Chapter 23 The British Empire (the textbook)

What was set up in 1965 to do with the Commonwealth?

- Commonwealth Secretary General and Secretariat co-ordinated activities.

What associations created by Empire did not disappear?

- Commonwealth created political, economic and cultural ties. - c.10 million people of British descent lived in the Commonwealth (ex-patriate communities with English traditions and contacts.)

Why did GB population concerns grow?

- Concerns grew over: - Dilution of GB culture and identity (due to Asian food etc.) - Protection of housing and jobs.

How did interest in Empire change in the 1950s-60s?

- Interest in Empire declined as decolonisation occurred. - Americanisation and focus on Europe (cheap flights + EEC membership) replaced Empire.

What was the response to the Act?

- The Act was unfair and difficult to apply for; but still received massive public support. - Opinion polls suggested 70% support.

Does the Anglican Church have more members inside or outside the UK?

- The Anglican Church has more members outside the UK than in it.

Where are Boy Scout movement branches in the Commonwealth?

- The Boy Scout movement have branches in every Commonwealth country.

What TV show was released in 1965 that satirised racist views?

- "Till Death Do us Part" - Central racist character Alf Garnett (ignorant bigot) frequently swore "bloody coons." - Although writer's intention had been to satirise ignorant bigotry (trying to make a CHANGE), this show got a large following from extreme racists.

How many Cypriots were there in Britain in 1958?

- 10K Cypriots. - Most of these fled the war in 1955-59. - In 1959 25K Cypriots came to GB.

How many West Indians were there in Britain in 1958?

- 115K West Indians in Britain. - An increase from 17.5K West Indians in 1951. - By 1959 West Indian immigration was running at about 16K people per year.

What evidence is there to show that there was an increased range & depth of personal contact to Empire?

- 1948 mass observation survey suggests 25% of GB population (12 million people) in contact with relatives in Dominions. - 1959 £12 million transferred between friends and family) about £1 billion in current values.

When was the NHS founded?

- 1948.

How many West Africans were there in Britain in 1958?

- 25K of West Africans. - A drift, mostly of students, from West Africa had begun in the inter-war years and this accelerated after 1945.

How many immigrants lived in Birmingham?

- 25K. - Included large numbers of Indians and Pakistanis.

How many Indians and Pakistanis were there in Britain in 1958?

- 55K Indians and Pakistanis. - In 1949, there had only been 100 Indians in Birmingham but in 1959 there were to be 3K immigrant arrivals from India and Pakistan.

How many immigrants in Manchester, Liverpool & Leeds.

- 8K in Manchester (textiles.) - 6K in Liverpool. - 6K in Leeds.

What were the results of the 1962 survey?

- 90% UK population wanted legislation to curb immigration. - 80% UK population believed there were too many immigrants in the UK.

What other arguments could you use for the erosion of British values after WW2?

- A link between changes in popular attitudes and the decline of Empire. - Could argued to be caused by the "Angry Young Men"

Who were the Angry Young Men?

- A number of GB playwrights and novelists of the early 1950s whose worked was marked by irreverence (disrespect) towards the Establishment and disgust at the survival of class distinctions and privilege.

What did the 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act do?

- Act attempted to control immigration. - Free immigration for colonial subjects replaced with work permit (voucher) scheme (even for those with GB passport!) - Not explicit discrimination against Asian or black workers but had same effect as many coloured workers were put into category C. - Irish exempt; most white immigrants had skills enabling them to gain vouchers. - Unskilled black applicants struggled to get permits e.g. 12 months after Act, only 34.5K black immigrants arrived in UK (15K less than before.)

What was Notting Hill Carnival?

- After the racial tensions of the 1950s, efforts were made to improve community relations and encourage groups to mix socially. - Steel band music performed by immigrant Trinidadians became popular in local pubs and in 1964 a local festival set up by West Indian immigrants provided the first Notting Hill carnival. - Festival developed in subsequent years with spectacular floats, steel drum bands, bright, outlandish costumes and dancing on the streets. - Was accompanied by stalls serving typical Caribbean food, particularly jerk chicken, rice and peas and rum punch.

