Chapter 24, Exsc 223 chapter 24, Final for Anatomy T/F, EXSC 223 Final Exam Review, EXSC223 Exam 1, EXSC 223 Exam 2, EXSC223 Exam 3
what do histones and chromatin resemble?
"beads on a string"
mitochondria
"powerhouse"- oxygen is used to produce ATP (aerobic metabolism)
What is meant by the phrase "principle of complementarity of structures and function"?
"structure determines function" or physiology depends on anatomy
what is E-C coupling?
(excitation-contraction) the sequence of events by which transmission of an action potential along the sarcolemma leads to the sliding of myofilaments
describe the microvilli of the small intestine mucosa.
-"brush-border" -associated with the plasma membrane of cells -made from actin filaments
what is the muscularis externa made of?
-2-3 layers of smooth muscle
What is the threshold potential?
-55mV
what is the resting membrane potential?
-70mV
describe the composition of saliva.
-99% H2O -salivary amylase -some mucin -IgA antibodies -lysozyme -defensins
describe the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway.
-ATP dependent -highly targeted
describe the relaxation period.
-Ca2+ is being pumped out of the cytosol into the sarcoplasmic reticulum -the # of cross-bridges decreases -force decreases
what ions diffuse and where in the synaptic cleft?
-K+ ions diffuse from the cytosol to the interstitial fluid -Na+ ions diffuse from the interstitial fluid to the cytosol
describe elastic cartilage.
-a network of elastic fibers -provides strength, elasticity, and maintenance of shape -located in the external ear and epiglottis
describe the retropulsion step of gastric emptying.
-a small amount of chyme moves through the open valve -the rest of the chyme is kept in the stomach -a little moves at a time
what are the main functions of the large intestine?
-absorb H2O from indigestible food -eliminate waste from the body
What does the upper limb include?
-acromial -brachial (arm) -antecubital -antebrachial (forearm) -carpal (wrist)
describe the grinding step of gastric emptying.
-agressive contractions -lots of pressure on the pyloric valve
describe pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
-appears to be stratified -single layer -nuclei at different levels -goblet cells and columnar cells -often with cilia -secretion and propulsion of mucous
describe phagocytosis
-associated with immune cells -common function of macrophages -receptor mediated -substance is engulfed in the membrane and pinches off in a phagosome
describe cartilage.
-avascular (no blood) -lacks nerve fibers (cannot provide feeling/sensation) -ground substance is rich in glycoamioglycans (acts as a lubricant) -ground substance is up to 80% water -collagen and elastic fibers are present -can withstand both tension and compression
describe cholesterol and its functions
-basis for all steroids formed in the body -bad for us in excess, but very important -pre-cursor for sex hormones -lipid molecule -can form plaque in arteries -mostly hydrophobic
describe carbohydrate digestion.
-begins in the oral cavity with salivary amylase, which breaks down some polysaccharides -In the duodenum, pancreatic amylase breaks down strings of sugar -brush border enzymes break oligosaccharides into monosaccharides
describe protein digestion.
-begins in the stomach when pepsinogen is converted to pepsin in the presence of HCl -pepsin breaks down proteins into smaller polypeptides -In the small intestine, pancreatic enzymes break polypeptides into even smaller peptides -brush border enzymes break down small peptides into individual amino acids
where is transitional epithelium found?
-bladder -ureters
what is found in mesenteries?
-blood vessels -nerves -lymphatic vessels
Anatomy and physiology depends on chemicals and reactions between chemicals to...
-build molecules -breakdown molecules -regulate
what do the blood and lymphatic vessels in the villi do?
-carry nutrients to the liver -help direct immune cells and responses
what are the functions of the Golgi apparatus?
-cell traffic director- direct proteins to go in different directions -modify proteins- add sugar residues -concentrate proteins -package proteins/membranes into new vesicles -post translationally modifies proteins so they can function properly
describe telophase.
-cells start to pinch off -nucleus begins to reassemble -cleavage furrow forms (associated with cytokinesis)
describe late prophase.
-centromeres are on opposite sides -chromosomes are spread out -sister chromatids are attached -mitotic spindle is attached at kinetochore proteins -nuclear envelope is broken down
describe interphase.
-centrosomes are in pairs -nuclear envelope -chromatin is in a "ball"
What are the regional terms?
-cephalic -cervical -thoracic -abdominal -pelvic -pubic -upper limb -manus (hand) -lower limb -pedal (foot)
what are general functions of integral membrane proteins?
-channels -carriers -signaling -receptors
what composes the oral cavity?
-cheeks -lips -roof and floor of mouth -pharynx
What are the forms of energy?
-chemical energy (ATP->ADP) -electrical energy (nerve impulses/action potentials) -mechanical energy (dependent on ATP) -radiant energy (light waves/sun energy)
describe chondroblasts and where they are found.
-chondrocytes -in cartilage (hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic)
describe metaphase.
-chromosomes are lined up at the center (metaphase plate) -brief
what are the functions of saliva?
-cleanse mouth -dissolve food chemicals for taste -moisten food and aid in "bolus" formation -enzymes breakdown starch
describe tight junctions
-complementary sets of proteins in adjacent cells -multiple rows of proteins -hold membranes of adjacent cells together -very important in the brain (protective mechanism)
describe desmosomes
-consists of a plaque (proteins) -hold intermediate filaments on inside of cell -have linker proteins on cell membrane side of plaque that connect to linker proteins on desmosomes of other cells
describe the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
-continuation of RER -has no ribosomes -no role in protein synthesis -functions vary by cell type
describe visceral muscle.
-contracts rhythmically as a single unit -electronically coupled via gap junctions -may exhibit spontaneous action potentials -are arranged in opposing sheets and exhibit stress-relaxation response
describe muscle tissue.
-contracts to cause movement -types: skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle
What does the lower limb include?
-coxal (hip) -femoral (thigh) -patellar -crural (leg) -fibular or peroneal
what proteins are targeted by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway?
-damaged proteins (free radicals) -incorrectly folded proteins (processing errors) -aged/not needed proteins (cyclins)
describe reticular fibers.
-delicate networks -fine collagenous fibers -short -basement membrane -in super soft tissue around organs -can act as a filter (in spleen)
describe mitochondria.
-density in cell reflects the cell's energy requirements -essential for aerobic metabolism -contains some of its own DNA -double membrane -self-replicating
describe the physical structure of mitochondria.
-double membrane -outer membrane is smooth -inner membrane folds= cristae -matrix is the sight of ATP synthesis
describe endocrine glands.
-ductless -produce hormones secreted directly into the extracellular space within the body
describe elastic fibers.
-elastin protein with some collagen -stretches and recoils -found where elasticity is needed (skin, lungs, blood vessels, aorta)
describe embryonic mesenchyme.
-embryonic connective tissue -gel-like ground substance -few cells and fibers
discuss mitochondria and their DNA.
-encodes for 13 proteins -maternal (DNA from mother)
what do intestinal crypts contain?
-enteroendocrine cells -exocrine cells -enterocytes -paneth cells -goblet cells -stem cells
describe receptor mediated endocytosis
-extracellular substances bind receptor proteins -the cell ingests the substances -concentrates substance in protein-coated vesicles -highly selective
describe bacterial flora.
-ferment indigestible CHO (carbohydrates/fiber) -release irritating acids, gasses, and dimethyl sulfide -can release vitamins B and K
describe small motor units.
-fewer myofibers -myofibers are smaller in diameter -cannot produce much force -less cross-bridges -tend to be slow twitch fibers
describe fibroblasts and where they are found.
-fibrocytes -in connective tissue proper- loose (areolar, adipose, reticular) and dense (regular, irregular, elastic)
describe collagen fibers.
-fibrous collagen proteins -tough -secreted into ECM -spontaneously assemble into cross-linked fibers -originate as tropocollagen -high tensile strength, like steel
describe the villi of the small intestine mucosa.
-finger-like projections on circular folds -multi-cellular -contain many enterocytes and some goblet cells
describe blood connective tissue.
-fluid connective tissue -red blood cells (erythrocytes) -white blood cells (leukocytes) -platelets -surrounded by fluid matrix called plasma -fibers only visible during clotting
describe the plasma membrane
-fluid mosaic model -auto-assembling -phospholipid bilayer
describe gap junctions
-form channels -made of connexon proteins -acts as a pore -very selective (specific ions and water) -allow an action potential to move from cell A to cell B
What does the cephalic include?
-frontal -orbital -nasal -oral -mental
what is the rate of diffusion affected by?
-gradient (when the difference in concentrations is larger, the rate is higher) -temperature (increased temperature increases the rate) -particle size (smaller particles vibrate faster and rate is increased) -smaller distance of diffusion increases the rate
what elements/areas of the oral cavity are keratinized?
-gums -hard palate -dorsum of tongue
describe bone (osseous tissue) connective tissue.
-hard calcified mineral matrix -composed of osteocytes -looks like concentric circles -2 types- compact and spongy
describe the mucosa of the stomach.
-has surface epithelium -lamina propria contains glands
describe the proteoglycans in the ground substance of connective tissue.
-have a protein core that glycosaminoglycans attach -intertwine and trap H2O (have weak charges that attract water), so they regulate ground substance viscosity
describe multi-nucleated cells.
-have larger than usual cytoplasm -typically have high demand for DNA replication
describe microtubules.
-hollow tubes of spherical protein subunits called tubulin -associated with centrioles -grow outwards towards plasma membrane and tie into proteins -start at centrosomes in center of cell -associated with giving the cell a distinct shape -involved in movement of cells
where/when can hyperplasia occur?
-in the arteries caused by atherosclerosis -in the uterus at puberty and during pregnancy
describe fibrosis.
-increased collagen production -sometimes visible -regeneration continues
describe the inflammation stage of tissue repair.
