
Alexander I
•Russian tsar regarded as a divine-right monarch •raised in the ideas of the Enlightenment and seemed willing to make reforms •with aid of his liberal adviser Michael Speransky, he relaxed censorship, freed political prisoners, and reformed the educational system •refused to grant a constitution or free the serfs in the face of apposition from the nobility •after the defeat of Napoleon, Alexander became a reactionary and his government reverted to strict and arbitrary censorship •opposition soon arose from secret societies
Edmund Burke
•Wrote "Reflections on the Revolutions in France" •Was against the violent overthrow of government but did not reject possibility of change •Believed the State was a partnership that had to be maintained by all generations
Thomas Malthus(1766-1834)
•Wrote *Essay on the Principles of Population* •Stated that population increases, when unchecked, at a geometric rate while the food supply correspondingly increases at a much slower rate •Said that overpopulation and starvation would occur if population was not held in check as well as, misery and poverty were the inevitable result of nature, and should not be interfered with by anyone
David Ricardo(1772-1823)
•Wrote *Principles of Political Economy*, in which he developed his famous, "iron law of wages" •Following Malthus, stated that more population would mean more workers, and more workers would cause a decrease in the value of money, or *inflation* •Consequently, if the number of workers declines, then each worker gets more money, resulting in happy lives.
Balance of Power/Equilibrium Among Great Powers
•balance of political and military forces that guaranteed the independence of the great powers by ensuring that no one country could dominate Europe •to balance Russian gains, Prussia and Austria were strengthened
Whigs
•began to receive support from the new moneyed interests generated by industrialization
Principle of Legitimacy
•belief that it is necessary to restore the monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions •largely ignored (except by the Bourbons in France and Spain, as well as rulers in Italian states) and completely overshadowed by more practical considerations of power
Monroe Doctrine
•created by President James Monroe •guaranteed the independence of Latin America countries and warned Europe against any other intervention in the New World •Mexico and the Central American provinces also achieved their freedom, and by 1825, after Portugal had recognized the independence of Brazil, almost all of Latin America had been freed of colonial domination
Ultraroyalists
•criticized the king's willingness to compromise and retain so many features of the Napoleonic era •Hoped to return to a monarchical system dominated by a privileged landed aristocracy and to restore the Catholic Church to its former position of influence
Prince Talleyrand
•enabled France to participate in some decisions
The Congress of Vienna's Territory
•established nine states in Italy, the kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily), the Papal States, some small duchies ruled by the relatives of the Austrian emperor, Lombardy, and Venetia. •much of Italy was under Austrian domination and all the states were extremely eager to smother any liberal or nationalist sentiment. •secret societies motivated by the nationalistic dreams, known as the Carbonari, continued to conspire and plan for revolution
King Frederick William III
•followed the advice of his two chief ministers and instituted political and institutional reforms in response to Prussia's defeat at the hands of Napoleon •reforms included abolition of serfdom, municipal self government through town councils, the expansion of primary and secondary schools, and universal military conscription to form a national army •made Prussia strong but remained largely and absolutist state with little interest in German unity
Tories
•ministers largely dominated the government until 1830 and had little desire to change the existing political and electoral system •wary of radicalism and reform movements •response to falling agricultural prices was the Corn Law of 1815, a measure that placed extraordinarily high tariffs on foreign grain
Defensive Barriers Against French Expansion (North)
•new enlarged kingdom of the Netherlands composed of the former Dutch Republic and the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) under a new ruler, King William I of the House of Orange
Conservative Beliefs
•obedience to political authority •organized religion is crucial to social order •hated revolutionary upheavals •unwilling to accept the liberal demands for civil liberties and representative governments or national aspirations generated by the revolution •precedence over individual rights, tradition was the best guide for order •supported by hereditary monarchs, government bureaucracies, landowning aristocracies, and revived churches
Burschenschaften
•organized by students dedicated to fostering the goal of a free, united Germany •motto was "Honor, Liberty, Fatherland"
Friedrich Ludwig Jahn
•organized gymnastic societies during the Napoleonic wars to promote the regeneration of German youth •encouraged Germans to pursue their Germanic heritage and urged his followers to disrupt the lecturers of professors whose views were not nationalistic
Prussia's Compensation for Loss of Polish Lands
•received two-fifths of Saxony, the Napoleonic German kingdom of Westphalia, and the left bank of the Rhine
Viscount Castlereagh
•represented the British who wished to secure their control of the seas
Ferdinand VII
•restored the Bourbon dynasty in Spain •agreed to observe the liberal constitution of 1812, which allowed for the functioning of an elected parliamentary assembly known as the Cortes •king broke his promises, broke up the constitution and the Cortes and persecuted its members, which led a combined group of army officers, merchants, and liberal intellectuals to revolt •king promised again to restore the constitution and the Cortes but the policy of intervention caused a French army to move into Spain and force the revolutionary government to flee Madrid •king was ultimately restored to the throne
Northern Union
•secret society that opposed Alexander I •composed of young aristocrats who had served in the Napoleonic wars and had become aware of the world outside Russia, as well as intellectuals alienated by the censorship and lack of academic freedom •favored the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and the abolition of serfdom •sudden death of Alexander offered their oppurtunity
Charles X
•succeeded his brother Louis XVII •formerly known as count of Artois •granted an indemnity to aristocrats whose lands had been confiscated during the Revolution and pursued a religious policy that encouraged the Catholic Church to reestablish control over the French education system •public outrage forced the king to compromise and accept the principle of ministerial responsibility, which meant that the ministers of the king were responsible to the legislature •however, he violated his commitment which called for new elections due to a protest
Nicholas I
•the Decembrist Revolt transformed him from a conservative into a reactionary determined to avoid another rebellion •strengthened both the bureaucracy and the secret police •the political police, known as the Third Section of the tsar's chancellery, were given sweeping powers over much of Russian life and deported suspicious or dangerous persons, maintained close surveillance of foreigners in Russia, and reported regularly to the tsar on public opinion
Principle of Intervention
•the idea that the great powers had the right to intervene militarily in other countries in order to crush revolutionary movements against legitimate rulers
Quadruple Alliance
•united to defeat France and ensure peace •restored the Bourbon monarchy to France in the person of Louis XVIII •met at a congress (with France) in Vienna to arrange a peace settlement
New Polish Kingdom
•was supposed to be independent but it stayed under Russian control
Constantine
•was the legal heir to the throne but abdicated in favor of his brother Nicholas •his abdication was not made public, however, and the military leaders of the Northern Union rebelled •this was known as the Decembrist Revolt and was soon crushed by troops loyal to Nicholas, and its leaders were exectued