What did GB govt attempt to do with ex-colonies?

- Attempted to keep them in the Sterling Area (before Harold Wilson (PM) devalued the pound in 1967.)

What were the Commonwealth conferences?

- Attended by PMs and presidents. - Happened at least once every 2 years. - All conferences except one happened in London until Singapore in 1971. - This shows that GB "dominated" the Commonwealth. - Only meeting outside of London was Lagos in 1966 which was to coordinate policies towards Rhodesia.

What did British Commonwealth Day become?

- Became Commonwealth Day in 1966, and date was changed to 10th June.

What belief still remained in Britain? What was the irony?

- Belief (does not mean it's a fact) in a family of nations nurtured by the mother country still remained. - Though, ironically WW2 helped the "family" grow up and leave the mother country (decolonisation.)

What was the National Service?

- Between 1939 and 1960, young British men aged 17-21yrs were required to undertake military service for up to 18 months.

What was Empire Day repackaged as?

- British Commonwealth Day in 1958.

How did GB's globalised economy remain beyond the end of Empire?

- Capitalist society and English are international due to the British Empire. - City of London remained/s a major world financial centre with HQs of banking, insurance & investment companies. - GB multi-nationals (BP or Imperial Chemical Industries) continued trading after de-colonisation.

Where did 1950s see big increase in immigration from?

- Caribbean (1950s) - Pakistan and India (1960s) - Kenya (1967) - Asian Kenyas (as Kenyatta is a racist and wanted Kenya to be purely African!)

What date was Commonwealth Day changed to after it was changed to 10th June?

- Changed to the second Monday in March.

How did decolonisation and economic decline lessen appeal of imperial topics in the media?

- Children's stories and comics moved away from imperial themes e.g. 1950-69 Eagle (boy's comic) informed writers not to portray foreigners as enemies or villains, and to include at least one child of ethnic minority in any group of children. - Cinema audiences less interested in watching overtly patriotic films so fewer films used Empire as backdrop. (reducing... image of Empire doesn't disappear entirely.)

Which group of MPs pushed for political action?

- Conservative MPs, pressurised by groups such as Birmingham Immigration Control Association (1960) pushed for political change and said something had to be done. - Argued that if something wasn't done then UK would become a mixed Afro-Asian society and no longer a European nation.

How did invisible contact between Britain and Dominions raise awareness of Empire in Britain?

- Difficult to quantify but must have raised awareness of Empire or at least awareness of specific countries within the Empire. - Therefore, people haven't forgotten Empire or lost interest, the interest has CHANGED.

So what happened to direct personal experience of Empire in the 60s?

- Direct personal experience of Empire in the 1960s rarer; no longer has everyday experience relevance. - But hasn't taken away personal experience of Commonwealth/Empire citizens and culture... relatives in other countries, white minorities in other countries in Empire etc...

How did TV replace radio as main medium for popular culture after WW2?

- Documentaries raised public awareness of other countries and cultures. - Also, during the 1960s satire boom ("avant-garde" comedy) programmes ridiculed traditional imperial attitudes e.g. That Was The Week, That Was (1962-63.) - Also Saturday Night, Sunday Morning; making fun of the hierarchy. - Yet some comedians used popular music to ridicule immigrant communities e.g. Lance Percival Maharajah of Brum (1967) - Racial stereotyping common in theatre and TV, as was the Black and White Minstrels' Show (1958- late 1970s)

How did the working class communities have the strongest racist attitudes?

- East End London had Bengali community living in the poorest housing subjected to violent campaigns with some streets as "no go" areas. - Bengali girls frequently kicked or had stones, eggs, tomatoes thrown at them on the way to school. - Unsafe to wait at bus stops or go shopping ("cant wait in one place for too long") - Bradford to Luton: "paki-bashing" attacks on any black skinned person were very common; considered a "sport."