-inflammatory chemicals (chemoattractants) are released by injured cells -WBCs, macrophages, mast cells, clotting proteins, etc. are attracted -increase capillary permeability (increased fluid leakage) -fluid accumulation (swelling and edema) -clot formation
describe the sodium-potassium pump
-integral protein -changes shape frequently (add and take away a phosphate) -moves 3 Na+, then 2 K+ across the membrane -helps cell maintain homeostasis
describe channel proteins
-integral protein with channel/pore in center -allow selected substances to move through from areas of high concentration to low
describe smooth muscle cells physically.
-intermediate filament bundles attach to dense bodies -thin and thick filaments (1:13 ratio) -contain caveolae
describe the internal anal sphincter.
-involuntary -smooth muscle
where is simple cuboidal epithelium found?
-kidney tubules (nephrons) -ureters
where are multiunit smooth muscle cells found?
-large airways to the lungs -large arteries -arrector pili muscles -Internal eye muscles
describe fat digestion.
-lingual lipase begins digestion in the oral cavity -gastric lipase secreted into the stomach aids slightly -In the small intestine, emulsification by bile salts secreted from the liver occurs (lipids are broken into small globules to increase the total surface area of the fat) -pancreatic lipase breaks down small globules into fatty acids and monoglycerides
the hydrophobic nature of the interior of the plasma membrane prevents free diffusion except if particles are...
-lipid soluble -small in size -carrier molecule assisted
what are the main accessory organs of the GI tract?
-liver -tongue -salivary glands -gallbladder -pancreas
describe the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
-looks coarse (like sandpaper) -situated near one side of the nucleus -associated with bound ribosomes (on surface) -continuous with nuclear membrane -involved in protein synthesis -involved in phospholipid synthesis for membrane formation
where is simple squamous epithelium found?
-lungs/alveoli (mesothelium) -blood vessels (endothelium)
describe stratified squamous epithelium.
-many layers -flattened cells -protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion and friction
describe active transport
-metabolic energy is required from the cell -solutes are moved/pumped from areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration (against gradient)
describe early prophase.
-mitotic spindle begins formation -nuclear envelope is still present -chromatin is condensed into chromosomes
what types of cells is the gastric gland made up of?
-mucous neck cells -parietal cells -chief cells -enteroendocrine cells
what are the components of the intrinsic nerve plexus?
-myenteric nerve plexus -submucosal nerve plexus
what are the different regions of the pharynx?
-nasopharynx -oropharynx -laryngopharynx
describe the regeneration/fibrosis stage of tissue repair.
-new epithelium -promoted by macrophages -connective tissue forms a scar (fibrosis)
describe smooth muscle.
-not a uniform phenotype -single, central nucleus -no striations -lacks organization -synchronous contraction due to cellular junctions
describe peripheral membrane proteins.
-not usually embedded in the membrane, attached to integral proteins -surface proteins -associated with function of integral proteins
describe osteoblasts and where they are found.
-osteocytes -osseous (bone) tissue -in compact and spongy bone
What does the manus include?
-palmar -pollex -digital
describe the crown of a tooth.
-part you can see -contains the enamel, dentin, and the pulp cavity
what are the types of endocytosis?
-phagocytosis -pinocytosis -receptor-mediated endocytosis
describe the elements and structure of the "phospholipid bilayer"
-polar, hydrophilic (water loving) heads -non-polar, hydrophobic (water hating) fatty acid chain tails -2 fatty acid chains and a phosphorus containing group are attached to the glycerol backbone
how do SRPs work?
-present on the beginning end of polypeptide sequence produced by ribosome -guides proteins with signal sequence to the RER receptors so protein can enter RER lumen -attracts ribosome to RER -bound to RER
describe merocrine glands/secretions and examples.
-products are secreted by exocytosis -most common -pancreas, sweat, salivary glands
describe holocrine glads/secretions and examples.
-products are secreted by rupture of gland cells -cell "puking" -sebaceous glands (cells produce oil until they rupture and die)
describe dense irregular connective tissue.
-proper -part of skin -fibroblasts -collagen fibers -fibers do not fun uniformly
describe dense regular connective tissue.
-proper -fibers run parallel in same direction -tendons and ligaments -collagen fibers -fibroblasts
describe elastic connective tissue.
-proper, dense -elastic fibers -allows recoil of tissue following stretching -typically oriented in same direction
describe areolar connective tissue.
-proper, loose -collagen fibers -elastic fibers -fibroblasts -very common -part of skin -forms basement membrane
describe adipose connective tissue.
-proper, loose -fat/adipose -fibroblasts give rise to adipocytes
describe reticular connective tissue.
-proper, loose -form filter like networks -not strong -reticular fibers -in spleen
what are examples of enzymes secreted from the pancreas?
-proteases -peptidases -lipases -amalyase
describe the ground substance of connective tissue.
-proteoglycan structure -unstructured material filling space between cells -pretty watery -interstitial fluid -cell adhesion proteins (laminin and fibronectin) connect tissue cells to matrix elements and connect integral proteins to fibers in the ECM
what are the general functions of cell skeletons?
-provide supporting cell structure (help maintain integrity) -provide machinery to generate cell movement
describe fibrocartilage.
-provides strength and rigidity -strongest of the three types of cartilage -withstands compression -makes up intervertebral discs between vertebrae
describe multiunit muscle cells.
-rare gap junctions (do not work together) -Infrequent spontaneous depolarizations -structurally independent muscle fibers -rich nerve supply -may form motor units -graded contractions
where are goblet cells mostly found? what do they function as in these locations?
-respiratory tract (traps dirt) -intestinal tract (prevents stomach from digesting itself)
describe the organization steps of tissue repair.
-restores blood supply -granulation tissue formed -capillaries form -collagen fibers bridge gap (shorten and bring edges together) -macrophages phagocytize debris -regeneration of epithelial cells begins
describe exocrine glands.
-secrete through ducts onto the body surfaces or cavities
what do cells do all day while you are working?
-segregate (separate internal from external) -transport and digest (membrane trafficking-moving things across membrane) -identify alien invaders (distinguish self from non-self) -internal support (cytoskeleton) -hold hands (cell to cell adhesion) -communicate (between cells) -build/remodel/demolish (protein synthesis and degradation) -clone (cell replication through mitosis and cytokinesis)
describe the propulsion step of gastric emptying.
-series of peristaltic contractions -pressure is applied to the pyloric valve
describe processing of proteins in the lumen of the RER.
-signal sequence removed -protein folding to activate structure -enclosed in vesicle for transport to the Golgi apparatus
describe the epithelium layer of the mucosa of the stomach.
-simple columnar epithelium -foveolar cells (mucous cells) -produces HCO3 containing mucus coat -joined by tight junctions
what are the types of passive transport?
-simple diffusion -facilitated diffusion -osmosis
what are the layering classifications of epithelial cells?
-simple- single layer -stratified- 2+ layers
describe goblet cells.
-single celled gland -associated with simple columnar pseudostratified epithelia -secrete mucin, the glycoprotein component of mucous (secreted by exocytosis into extracellular matrix)
describe unicellular exocrine glands.
-single cells scattered in an epithelial sheet with other cell types -no ducts -goblet cells
describe simple ducts.
-single duct -duct does not branch
describe simple columnar epithelium.
-single layer -cells are taller than they are wide -may be ciliated -nuclei close to basement membrane
describe simple squamous epithelium.
-single layer -flat cells -allows passage of material by diffusion -short distance for solute to diffuse -diffusion is rapid because short distance to cross
describe simple cuboidal epithelium.
-single layer -sube like -excrete waste products
describe anaphase.
-sister chromatids are separated -mitotic spindle shortens and draws towards the poles -very organized
where is stratified squamous epithelium found?
-skin (epidermis) -esophagus -mouth -vagina
describe haustral contractions.
-slow -In 30 minute intervals
describe centrioles
-small, barrel shaped organelles located in the centrosome near the nucleus -pinwheel array of 9 triplets of microtubules -organize mitotic spindle during mitosis -form cilia and flagella
what are the shape classifications of epithelial cells?
-squamous- thin and squished -cuboidal- square/cube shaped -columnar- rectangular shaped
describe the benefits of cholesterol in the plasma membrane
-stabilizes the plasma membrane, making it less likely for it to break apart and form smaller structures in warmer temperatures -helps keep the membrane fluid in colder temperatures
What does the thoracic include?
-sternal -axillary -mammary
what are the functions of the stomach?
-storage of food -chemical breakdown of proteins -food is converted to chyme by acids and enzymes
describe microfilaments.
-strands -made of spherical protein subunits called actin -line interior of cell -gives plasma membrane more structural integrity
describe the types of tissue in the different locations of mucous membranes.
-stratified squamous epithelium in mouth -simple columnar epithelium in GI tract -pseudostratified columnar epithelium -rests on loose areolar connective tissue, called lamina propria (basement membrane + some)
what stimulates smooth muscle to contract?
-stretching -hormones -Inflammatory chemicals
describe transitional epithelium.
-surface cells are dome-shaped -stretches readily and permits expansion
what are examples of exocrine gland secretions.
-sweat -oil -saliva -bile -mammary -mucous
What does the pedal include?
-tarsal (ankle) -metatarsal -digital -hallux
describe the contraction period.
-tension is rising -lots of cross-bridge cycles -many power strokes -tension peaks
describe pinocytosis
-the cell "gulps" drops of extracellular fluid containing solutes into tiny vesicles -not receptor mediated -non selective/non specific -takes "sample" of extracellular fluid
describe the constrictor muscles phase of deglutition.
-the constrictor muscles of the pharynx contract to prevent the bolus from going back into the pharynx -food moves down the esophagus
describe the third step of defecation- defecation if the external anal sphincter relaxes.
-the internal sphincter is relaxed -contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle -you can choose to relax the external anal sphincter-it is voluntary
describe the second step of defecation- spinal reflex.
-the involuntary motor nerve, or the parasympathetic division, is activated -"action" is caused
how is the regulation of moving chyme to the stomach controlled by chemoreceptors and stretch receptors (short reflexes)?
-the presence of chyme in the duodenum triggers chemoreceptors and stretch receptors -enteric neurons are triggered -contractions of the stomach and emptying of the stomach are inhibited
how is the regulation of moving chyme to the stomach controlled by chemoreceptors and stretch receptors (long reflexes)?
-the presence of chyme in the duodenum triggers chemoreceptors and stretch receptors -the sympathetic nervous system response is increased and the parasympathetic response is decreased -contractions of the stomach and emptying of the stomach are inhibited
how is the regulation of moving chyme to the stomach controlled by chemicals?
-the presence of chyme in the duodenum triggers enteroendocrine cells to secrete signaling molecules -the signaling molecule chemicals circulate in the blood -contractions of the stomach and emptying of the stomach are inhibited
describe how exocytosis uses snare proteins
-the proteins interact with each other and form a pore in the plasma membrane and membrane of the vesicle -contents of vesicle can be released into extracellular fluid
describe the first step of defecation- feces move into and distend the rectum.
-the sigmoid colon stretches -stretch receptors in the wall send information to sensory nerve fibers
describe the gastroesophageal sphincter phase of deglutition.
-the sphincter relaxes to allow food to pass, then contracts -food enters the stomach -deglutition is finished
describe the buccal phase of deglutition.
-the tongue presses chewed food and spit against the hard palate to create a bolus -the bolus is pushed towards the pharynx -the soft palate prevents food from going upward into the nasal cavity and forces is down by smooth muscle contraction
describe hyaline cartilage.
-thin, fine collagen fibers -most abundant type of cartilage -chondrocytes -provides smooth surfaces for movements at joints -provides flexibility and support
what are the types of membrane junctions?
-tight junctions -desmosomes -gap junctions
describe intermediate filaments.
-tough -insoluble protein fibers -constructed like woven fibers -used to distribute mechanical stress
describe the 2nd step of E-C coupling (calcium ions are released).
-transmission of the action potential along the T tubules of the triads causes the voltage-sensitive tubule proteins to change shape -this shape change opens the Ca2+ release channels in the terminal cisterns of the sarcoplasmic reticulum, allowing Ca2+ to flow into the cytosol
what are examples of pancreatic enzymes that break down proteins?
-trypsin -chymotrypsin -carboxypeptidase
describe nervous tissue.
-used for internal communication -composed of neurons and glial cells -compose the brain, spinal cord, etc.
describe the circular folds of the small intestine mucosa.
-ver prominent -spiraling folded lining
describe the external anal sphincter.
-voluntary -skeletal muscle
What is the pH scale range?
0-14
Acidic solutions have a pH of...
0-6.99
How many ATP are produced from substrate level phosphorylation during 1 cycle of the Kreb's Cycle?
1
what is a motor unit?
1 motor neuron and all the muscle fibers innervated by that neuron
about how long does regeneration take to occur?
1 week
What are the 2 fates of pyruvate (what is pyruvate converted to)?
1. Anaerobically: pyruvate to lactate 2. Aerobically: pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA
Billy fell at the playground and fractured his left femur at the proximal epiphyseal plate. Consequently, his plate fused leaving his left leg shorter than his right leg. The technique involves breaking the diaphysis of the bone and fixing the portions of the bone a few millimeters apart, and then expanding the distance every day until the desired bone length is reached. Please describe the events that are taking place in Billy's left femur during this process.
1. Hematoma inflammation swelling pain 2. fibrocartilaginous callus soft callus (pink granulation tissue) - formation of new blood vessels fibroblasts chondroblasts osteoblasts and osteoclasts 3. boney callus formation of bone to replace cartilage/connective tissue 4. bone remodeling boney callus is remodeled into compact bone thicker and stronger at site of fracture
describe transcription.
1. RNA polymerase binds to the TATA box on the promoter region of the DNA 2. polymerase unwinds the DNA and begins to make a complementary RNA strand 3. polymerase continues along making RNA strand and unwinding the DNA 4. polymerase continues until it reaches the termination region 5. polymerase falls off DNA and releases the mRNA transcript 6. mRNA transcript is edited before leaving the nucleus (introns are removed and exons are joined together by DNA ligase)
describe the process of the receptor mediated second messenger system.
1. a ligand (1st messenger) binds to the receptor chemical 2. the G protein is activated by having its shape changed 3. the G protein activates (or inactivates) the effector protein by causing its shape to change 4. the effector catalyzes reactions that produce 2nd messengers in the cell 5. second messengers carry out instructions
What are the 2 parts of an enzyme?
1. apoenzyme- protein portion 2. cofactor- assist the reaction
what are the parts of the colon?
1. ascending colon 2. transverse colon 3. descending colon 4. sigmoid colon
What are the 2 major divisions of the body?
1. axial 2. appendicular
what are the major functions of connective tissue?
1. bind and support- wrap around things and hold together 2. protection- fat tissue surrounds and cushions organs 3. insulation- can help to retain heat 4. transportation of substances or heat within the body
Describe the positive feedback process when one cuts themself.
1. break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall 2. positive feedback cycle is initiated 3. platelets adhere to site and release chemicals 4. released chemicals attract more platelets 5. 3&4 repeat 6. platelet plug forms
what are the phases of deglutition?
1. buccal phase 2. pharyngeal-esophageal phase 3. constrictor muscles phase 4. peristalsis phase 5. gastroesophageal sphincter phase
what are the steps of E-C coupling (contraction) of smooth muscle?
1. calcium ions enter the cytosol from the extracellular matrix and sarcoplasmic reticulum 2. Ca2+ binds to and activates calmodulin 3. activated calmodulin activates the myosin light chain kinase enzymes 4. the activated kinase enzymes catalyze the transfer of phosphate to myosin, activating the myosin ATPases 5. activated myosin forms cross bridges with actin of the thin filaments
What are the 2 types of metabolism?
1. catabolism 2. anabolism
what are the subdivisions of the large intestine?
1. cecum 2. colon 3. rectum 4. anal canal
what are the 3 main arteries that supply the GI tract?
1. celiac artery 2. superior mesenteric artery 3. inferior mesenteric artery
what are the adaptations for nutrient absorption made to the mucosa in the small intestine?
1. circular folds 2. villi 3. microvilli
what are the types of fibers in connective tissue?
1. collagen fibers 2. elastic fibers 3. reticular fibers
what are the common properties of connective tissue?
1. common origin- mesenchyme (originate from same cells during embryogenesis) 2. extracellular matrix (non cellular) 3. degrees of vascularity (lacks uniformity)
what are the 2 types of epithelium?
1. covering or lining epithelium 2. glandular epithelium
What are the 4 steps of cross-bridge cycling?
1. cross bridge formation 2. the power (working) stroke 3. cross bridge detachment 4. cocking of the myosin 5. repeat
what are the 2 major regions of a tooth?
1. crown 2. root
What are the 2 branches of microscopic anatomy?
1. cytology 2. histology
in general, how do we move food though the alimentary canal?
1. deglutition (swallowing) 2. gastric emptying (peristalsis) 3. defecation (eliminating food and bacteria)
what are the 2 regions of multicellular glands?
1. duct 2. secretory region
what are the regions of the small intestine and their lengths?
1. duodenum (1 foot) 2. jejunum (8 feet) 3. ileum (12 feet)
what are the phases of mitosis?
1. early prophase 2. late prophase 3. metaphase 4. anaphase 5. telophase
what are the components of the cutaneous membrane?
1. epidermis- keratinized stratified squamous epithelium 2. dermis- areolar loose connective tissue and dense irregular connective tissue
What are 2 things we excrete?
1. feces 2. CO2
what are the steps of defecation?
1. feces move into and distend the rectum 2. spinal reflex 3. defecation if external anal sphincter relaxes
what are the structural elements of connective tissue?
1. ground substance 2. fibers (proteins produced by cells and secreted into ECM) 3. cells (different types, produce ECM elements)
overall what do membrane junctions allow cells to do?
1. hold onto each other forming sheets 2. make water tight connections 3. communicate
what are the types of cartilage?
1. hyaline 2. elastic 3. fibrocartilage
Little Bobby scraped his knee while on the playground. Discuss the stages of wound healing Bobby can expect to see.
1. inflammation injury initiates a non-specific inflammatory response chemoattractants (inflammatory chemicals) immune cells swelling and edema 2. reorganization formation of granulation tissue (mostly capillaries) more immune cells new fibroblasts help produce connective tissue that holds the wound together (beginning of fibrosis) regeneration of epithelium begins 3. regeneration and fibrosis clear evidence of epithelial regeneration presence of fibrotic tissue (if visible-called a scar)
what are the 3 steps of tissue repair?
1. inflammation stage 2. organization 3. regeneration and fibrosis
what are the steps of translation? describe each.
1. initiation- ribosome attaches to mRNA and begins translation 2. elongation- ribosome lengthens the polypeptide 3. termination- the ribosome stops and drops off
what are the 2 sphincters of the anal canal?
1. internal anal sphincter 2. external anal sphincter
what are the 2 general phases of the cell cycle?
1. interphase 2. mitotic phase
what are the two regions of the tongue?
1. intrinsic muscle 2. extrinsic muscle
Provide 2 examples of physiological gradients.
1. ion gradients across the plasma membrane 2. blood pressure- blood flows from areas of high pressure to low pressure
what are the functions of the SER?
1. lipid metabolism- triglycerides are produced, broken down, absorbed, and synthesized 2. cholesterol synthesis- in liver cells/hepatocytes 3. steroid hormone synthesis- in gonads 4. drug/alcohol detoxification- primarily in liver 5. breakdown of stored glycogen 6. calcium storage and release in muscles
what are the 2 layers of smooth muscle in the GI tract?