Why did people from Britain leave the UK for the Empire and Commonwealth in the decades after WW2?

- Encouraged by adverts persuading them to migrate to Australia. - Due to demand for labour in the Dominions, left to find work and money as GB economically deprived due to war. - Better pay in Dominions, earned . £7 in GB vs £19 in Dominions. - GB standard of living poorer; maintained rationing until 1954!

When did the National Service end and what did this mean?

- Ended in 1960. - Meant the opportunity for young men to travel to Empire was cut off.

What is the Commonwealth Games?

- Every 4 years. - Started as the British Empire Games (1930) - Became British Empire and Commonwealth Games (1954) - Commonwealth Games (1970)

What did ex-colonial officials do in the former colonies?

- Ex-colonial officials frequently remained in the former colonies to advise the new govts. e.g. Sir Charles Arden-Clarke.

How did the 1965 Race Relations Act attempt to reduce tensions?

- Forbidding discrimination in public places (limitation) on colour, race, ethnic or national origins. - Created the Race Relations Board (conciliate between two sides at a "hearing") however... - Race Relations Act excluded discrimination in housing and employment and incitement to racial hatred not criminalised. - SO it's not perfect but it's a start...

Who was Oswald Mosley and what was the Union Movement?

- Former leader of the British Union of Fascists founded UM (1948.) - He stood on an anti-immigration platform in the 1959 election in Kensingston North (which included Notting Hill) and issued pamphlets provocatively ft black people with spears entering GB with slogans such as "stop coloured immigration" and "houses for white people." - Called for assisted repatriation and spread scare stories regarding the criminality and bad behaviour of immigrants. - Although he only received 8.1% of the vote, his campaigns increase white extremism.

Why did GB encourage immigration?

- GB economy recovered (Marshall Aid 1948) after WW2. - Well-paid, unskilled worked available in GB factors or London Transport, meant GB encouraged immigration (as not enough GB people to fill available roles.)

Despite fierce racial views, what assimilation had occured in GB?

- GB had become a more multi-racial society. - Through where they lived and through the media, white Britons became increasingly familiar with black faces and "foreign" ways. - TV dramas "Emergency Ward 10" and "Z Cars" featured black people. - Asians corner-shops and Chinese take-aways transformed British tastes. - Early 1960s survey in Nottingham reported 87% Jamaicans felt "British" before arrival in England and 86% happy for their children to feel "English."

What happened in the 1950s that reduced emigration to the Dominions?

- GB's improved living standards + full employment = reduction in emigration to Dominions. - This forces the Dominions to look elsewhere for skilled labour.

What did the 1948 British Nationality Act do?

- Gave full UK citizenship (including right to free entry) to Commonwealth & Empire inhabitants.

What did the newly nationalised public transport and newly created NHS do?

- Generated demand for workers not met by domestic workforce so GB govt. actively recruited from the Commonwealth & Empire. - 1956 London Transport employed 4K new staff mostly from Barbados. - Many decided to stay so were joined by their families.

What did immigration do in terms of GB views by 1967?

- Had provoked fierce racial views challenging GB notion of tolerance and freedom of expression.

What did Commonwealth immigrants face in GB?

- Hit hardest by job redundancies. - In poorest houses in least desirable parts of town; as these communities grew they were seen as threatening by local residents.

What was the unlooked for consequence from the 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act?

- Immigrants already with jobs brought their families over and settled in the UK as they feared if they left they may not be able to return.

What was the initial reaction of GB to immigration? How did this develop?

- Initial reaction was curiosity, uncertainty and indifference (people more absorbed by their own lives) NOT intolerance but... - When 1950s economic boom slackened off prejudice and anxiety grew; suggests they're scared, not a rational reaction its an emotional reaction. (FEAR & IGNORANCE.)

How does UK have reminders of its imperial past?