1. longitudinal layer (outer layer) 2. circular layer (inner layer)
what are the modes of secretion of multicellular exocrine glands?
1. merocrine secretions 2. holocrine secretions
what are the components of cellular skeletons?
1. microfilaments 2. intermediate filaments 3. microtubules
what are the 2 main phases of the mitotic phase of the cell cycle?
1. mitosis- division of the nucleus 2. cytokinesis- division of the cytoplasm
what are the 4 basic layers of the alimentary canal (from inside to outside)?
1. mucosa 2. submucosa 3. muscularis externa 4. serosa
what are the 3 distinct structures of the nucleus?
1. nuclear envelope 2. nucleolus 3. chromatin
What 3 major parts do eukaryotes generally share?
1. nucleus 2. cytoplasm 3. plasma membrane
what are the elements/layers of the muscularis externa in the stomach? (from inner to outer)
1. oblique layer 2. circular layer 3. longitudinal layer
what are the different types of serous membranes and where are they found?
1. pleura- lungs 2. pericardium- heart 3. peritoneum- GI tract
what are the phases of gastric emptying?
1. propulsion 2. grinding 3. retropulsion
what are the main functions of epithelial tissue?
1. protection (physical barrier) 2. absorption (of nutrients) 3. filtration 4. excretion (eliminates waste) 5. secretion (secrete products name by cells) 6. sensory reception (tactile perception)
what are the functions of the peritoneum?
1. reduce friction (when organs change size) 2. prevent bacteria from escaping the enclosed area
What are the 11 systems of the body?
1. skeletal 2. muscular 3. digestive 4. integumentary 5. reproductive 6. nervous 7. endocrine 8. cardiovascular 9. respiratory 10. lymphatic 11. renal
how are muscle responses graded?
1. stimulation frequency 2. motor unit recruitment
Describe the negative feedback loop for when one is hot.
1. stimulus: body temperature rises 2. receptors: sensitive cells in skin and brain 3. information is sent along the afferent pathway to control center 4. control center: thermoregulatory center in the brain 5. information is sent along the efferent pathway to effectors 6. effectors: sweat glands activated 7. response: evaporation of sweat...body temperature falls...stimulus ends
what are the 2 main intrinsic nerve plexi?
1. submucosal nerve plexus 2. myenteric nerve plexus
what are the 4 steps in E-C coupling?
1. the action potential propagates along the sarcolemma and down the T tubules 2. calcium ions are released 3. calcium binds to troponin and removes the blocking action of tropomyosin 4. contraction begins
what are 2 examples of the stress-relaxation response?
1. the bladder when full ... when the urge to go goes away (the smooth muscle resets to a new length) 2. the stomach
what are the 4 steps that can be taken to stop muscle contraction?
1. the release of ACh is stopped 2. acetylcholinesterase is released 3. ACh is re-uptaken into the axon terminal 4.ACh is washed out from the synaptic cleft
what makes the sodium potassium pump able to function?
1. uses ATP to add a phosphate to the pump, which changes its shape 2. moves Na+ across the membrane 3. takes up K+ and the phosphate is cleaved off to release
what are the 3 types of salivary glands?
1.parotid 2.submandibular 3.sublingual
Substance A has a ph of 5. Substance B has a pH of 6. Substance A has ___ times more H+ than substance B.
10
the tongue has ___ layers.
2
What is an organ system?
2 or more organs that cooperate to form a particular function
how many teeth do we have as a child?
20
the small intestine is about ___ feet long.
21
humans have ___ pairs of chromosomes, ___ autosomal and ___ sex.
23, 22, 1
Ribosomes move forward by ___ nucleotide units during translation.
3
ribosomes have ___ sites for tRNA
3
what is a codon?
3 RNA nucleotides/bases that code for 1 amino acid
about how often do peristalsis contractile waves occur per day in the large intestine?
3-4
how many teeth do we have as an adult?
36
in what direction does DNA polymerase work?
5' to 3' end
about ___mL of chyme moves through the pyloric valve at a time.
50
the stomach can hold about ___ mL when empty.
50
What is a neutral pH?
7
Basic solutions have a pH of...
7.01-14
What is the average pH of blood?
7.4 (slightly basic)
about how many myofibers per motor neuron are present in the biceps brachii?
750
The composition of the secretions of the eccrine glands is ________.
99% water, sodium chloride, trace amounts of wastes, and vitamin C
Both actin and myosin are found in the ________.
A band
The giant protein titin maintains the organization of the ________ assisting in muscle stretching.
A band
The myosin filaments are located in the ________.
A band
what are the tRNA sites on a ribosome?
A site- (leading) select appropriate RNA P site- (middle) transfer amino acid chain to tRNA with new amino acid E site- (end) "used" tRNA is gotten rid of
Which of the choices below happens during the absorptive state? A) Anabolic processes exceed catabolic ones. B) No metabolism occurs. C) Only glucose metabolism occurs. D) Catabolic processes exceed anabolic ones.
A) Anabolic processes exceed catabolic ones
Select the correct statement about proteins. A) Proteins will be used by most cells for ATP synthesis if insufficient carbohydrates are ingested. B) Proteins can be synthesized in the body if most of the amino acids are present. C) Catabolic steroids (hormones) accelerate the rate of protein synthesis. D) Strict vegetarians need not worry about adequate protein intake, as most vegetables are almost perfect sources of amino acids.
A) Proteins will be used by most cells for ATP synthesis if insufficient carbohydrates are ingested.
In the liver, the amine group of glutamic acid is removed as ________ in the oxidative state. A) ammonia B) pyruvic acid C) oxaloacetic acid D) glyceraldehyde
A) ammonia
Lipogenesis occurs when ________. A) cellular ATP and glucose levels are high B) excess proteins are transported through the cell membrane C) there is a shortage of fatty acids D) glucose levels drop slightly
A) cellular ATP and glucose levels are high
Glycolysis is best defined as a catabolic reaction based upon the ________. A) conversion of glucose into two molecules of pyruvic acid B) conversion of glucose into carbon dioxide and water C) conversion of pyruvic acid into carbon dioxide and water D) formation of sugar
A) conversion of glucose into two molecules of pyruvic acid
Oxidation-reduction reactions are catalyzed by which of the following enzymes? A) dehydrogenases and oxidases B) phosphatases and kinases C) synthetases and lipases D) kinases and phosphorylases
A) dehydrogenases and oxidases
Which of the following food groups are considered good sources of complete proteins? A) eggs, milk, yogurt, meat, and fish B) lima beans, kidney beans, nuts, and cereals C) corn, cottonseed oil, soy oil, and wheat germ D) egg yolk, fish roe, and grains
A) eggs, milk, yogurt, meat, and fish
Which of the following nutrients yield the highest amount of energy per gram when metabolized? A) fats B) vitamins and minerals C) proteins D) foods and beverages high in caffeine
A) fats
Cholesterol, though it is not an energy molecule, has importance in the body because it ________. A) is a stabilizing component of the plasma membranes and is the parent molecule of steroid hormones B) helps mobilize fats during periods of starvation C) helps provide essential nutrients to the brain and lungs D) enters the glycolytic pathway without being altered
A) is a stabilizing component of the plasma membranes and is the parent molecule of steroid hormones
Anabolism includes reactions in which ________. A) larger molecules or structures are built from smaller ones B) carbohydrate utilization increases C) structural proteins are used as a potential energy source D) ketone bodies are formed
A) larger molecules or structures are built from smaller ones
The primary reason elderly people should decrease their caloric intake is that ________. A) muscle mass and metabolism decline with age B) they have a higher metabolic rate and do not need large amounts of food C) their appetite begins to diminish D) they spend most of the day at rest, and their food will quickly turn to fat
A) muscle mass and metabolism decline with age
Which of the following mechanisms produces the most ATP during cellular respiration? A) oxidative phosphorylation B) oxidation-reduction reactions C) oxidation reactions D) substrate-level phosphorylation
A) oxidative phosphorylation
Which of the following is the most important function of the liver? A) protein metabolism B) synthesis of bile salts C) carbohydrate and lipid metabolism D) processing of drugs and hormones and activation of vitamin D
A) protein metabolism
Which of the choices below is not a major route of heat exchange? A) shivering B) conduction/convection C) radiation D) evaporation
A) shivering
Many factors influence BMR. What is the most critical factor? A) the ratio of surface area to volume (weight) of the body B) the way skeletal muscles break down glycogen C) the way an individual metabolizes fat D) an individual's body weight
A) the ratio of surface area to volume (weight) of the body
what does the axon terminal store? where?
ACh (acetylcholine)... in vesicles in the axon terminal
describe step 2 of cross-bridge cycling (the power/working stroke).
ADP and P are released and the myosin head pivots and bends, changing to its bent low-energy state...as a result it pulls the actin filament toward the M line
mitochondria produce the most ___ in the body.
ATP
What is mechanical work?
ATP phosphorylates contractile proteins in muscle cells so the cells can shorten
What is chemical work?
ATP phosphorylates key reactants, providing energy to drive energy-absorbing chemical reactions
What is transport work?
ATP phosphorylates transport proteins, changing their shape, and activating them to transport solutes across cell membranes
what is the start codon for translation?
AUG- methionine
A neurotransmitter released at motor end plates by the axon terminals.
Acetylcholine
Destroys ACh.
Acetylcholinesterase
Appearance of a permanent tan; bronzing.