- Language (bungalow, dinghy, verandah, pyjamas from India; safari, mumbo-jumbo, zombie from Africa.) - Public schools and the Armed Forces have links with people from former colonies. - Honours (GBE, KBE/DBE, CBE, OBE, MBE, BEM.) - Last Night of the Proms (from 1954) features patriotic British music (Land of Hope and Glory, Fantasia on British Sea Songs, Rule, Britannia!, Jerusalem, the national anthem and Auld Lang Syne.)

So what were the future problems governments had to tackle?

- Language barriers, disparities (differences) in education, employment, housing and application of justice remained as problems for future governments to tackle.

Where did many Asians live in Britain?

- Lived in Oldham & Bradford. - Due to cheap labour for declining textile industry.

Even though the Commonwealth was not a military alliance, what did GB do?

- Maintained military bases overseas. - Recruited Commonwealth citizens e.g. Gurkhas into GB army. - Although it was not a military alliance, it gave them a military advantage. - GB has the most military bases in the world.

How could you describe GB society in the 1960s?

- More open and less differential.

What films did still convey imperial messages?

- North West Frontier (1959): GB preserve order when GB officer try to protect a Hindu Prince from a Muslim Uprising. - Guns at Batasi (1964): GB contained internal divisions, based on dilemmas faced by GB officer which faced turmoil in newly independent colony. - Lawrence of Arabia (1962): more critical of Empire, Lawrence is depicted as torn between loyalty to Empire and loyalty to his Arab allies.

Describe Jamaican immigration to Britain.

- Not the first post-war immigrants but were the first to attract media interest. - 492 mostly male Jamaicans who arrived on the Empire Windrush (Steamship) at Tilbury, East London in 1948. - Ship arrived without prior notification and the authorities were hastily forced to house the immigrants in temporary shelter at Clapham. - Immigrants were to form the nucleus of the subsequent immigration community in Brixton nearby.

Why were there no immigration limits? Was there a policy of immigration created?

- Plentiful supply of jobs meant no immigration limits... hence why racism began as it stems from socio-economic problems. - Though immigrants were not helped to settle or find decent homes - typical laissez faire GB attitude!

What sports show remaining impact of Empire?

- Poker. - Football. - Racket sports (tennis, badminton, squash etc) - Snooker. - Croquet. - Rugby (firmly established in New Zealand and South Africa.) - Cricket (India and Australia)

Did Empire influence society post-WW2?

- Post-WW2 up to decolonisation in 1960s Empire continued to influence GB society. - Political, economic and cultural ties remained strong. - In the 40s, 50s, 60s it was changes to IMPERIALISM that causes change in society.

What was GB proud of creating to maintain strong ties with its former colonies?

- Proud of creating new "nation states" with democratic institutions. - Parliaments. - Ministers. - GB-style legal systems. - Wigged judges!

How did the Queen affect post-colonial ties?

- Queen Elizabeth II remained as symbol of the Commonwealth - continuity with prev. unifying role of monarch as head of Empire. - Royal Family reinforced political connections with regular visits to Commonwealth countries. - QE2 held regular meetings with Commonwealth Heads of Govt.

What does the Queen still do via radio broadcast?

- Queen still sends a special message to the youth of the Empire via a radio broadcast to all Commonwealth countries.

What did Wilson's Labour govt do?

- Reduced quotas (esp category C.) and banned children over 16 from joining their families in the UK.

What did growth and development on the Commonwealth do?

- Reinforced share political tradition so helped maintain political ties.

So what did GB replace formal empire with?

- Replaced formal empire with an "informal" empire of trading links and economic ties.

What happened when decolonisation sped up in 1957?

- Reversed the flow of emigration as colonial servants & soldiers repatriated.

What did the years 1960 - 62 see?

- Saw more migrants arrive than in the prev. 60 years.

What was the Race Relations Board?

- Set up to consider all aspects of race relations. - Compiled statistics, produced reports and held "hearings" - However, it could not compel witnesses to attend and although it handled 982 complaints in first year, 734 were dismissed through lack of evidence. - Over half of those upheld were about racial stereotypes in advertising rather than direct examples of discrimination.

How did the 1964 general election see immigration as a key political issue?