Addison's disease
Glycogen is formed in the liver during the ________. A) starvation period B) absorptive state C) period when the metabolic rate is lowest D) postabsorptive state
B) absorptive state
The term metabolism is best defined as ________. A) a measure of carbohydrate utilization, typically involving measurement of calories B) biochemical reactions involved in building cell molecules or breaking down molecules for energy C) the length of time it takes to digest and absorb fats D) the number of calories it takes to keep from shivering on a cold day
B) biochemical reactions involved in building cell molecules or breaking down molecules for energy
The primary function of cellular respiration is to ________. A) provide the body with adequate amounts of vitamins and minerals B) break down food molecules and generate ATP C) efficiently monitor the energy needs of the body D) determine the amount of heat needed by the human body
B) break down food molecules and generate ATP
Catabolism would be best described as a process that ________. A) causes a decline in circulating ketone bodies B) breaks down complex structures to simpler ones C) elevates glucagon levels D) builds up triglycerides during the postabsorptive state
B) breaks down complex structures to simpler ones
Prostaglandins play a role in ________. A) control of blood volume B) control of blood pressure C) skeletal muscle contraction D) noninflammatory responses
B) control of blood pressure
Which of the choices below is not a fate of carbohydrate taken into the body? A) ATP production B) conversion to a nucleic acid C) amino acid synthesis D) lipogenesis E) glycogenesis
B) conversion to a nucleic acid
The term metabolic rate reflects the ________. A) loss of energy to perspiration B) energy the body needs to perform only its most essential activities C) loss of organic molecules in urine D) energy needed to make all organic molecules
B) energy the body needs to perform only its most essential activities
In gluconeogenesis, during the postabsorptive state, amino acids and ________ are converted to glucose. A) glyceraldehyde B) glycerol C) glucagon D) glycogen
B) glycerol
Which hormone directs essentially all the events of the absorptive state? A) thyroid hormone B) insulin C) epinephrine D) growth hormone
B) insulin
Oxidation reduction reactions ________. A) are rarely coupled together B) may involve the loss of hydrogen and electrons C) utilize hydrogenases D) occur via the gain of hydrogen or the loss of oxygen
B) may involve the loss of hydrogen and electrons
What is the outcome of ketosis? A) water retention and edema B) metabolic acidosis C) metabolic alkalosis D) glucogenesis E) glycogen buildup
B) metabolic acidosis
it is important to ensure that your diet is adequately rich in vitamins because ________. A) all vitamins are water soluble and pass out of the body too quickly to ensure utilization B) most vitamins are coenzymes needed to help the body utilize essential nutrients C) very few foods contain vitamins D) vitamins provide protection against the common cold
B) most vitamins are coenzymes needed to help the body utilize essential nutrients
Which of the following statements best describes complete protein? A) meets all the minimum daily requirements for a healthy diet B) must meet all the body's amino acid requirements for maintenance and growth C) derived from meat and fish only D) derived only from legumes and other plant material
B) must meet all the body's amino acid requirements for maintenance and growth
In the case of a person who consumes a normal, balanced diet, proteins are essential to the body for all of the following except ________. A) formation of functional molecules like hemoglobin and cytochromes B) production of energy C) production of some hormones D) production of enzymes, clotting factors, and antibodies
B) production of energy
Loss of heat in the form of infrared waves is termed ________. A) convection B) radiation C) conduction D) evaporation
B) radiation
When a person's hypothalamic thermostat is set to a higher level and the actual body temperature is below that level, the person may ________. A) perspire heavily B) shiver C) exhibit vasodilation of skin vessels D) pant
B) shiver
The amount of ________ produced is probably the most important hormonal factor in determining BMR. A) prolactin B) thyroxine C) norepinephrine D) ADH
B) thyroxine
When proteins undergo deamination, the waste substance found in the urine is mostly________. A) acetyl CoA B) urea C) ammonia D) ketone bodies
B) urea
Name the pathway that accepts and begins the extraction of energy from free fatty acids?
B-oxidation
How are burns classified?
Burns are classified by the severity or depth first degree: only the epidermis is damaged second degree: the epidermis and a portion of the dermis is damaged third degree: complete damage to the epidermis and dermis
Which of the following is not true of beta oxidation? A) Every second carbon is reduced. B) Fatty acids are broken into acetic acid fragments. C) It involves the anabolism of fats. D) It occurs in the mitochondrion.
C) It involves the anabolism of fats.
Which of the following is correct? A) Most ATP from cellular respiration are produced directly in the Krebs cycle. B) Most of the ATP are produced by substrate-level phosphorylation. C) Oxidation of FADH2 eventually yields four ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. D) Glycolysis relies on substrate-level oxidation for the four ATP produced in this pathway.
C) Oxidation of FADH2 eventually yields four ATP via oxidative phosphorylation.
Which of the following best defines negative nitrogen balance? A) It occurs when amino acids are broken down by liver enzymes and carried to the bloodstream. B) A negative nitrogen balance is normal and is a way of maintaining homeostasis. C) Protein breakdown exceeds protein synthesis. D) It is a condition usually caused by having a diet low in fish and meat.
C) Protein breakdown exceeds protein synthesis
Which of the following statements is a false or incorrect statement? A) Fats and carbohydrates are oxidized directly to produce cellular energy. B) Amino acids can be used to supply energy only after being converted to a carbohydrate intermediate. C) The amino acid pool is the body's total supply of amino acids in the body's proteins. D) Excess carbohydrate and fat can be stored as such, whereas excess amino acids are oxidized for energy or converted to fat or glycogen for storage.
C) The amino acid pool is the body's total supply of amino acids in the body's proteins.
Which of the choices below is not a source of glucose during the postabsorptive state? A) glycogenolysis in the liver B) catabolism of cellular protein C) absorption of glucose from the GI tract D) lipolysis in adipose tissues and the liver
C) absorption of glucose from the GI tract
Conditions that promote the oxidative deamination and energy use of amino acids include ________. A) ammonia combining with oxygen to form urea B) adequate fat calories to provide adequate ATP formation C) excessive amounts of protein in the diet D) adequate essential amino acids
C) excessive amounts of protein in the diet
When ketone bodies are present in the blood and urine in large amounts, it usually indicates increased metabolism of ________. A) lactic acid B) glycogen C) fatty acids D) amino acids
C) fatty acids
The molecule that serves as the major source of readily available fuel for neurons and blood cells is ________. A) acetyl CoA B) fat C) glucose D) cellulose
C) glucose
Gluconeogenesis is the process in which ________. A) glycogen is formed B) glycogen is broken down to release glucose C) glucose is formed from noncarbohydrate precursors D) glucose is converted into carbon dioxide and water
C) glucose is formed from noncarbohydrate precursors
Which of the following molecules are considered key molecules at metabolic crossroads? A) acetone, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, ATP B) ATP, pyruvic acid, lactic acid C) glucose-6-phosphate, pyruvic acid, acetyl CoA D) glucose-6-phosphate, lactic acid, acetyl CoA
C) glucose-6-phosphate, pyruvic acid, acetyl CoA
Dietary fats are important because they ________. A) contribute significantly to the health of the skin B) keep blood pressure normal C) help the body absorb fat-soluble vitamins D) help prevent the common cold
C) help the body absorb fat-soluble vitamins
Oxidative deamination takes place in the ________. A) blood B) kidneys C) liver D) muscles
C) liver
What process primes a molecule to change in a way that increases its activity, produces motion, or does work? A) glycolysis B) beta oxidation C) phosphorylation D) cellular respiration
C) phosphorylation
The most abundant dietary lipids are ________. A) fatty acids B) phospholipids C) triglycerides D) cholesterol
C) triglycerides
Heat-loss mechanisms do not include ________. A) reducing activity B) behavior measures such as wearing light, loose clothing C) vasoconstriction of peripheral blood vessels D) the evaporation of sweat
C) vasoconstriction of peripheral blood vessels
Carbonic acid is how we transport the majority of ___ in our blood.
CO2
Excitation-contraction coupling requires which of the following substances?
Ca2+ and ATP
how is Ca2+ sequestered in the sarcoplasmic reticulum?
Ca2+ pumps in the SR tubules use ATP to sequester Ca2+
Activate synaptic vesicles in axon terminals.
Calcium ions
Serves as the actual "trigger" for muscle contraction by removing the inhibition of the troponin molecules
Calcium ions
what proteins/families of proteins work together to help cells advance through the cell cycle?
Cdk and cyclin
Which of the following is true about smooth muscle contraction?
Certain smooth muscle cells can actually divide to increase their numbers.
Sudoriferous glands vary in distribution over the surface of the body. Which of the following is correct?
Ceruminous glands secrete cerumen, which is thought to deter insects.
what are aquaporins?
Channel proteins which facilitate water diffusion through the membrane
Which of the following statements best describes interstitial growth?
Chondrocytes in the lacunae divide and secrete matrix, allowing the cartilage to grow from within.
Used to convert ADP to ATP by transfer of a high-energy phosphate group. A reserve high-energy compound.
Creatine phosphate
A bluish color in light-skinned individuals.
Cyanosis
As the body progresses from the absorptive to the postabsorptive state, only the ________ continues to burn glucose while every other organ in the body mostly switches to fatty acids. A) liver B) spleen C) pancreas D) brain
D) brain
Glucose can be obtained from ________. A) protein anabolism B) triglyceride anabolism C) lipogenesis D) glycogenolysis
D) glycogenolysis
Which of the following does not occur in the mitochondria? A) formation of malic acid from fumaric acid B) electron transport C) Krebs cycle D) glycolysis
D) glycolysis
Which of the choices below describes the pathway of cellular respiration (the complete oxidation of glucose)? A) lipolysis, glycogenolysis, beta oxidation B) gluconeogenesis, Krebs cycle, lipolysis C) glycogenesis, lipogenesis, electron transport chain D) glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain, oxidative phosphorylation
D) glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain, oxidative phosphorylation
The process of breaking triglycerides down into glycerol and fatty acids is known as ________. A) fat utilization B) lipogenesis C) gluconeogenesis D) lipolysis
D) lipolysis
Which of the following is a normal consequence of the activation of the heat-promoting center? A) sympathetic sweat gland activation B) increase in ADH production C) vasodilation of cutaneous blood vessels D) release of epinephrine
D) release of epinephrine
Which of the choices below is not a mechanism of heat production? A) vasoconstriction of cutaneous blood vessels B) shivering C) enhanced thyroxine release D) sweating
D) sweating
Transamination is the process whereby the amine group of an amino acid is ________. A) converted to urea B) converted to ammonia C) transferred to acetyl CoA D) transferred to a keto acid
D) transferred to a keto acid
what are chromosomes?