- Smethwick (W. Midlands): 6K/70K population immigrants (highest concentration in English country borough.) - This allowed Peter Griffiths (Conservative) to win seat from Patrick Gordon Walker (Labour) using the slogan "if you want a n****r for a neighbour, vote Labour." - New PM Harold Wilson, (Labour) described it as a "disgrace to British democracy" but many voters shared Griffiths' view.

Despite some assimilation (e.g. Notting Hill Carnival), how did other British people tend to respond?

- Split into two groups: those that ignored and those that actively campaigned against immigrants. - 1965, N. London Survey, 20% objected to working with black people or Asians. - 50% refuse to live next door to a coloured person. - 90% disapproved of mixed marriages.

What was the annual value of immigrants in 1962-65?

- Stood at 50K / year.

How did Commonwealth help boost GB's international influence and position?

- Strong, wide-ranging diplomatic network. - GB membership of important international bodies. - GB's place on United Nations Security Council can be seen as a reflection of GB status acquired through empire and maintained through GB's world-wide influence.

What did 1958 see in terms of treatment of immigrants?

- Teddy boy youths attacked black people. - Riots broke out in Nottingham and Nottinghill, London.

When did the royal Christmas Day broadcast start?

- The tradition began with George V in 1932, when he gave a two and a half minute-long "wireless" broadcast, scripted by Rudyard Kipling and at the behest of Sir John Reith to inaugurate the new British Empire service (subsequently the British World Service.) - Since then a Christmas Day message reflecting current issues and concerns has been delivered by the British monarch to the people of the UK and the Commonwealth almost every year.

What did Commonwealth citizens do?

- They were eligible for GB honours. - Continued to listen to Christmas Day message (1932 - today!)

What attracted people from the Empire and the Commonwealth to come to the UK after WW2?

- To search for well paid work e.g. Transport for London, NHS etc; manual labour available due to Marshall Aid (1948) so encouragement by GB. - Due to problems in home country and internal conflicts (e.g. Cyprus.) - Education, many came to study. - Hurricanes and less sugar plantations (Push factor) W. Africans. - 1948 Nationality Act.

Who went from GB to Empire?

- Upper ranks of society: administrators (e.g. Sir Charles Arden-Clarke, Cohen etc), civil servants & senior army officers continued to leave GB to serve (e.g. Malaysian State of Emergency) in the Empire. - Lower ranks of society: men undergoing National Service involved in one of the late colonial wars, e.g. Kenya, Malaya or Suez.

What do people in former GB colonies do? (the remaining impact of Empire.)

- Used anglicised names. - Live in anglicised communities (inc. neo-Gothic churches and GB-style railway stations!) - Speak the English language (more people speak English as a second language than a first!) - Some even used Union Flag in the corner of their country's flag (e.g. Australia, Fiji, New Zealand and Tuvalu.)

How was patriotism strong in the UK in the 1950s?

- Victory in WW2. - Conviction UK had almost single-handedly defeated Hitler in W. Europe!

Why was there a surge in GB emigration post-WW2?

- WW2 + post-war rationing (only ended in 1954; to bring payments into line by limiting imports) + demand for labour in Australia, Canada & New Zealand. - 1946 - 57 c.1 million left GB for the Dominions; 500K to Australia and 400K to Canada.

How did Commonwealth immigrants have a hard life?

- West Indians (English-speaking and Christian) more easily assimilated. - Indians and Pakistanis (very hard-working with high-achieving children) regarded as more alien. - Early 1960s survey in Nottingham reported only 2% of Indians and Pakistanis felt "British" before arrival and only 6% were happy for their children to feel "English." - Some cultural traditions clashed with GB culture e.g. Islamic ban on alcohol consumption prevented Muslims from going to the pub - a traditional part of white WC culture. - Language barriers also hindered integration.

What was the UK's black population in 1967?

- c. 1 million (out of 55 million, so a tiny minority but still created backlash.)

What percentage of immigrants lived in London?

-c. 50%. - Mainly West Indians.