DNA in its condensed form (only occurs during nuclear division)
what occurs during the S phase?
DNA is replicated
what is chromatin?
DNA molecules that are tightly coiled around proteins call histones- together called nucleosomes
The lining of the marrow cavity.
Endosteum
___ neurons make up the bulk of 2 main interconnecting ___ ___ ___.
Enteric, intrinsic nerve plexi
Skin macrophages that help activate the immune system.
Epidermal dendritic cells
May indicate embarrassment, fever, hypertension, inflammation, or allergy.
Erythemia
A motor neuron and all the muscle cells that it stimulates are referred to as a motor end plate.
False
During isometric contraction, the energy used appears as movement.
False
During isotonic contraction, the heavier the load, the faster the velocity of contraction.
False
Muscle contraction will always promote movement of body parts regardless of how they are attached.
False
Once a motor neuron has fired, all the muscle fibers in a muscle contract.
False
T/F Cardiac muscle fibers depend mostly on anaerobic cellular respiration to generate ATP.
False
T/F Skin surface markings that reflect points of tight dermal attachment to underlying tissues are called epidermal ridges.
False
Contain abundant amounts of glycogen.
Fast (oxidative or glycolytic), fatigable fibers
Have very fast-acting myosin ATPases and depend upon anaerobic metabolism during contraction.
Fast (oxidative or glycolytic), fatigable fibers
Which of the following statements best describes what fingernails actually are?
Fingernails are a modification of the epidermis.
what are the phases of interphase?
G1, S, G2
name the protein that transports glucose across the membrane via facilitated diffusion
GLUT (glucose transporter)
The breakdown of glycogen to release glucose is called?
Glucogenolysis
Name the metabolic pathway that can extract energy from glycerol?
Glycolysis
An incomplete fracture or cracking of the bone without actually separation of the parts. Common in children
Greenstick
Only myosin is found in the ________.
H zone
HCl --> ?
H+ + Cl-
H2CO3 --> ?
H+ + HCO3-
What does an acid breakdown into?
H+ and an anion-
How is pepsinogen activated?
HCl (acid)
The ________ contains only the actin filaments.
I band
what are the types of troponin?
I, C, and T
In addition to protection (physical and chemical barrier), the skin serves other functions. Which of the following is another vital function of the skin?
It converts modified epidermal cholesterol to a vitamin D precursor important to calcium metabolism.
Usually indicates a liver disorder.
Jaundice
The protein found in the epidermis that is responsible for toughening the skin.
Keratin
The most abundant cells of the epidermis.
Keratinocytes
Involves the removal of hydrogen electrons and CO2 from the substrate molecule.
Krebs cycle and electron transport chain
involves the use of oxygen to pick up excess hydrogen and electron
Krebs cycle and electron transport chain
produces the most ATP
Krebs cycle and electron transport chain
Water loss through the epidermis could cause a serious threat to health and well-being. Which of the following protects us against excessive water loss through the skin?
Lamellated granules of the cells of the stratum granulosum, a glycolipid that is secreted into extracellular spaces.
The thick filaments are held in place at the ________.
M line
The stimulus above which no stronger contraction can be elicited, because all motor units are firing in the muscle.
Maximal stimulus
Select the most correct statement concerning skin cancer.
Melanomas are rare but must be removed quickly to prevent them from metastasizing.
Cells plus a disc-like sensory nerve ending that functions as a sensory receptor for touch.
Merkel disc
The thicker filaments are the ________ filaments.
Myosin
Cells have a polarized membrane where the inside is negative relative to the outside of the cell. Though many ions and proteins are involved, which are the two most important ions and where are they located?
Na+ (outside the cell) K+ (inside the cell)
What is depolarization of a membrane?
Na+ cations override the negative charge that is inside the membrane, so the inside of the membrane briefly becomes positive (increase in membrane potential)
in homeostasis, there is mostly ___ outside of the cell and ___ inside of the cell.
Na+, K+
what is the name of the fragments of DNA produced by polymerase on the lagging strand?
Okazaki fragments
On a dare, Sam consumed two pitchers of tap water in less than 90 seconds. Before long he started to experience a headache and confusion. Sam's friend took him to the ER where they diagnosed him with Acute Water intoxication (or poisoning). Briefly explain how tap water consumption could lead to Sam's symptoms.
Osmosis! Sam drinks an excessive amount of water this dilutes extracellular water (becomes hypotonic) electrolyte (salt) concentrations differ across the membrane cells take in water and expand (swell)
Bone formed is poorly mineralized and soft. Deforms on weight bearing.
Osteomalacia
Bones are porous and thin but bone composition is normal
Osteoporosis
Abnormal bone formation and reabsorption
Paget's disease
May indicate fear, anger, anemia, or low blood pressure.
Pallor
________ is an inherited condition that affects the heme pathway; it leaves the skin scarred and gums degenerated, and may have led to the folklore about vampires.
Porphyria
Which of the following statements indicates the way in which the body's natural defenses protect the skin from the effects of UV damage?
Prolonged exposure to the sun induces melanin dispersion, which in turn acts as a natural sunscreen.
what are ribosomes made of?
RNA and protein
DNA--> ___ --> ____
RNA, protein
Considering that humans are rarely without oxygen, what is the benefit at anaerobic metabolism of glucose?
Recycle NAD in cytosol and glycolysis can continue to produce pyruvate and ATP; rapid ATP production
Although the integument is a covering, it is by no means simple, and some of its functions include ________.
Resident macrophage-like cells whose function is to ingest antigenic invaders and present them to the immune system
what is the neck of a tooth?
Segway from crown to tooth- associated with the gums
Compare and contrast the protein synthetic pathways for cytosolic and packaged proteins.
Similarities: both begin with expression of gene in DNA to mRNA both begin in the nucleolus both involve the editing or splicing of mRNA mRNA must be shuttled out of the nucleolus by a chaperone ribosome translates into peptide/protein Differences: ribosome releases the protein into the cytosol for cytosolic proteins while it inserts the protein into the rough ER for packaged proteins cytosolic proteins are folded in the cytosol while packaged proteins are folded in the rough ER packaged proteins are modified in the rough ER and cytosolic proteins are not modified packaged proteins are transported to the golgi apparatus for further post-translational modification while cytosolic proteins are not modified post-translationally packaged proteins are stored in vesicles until they are secreted while cytosolic proteins remain in the cytosol
A relatively high percentage are found in successful marathon runners.
Slow (oxidative), fatigue-resistant fibers
Abundant in muscles used to maintain posture.
Slow (oxidative), fatigue-resistant fibers
Depends on oxygen delivery and aerobic mechanisms.
Slow (oxidative), fatigue-resistant fibers
Red fibers, the smallest of the fiber types.
Slow (oxidative), fatigue-resistant fibers
Diffusion across the cell membrane results in depolarization.
Sodium-potassium ions
Which type of skin cancer appears as a scaly reddened papule and tends to grow rapidly and metastasize?
Squamous cell carcinoma
The layer of the epidermis where the cells are considered protective but nonviable.
Stratum corneum
Continued sustained smooth contraction due to rapid stimulation.
Tetanus
Despite its apparent durability, the dermis is subject to tearing. How might a person know that the dermis has been stretched and/or torn?
The appearance of visible, silvery-white scars is an indication of stretching of the dermis.
Changes in the color of skin are often an indication of a homeostatic imbalance. Which of the following changes would suggest that a patient is suffering from Addison's disease?
The skin takes on a bronze or metallic appearance.
The design of a person's epidermal ridges is determined by the manner in which the papillae rest upon the dermal ridges to produce the specific pattern known as handprints, footprints, and fingerprints. Which of the following statements is true regarding these prints or ridges?
They are genetically determined, therefore unique to each person.
Which of the following describes the cells of single-unit visceral muscle?
They exhibit spontaneous action potentials.
The phenomenon in which the contraction strength of a muscle increases, due to increased Ca2+ availability and enzyme efficiency during the warm-up.
Treppe
What is the role of tropomyosin in skeletal muscles?
Tropomyosin serves as a contraction inhibitor by blocking the myosin binding sites on the actin molecules.
A contraction in which the muscle does not shorten but its tension increases is called isometric
True
A resting potential is caused by a difference in the concentration of certain ions inside and outside the cell.
True
Although there are no sarcomeres, smooth muscle still possesses thick and thin filaments.
True
An increase in the calcium ion level in the sarcoplasm starts the sliding of the thin filaments. When the level of calcium ions declines, sliding stops.
True
Contractures are a result of a total lack of ATP.
True
Eccentric contractions are more forceful than concentric contractions.
True
Muscle tone is the small amount of tautness or tension in the muscle due to weak, involuntary contractions of its motor units.
True
One of the important functions of skeletal muscle contraction is production of heat.
True
Peristalsis is characteristic of smooth muscle.
True
Single-unit smooth muscle is found in the intestines.
True
Smooth muscles relax when intracellular Ca2+ levels drop but may not cease contractions.
True
T/F Muscle tension remains relatively constant during isotonic contraction.
True
T/F Striated muscle cells are long and cylindrical with many nuclei.
True
T/F The apocrine sweat glands are fairly unimportant in thermoregulation.
True
The effect of a neurotransmitter on the muscle cell membrane is to modify its ion permeability properties temporarily.
True
The force of muscle contraction is controlled by multiple motor unit summation or recruitment.
True
The thin filaments (actin) contain a polypeptide subunit G actin that bears active sites for myosin attachment.
True
When a muscle fiber contracts, the I bands diminish in size, the H zones disappear, and the A bands move closer together but do not diminish in length.
True
what are the stop codons for translation?
UAA, UAG, UGA
If a tRNA had an AUC anticodon, it could attach to a(n) ________ mRNA codon.
UAG
Hair that lacks pigment and is often called "immature hair.
Vellus
The situation in which contractions become stronger due to stimulation before complete relaxation occurs.
Wave summation
what is wave summation?
When a muscle receives a 2nd stimulus before the 1st is complete, causing the contraction to be stronger and there to be more tension
Briefly explain how the two humeri of a tennis player may vary, and how nutrition might affect this process.
Wolff's Law states that bones remodel according to the demands placed on it. The dominant arm experiences more physical/mechanical stress than the non-dominant arm, thus stimulating greater remodeling. Calcium intake affects calcitonin and PTH secretion. Increased Ca intake raises the blood calcium concentration and promotes new bone formation, making bones stronger, independent of mechanical stress. PTH is secreted when the blood calcium concentrations are low and promotes osteoclasts from breaking down bone
during sarcomere shortening, the distance between the ___ ___ decrease without changing the length of the ___ ___.
Z disc, A band
A sarcomere is the distance between two ________.
Z discs
The thin filaments are held in place by the _______.
Z discs
what is G0?
a cell does not advance from G1 to S, instead it enters G0 and is amitotic or post-mitotic
what will happen to a cell in a hypotonic solution?
a cell will take in water by osmosis until it becomes bloated and bursts (lyses)
Describe digestion.
a chemical and mechanical breakdown of things
what is a polyribosome?
a cluster of ribosomes translating the same mRNA, but positioned at different sites along the mRNA
what are v-snares?
a complementary set of proteins on the outside of a vesicle
what are proteasomes? what do they do?
a complex of protein digesting enzymes- degrade proteins into small peptides and amino acids
What is an acid?
a compound which donates a hydrogen ion (H+) (or proton) to another compound
What does lack of consistency in the internal environment (homeostatis) lead to?
a disease state
what are receptors and what do they do?
a diverse group of integral and glycoproteins that serve as binding sites- receive signals at the membrane
Homeostasis is the condition in which the body maintains ________.
a dynamic internal environment, within limits
What is homeostasis?
a dynamic state of equilibrium which maintains a relatively constant internal environment
what is a glycolipid?
a lipid with a sugar attached
Three discrete types of muscle fibers are identified on the basis of their size, speed, and endurance. Which of the following athletic endeavors best represents the use of red fibers?
a long, relaxing swim
Most skeletal muscles contain ________.
a mixture of fiber types
what is chyme?
a mixture of partially digested food, water, and gastric juices
what is a neuromuscular junction?
a nerve comes in contact with a myofiber
what is ACh?
a neurotransmitter that stimulates skeletal muscle
what are gap junctions?
a nexus that allows chemical substances to pass between cells- creates the ability for communication between adjacent cells
What does the plasma membrane serve as?
a physical barrier separating internal and external environments
what do we have when translation is done?
a protein
what are cytosolic proteins?
a protein that functions in the cytosol
what is the G1 checkpoint?
a restriction point that makes sure the cell has what it needs before processing into the S phase
What is the functional unit of a skeletal muscle called?
a sarcomere
A gene can best be defined as _______.
a segment of DNA that carries the instructions for one polypeptide chain
what are t-snares?
a set of proteins on the plasma membrane facing the cytosol
The term aponeurosis refers to ________.
a sheetlike indirect attachment to a skeletal element
what is an SRP?
a signal recognition particle- plays an important role in association of ER and ribosomes
what is an intestinal crypt?
a small cavity found between villi
what regions are copied during transcription?
a small region called a gene
Muscle tone is ________.
a state of sustained partial contraction
What is tonic contraction?
a steadily held contraction- can be sustained at no additional energy cost
what happens at the beginning of a twitch?
a stimulus occurs (excitation of the sarcolemma)
What is embryology?
a subdivision of developmental anatomy, concerns developmental changes that occur before birth
what is another name for a neuromuscular junction?
a synapse
describe the peristalsis phase of deglutition.
about 1/2 way down the esophagus, peristaltic contractions occur, pushing food down towards the stomach
vitamin B helps ___ ___ and vitamin K is necessary for ___ ___.
absorb iron, blood clotting
Melanocytes and keratinocytes work together in protecting the skin from UV damage when keratinocytes ________.
accumulate the melanin granules on their superficial portion, forming a UV-blocking pigment layer
After nervous stimulation stops, what prevents ACh in the synaptic cleft from continuing to stimulate contraction?
acetylcholinesterase destroying the ACh
what is secreted from the gastric glands?
acid and pepsinogen
What is pH?
acid-base concentration
I troponin connects to ___.
actin
The sliding filament theory of contraction involves ________.
actin and myosin sliding over each other with partial overlap
The sliding filament model of contraction involves ________.
actin and myosin sliding past each other and partially overlapping
During muscle contraction, myosin cross bridges attach to which active sites?
actin filaments
stimulation frequency is based on how many times we create an ___ ___.
action potential
released ACh binds to receptor proteins on the sarcolemma and triggers a(n)...?
action potential in a muscle fiber
twitches are stimulated by ___ ___.
action potentials
Which of the following is not a role of ionic calcium in muscle contraction?
activates epinephrine released from adrenal gland
what does increasing magnitude of a stimulus do?
activates more motor neurons, which activates more myofibers, which allows for more cross bridges to be formed and more force to be produced
What is the region where an enzyme reacts with a reactant?
active site
what are the sets of complementary base pairs?
adenine and thymine cytosine and guanine
What does ATP stand for?
adenosine triphosphate
The protective outermost layer of the esophagus is the _________.
adventitia
the portions of the alimentary canal not located in the abdominal cavity have a ___, as opposed to the serosa.
adventitia
describe step 3 of cross-bridge cycling (cross-bridge detachment).
after ATP attaches to myosin, the link between myosin and actin weakens, and the myosin head detaches (the cross bridge breaks)
The role of calcium in skeletal muscle contraction is to _________.
allow the formation of cross-bridges
The function of the root hair plexus is to ________.
allow the hair to assist in touch sensation
what is intrinsic factor for?
allows us to absorb vitamin B12
contraction of the circular layer and longitudinal layer ___.
alternate
what is peristalsis?
alternating contractions and relaxation of smooth muscle that mix and squeeze substances through the lumen of the GI tract
when are Cdks in the cell?
always
What is adenosine?
an adenine and a ribose
what is bile?
an emulsifier released from the liver that mixes with fats and helps to break them up
what does myosin act as in step 4 of cross-bridge cycling?
an enzyme
what is acetylcholinesterase?
an enzyme that breaks down ACh
what is the serosa made up of?
an epithelial layer and a connective tissue layer
what is inflammation?
an innate, non-specific response to tissue injury
For intramembranous ossification to take place, which of the following is necessary?
an ossification center forms in the fibrous connective tissue
what are desmosomes?
anchoring junctions scattered along the sides of cells
substances cross the ___ and ___ layers of cells in the small intestine to be absorbed.
apical, basal
What is found in the axillary regions after puberty?
apocrine glands
What is inhibited by some antiperspirants?
apocrine glands
Millions of dollars are spent on deodorants and antiperspirants each year. Explain the production of body odors frequently associated with the axillary skin.
apocrine glands produce a watery sweat with some fats. This sweat does not produce body odor until bacteria on the skin consume the fat and produce the odor
The growth pattern of bone in which matrix is laid down on the surface.
appositional growth
The process of bones increasing in width is known as ________.
appositional growth
what are the filiform papilla?
are involved in creating friction
Catalysts (are/are not) consumed in the reaction.
are not
when frequency waves are fused, individual stimuli waves (are/are not) seen.
are not
Which muscles attached to the hair follicles cause goose bumps?
arrector pili
describe step 4 of cross-bridge cycling (cocking of the myosin head).
as myosin hydrolyzes ATP to ADP and P, the myosin head returns to its pre-stroke high-energy or "cocked" position
Regarding the large intestine, what is the correct anatomical sequence?
ascending colon transverse colon descending colon sigmoid colon rectum anal canal
Catalysts ___ in a reaction.
assist
Golgi apparatus
associated with RER- plays a role in protein synthesis
What is the chemical level?
atoms combine to form molecules
the ___ ___ forms a relationship with the sarcolemma in a neuromuscular junction.
axon terminal
All epithelial tissue rests upon a ________ composed of connective tissue.
basement membrane (basal lamina)
conversion of fatty acids into acetyl groups
beta oxidation
what is released into the duodenum?
bile and pancreatic juice
what are histone proteins?
bind DNA and wrap chromatin into chromosomes
What is the role of calcium ions in muscle contraction?
bind to regulatory sites on troponin to remove contraction inhibition
What is an example of a positive feedback response?
blood clotting
The canal that runs through the core of each osteon (the Haversian canal) is the site of ________.
blood vessels and nerve fibers
What is standard anatomical position?
body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward with thumbs pointing away from body
the hard palate is composed of ___.
bone
the properties of cartilage are intermediate qualities of what 2 types of tissues?
bone and dense connective tissue
Osteogenesis is the process of ________.
bone formation
Wolff's Law suggests:
bones will weaken if they are not used
Where do enzymes assist in reactions?
both inside and occasionally outside of the cell
what are glycocalyx?
branching sugar groups attached to proteins and lipids facing extracellular space
What is a catabolic reaction?
breaks down larger molecules into smaller molecules
what does lipase do?
breaks down lipids
What does salivary amalyse do?
breaks down starch/sugar
What is an anabolic reaction?
builds larger molecules from smaller molecules
what are varicosities?
bulbous swellings of innervating nerves
how do cells form tissues and organs?
by "holding hands" and connecting to one another
how are Okazaki fragments joined together?
by DNA ligase
how are the strands of DNA unwound and separated prior to DNA replication?
by an enzyme called DNA helicase
how are epithelial tissues classified?
by cell shape and layering (strata)
how are chylomicrons transported across the basal membrane of intestinal cells into the interstitial fluid?
by exocytosis
how are amino acids transported across the basal layer of enterocytes?
by facilitated carrier proteins
how is fructose absorbed?
by facilitated diffusion
The sebaceous glands are simple alveolar glands that secrete a substance known as sebum. The secretion of sebum is stimulated ________.
by hormones, especially androgens
In the epiphyseal plate, cartilage grows ________.
by pushing the epiphysis away from diaphysis
In the epiphyseal plate, cartilage grows________.
by pushing the epiphysis away from the diaphysis
How do you regulate the function of enzymes and proteins in general?
by regulating the shape (of the apoenzyme)
how do fatty acids and monoglycerides enter intestinal cells?
by simple diffusion
how is smooth muscle contraction controlled/regulated?
by the autonomic nervous system
Burns are devastating and debilitating because of loss of fluids and electrolytes from the body. How do physicians estimate the extent of burn damage associated with such dangerous fluid loss?
by using the "rule of nines"
C troponin associates with ___.
calcium
what is cross-bridge cycling regulated by?
calcium
Normal bone formation and growth are dependent on the adequate intake of ________.
calcium, phosphate, and vitamin D
Small channels that radiate through the matrix of bone.
canaliculi
chromatin (can, cannot) be seen with a light microscope.
cannot
enamel (can/cannot) be replaced.
cannot
Salivary amylase initiates the digestion of _______.
carbohydrates
The esophagus enters at what anatomical region of the stomach?
cardia
the ___ is the region of the stomach associated with the esophagus.
cardia
the ___ ___ regulates food from moving to the esophagus from the stomach.
cardiac sphincter
What is the first threat to life from a massive third-degree burn?
catastrophic fluid loss
what does the shape change of troponin cause?
causes pulling on tropomyosin, exposing the myosin binding sites, allowing for a cross-bridge to form
what is repolarization of a membrane?
cell membrane potential is returning to resting potential
what does it mean that epithelial tissue has specialized contacts?
cells are held together and connect to other tissues in the body
What is the cellular level?
cells are made up of molecules
what are chief cells?
cells in the gastric glands that produce pepsinogen
what are mucous neck cells?
cells in the upper region of the gland that produce mucous
what are enterocytes?
cells that play a vital role in the absorption of nutrients
What are enteroendocrine cells?
cells that secrete gastric, histamine, endorphins, and serotonin (signaling molecules) into the body
what connects the root of the tooth to the periodontal ligament?
cement
what does the centrosome matrix contain?
centrioles
What happens in early prophase?
centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell
strands of replicated DNA associate with each other at the ___.
centromere
where are lysosomes and peroxisomes common?
certain types of white blood cells
The ________ gland is a modified sudoriferous gland that secretes wax.
ceruminous
In an isotonic contraction, the muscle ________.
changes in length and moves the "load"
What does phosphorylation and dephosphorylation do to a protein?
changes its shape
Which of the following is not a way muscle contractions can be graded?
changing the type of muscle fibers involved in the contraction
how do molecules move with facilitated diffusion?
channel or carrier proteins
what does the tongue play an important role in?
chewing and directing food
Pepsinogen is secreted by which of the secretory cells of the stomach?
chief cells
what is the primary cell type of cartilage?
chondroblasts
The cells responsible for the early stages of endochondral ossification.
chondrocytes
What happens in metaphase?
chromosomes align on the spindle equator
what does the muscularis externa do in the stomach?
churns, or mixes up food with the acidic secretions and enzymes in the stomach to make chyme
a sphincter is a ___ muscle.
circular
Identify three ways the small intestine is modified to increase the surface area for digestion and absorption.
circular folds, villi, microvilli
what protein does receptor mediated endocytosis use? what is it used for?
clathrin- creates a protein coat
when we are swallowing, the epiglottis is ___.
closed
proximal
closer to the trunk
All types of cartilage contain ________.
collagen
peristalsis increases the chance that the food...?
comes in contact with the lumen to allow for absorption/digestion
Bone fragments into many pieces.
comminuted
Which of the following is not a function of the skeletal system?
communication
The structure of bone tissue suits the function of the bone. What bone tissue is adapted to support weight and withstand tension stress?
compact bone
The structure of bone tissue suits the function. Which of the following bone tissues is adapted to support weight and withstand tension stress?
compact bone
DNA strands are ___.
complementary
nucleotides have ___ bases
complementary
what is it called when frequency waves of contraction are fused?
complete tetanus
What controls the force of muscle contraction?
concentric contractions
chromosomes
condensed DNA
what is the submucosa made of?
connective tissue
what is the periodontal ligament?
connective tissue connecting the tooth to the bone- holds the tooth in place
what tissue is epithelial tissue supported by? what is it referred to as?
connective tissue- basement membrane (basal lamina or propria lamina)
what is a gland?
consists of 1 or more cells that make and secrete a particular product (secretion made of protein)
what is the pulp cavity?
contains blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue
lysosome
contains digestive enzymes
peroxisome
contains hydrogen peroxide
___ of life has a cellular basis.
continuity
what are epithelial membranes?
continuous multicellular sheet composed of at least 2 primary cell types- epithelium lies on connective tissue
The phase during a muscle twitch where muscle force production rises is called ________.
contraction
what is phasic contraction?
contraction and relaxation of a single unit
the gastrocolic reflex signals ___.
contractions
what does the myenteric nerve plexus do?
controls GI tract motility (circular and longitudinal muscle)
A needle would pierce the epidermal layers of the forearm in which order?
corneum, granulosum, spinosum, basale
Name the layers of the epidermis in the order that a needle would penetrate the skin of the palm of your hand.
corneum, lucidum, granulosum, spinosum, basale
Cell remnants of the stratum corneum.
cornified keratinocytes
what is the enamel?
covers teeth- hydroxyapatite
through which process do the filaments in sarcomere shortening slide?
cross-bridge cycling
stimulation frequency is a ___ measurement while motor unit recruitment is ___.
crude, precise
what do incisors do?
cut/nip off food
Specifically, where does glycolysis take place?
cytosol/cytoplasm
what is the nucleolus?
dark staining region where ribosomes are assembled and RNA is produced
How does particle size influence reaction rate?
decreased particle size leads to increased reaction rate (move more with less energy)
What can a deficiency of growth hormone during bone formation cause?
decreased proliferation of the epiphyseal plate cartilage
blood flow ___ to the digestive organs when you exercise.
decreases
what is proteolysis?
degradation of soluble cytosolic proteins
_____ are the enzymes that transfer hydrogens and electrons are one molecule to another.
dehydrogenase
what does DNA stand for?
deoxyribonucleic acid
The papillary layer of the dermis is connective tissue heavily invested with blood vessels. The superficial surface has structures called:
dermal papillae
What are regional terms?
designate specific areas within body divisions
_________ are membrane junctions that distribute tension across a sheet of cells.
desmosomes
A fracture in the shaft of a bone would be a break in the ________.
diaphysis
The area of long bones where cartilage cells are replaced by bone cells.
diaphysis
what does ACh do in the synaptic cleft?
diffuses and binds with receptors, causing a shape change
Nutrients reach the surface of the skin (epidermis) through the process of ________.
diffusing through the tissue fluid from blood vessels in the dermis
Discuss the digestion and absorption of a starchy food like pasta.
digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase most digestion occurs in small intestine due to pancreatic amylase brush border enzymes break small polysaccharides into monosaccharides at the epithelial lining absorption across the apical membrane occurs due to secondary active transport (cotransport) with Na+ ions transport across the basal membrane occurs via facilitated diffusion
the small intestine is the body's major ___ organ. what occurs most here?
digestive... absorption occurs most here
during sarcomere shortening, the I band and H zone ___.
diminish
what is primary active transport?
direct use of ATP to carry out active transport
monosaccharides compose ___, such as, ___, ___, and ___.
disaccharides, lactose, maltose, sucrose
how do microtubules function in mitosis and meiosis?
disassemble and reassemble to form the mitotic spindle
connective tissue is the most widely ___ and ___ of the primary tissues.
distributed, abundant
what disease results when fecal matter gets trapped in the haustrum?
diverticulitis
myosin heads (do/do not) move at the same time.
do not
what are mesenteries?
double sheets of peritoneal membrane that come close together
ions diffuse ___ their concentration gradient in the synaptic cleft.
down
Factors in preventing (or delaying) osteoporosis include ________.
drinking fluoridated water
the cutaneous membrane is a ___ membrane. what does this mean?
dry- has some secretions sometimes
describe compound ducts.
duct branches
Osteomyelitis is ________.
due to pus-forming bacteria
The chyme leaving the stomach enters what region of the small intestine?
duodenum
the ___ is where food goes after it is in the stomach.
duodenum
Homeostasis is (dynamic/static).
dynamic
Explain why we give NADH a greater ATP value than FADH even though both are electron/H+ carriers?
e- from NADH creates a larger H+ gradient to power ATP synthase
Sudoriferous (sweat) glands are categorized as two distinct types. Which of the following are the two types of sweat glands?
eccrine and apocrine
What is important for thermoregulation?
eccrine glands
What is the most abundant sweat gland?
eccrine glands
the epiglottis is made of ___ ___.
elastic cartilage
In some cases the epiphyseal plate of the long bones of children closes too early. What might be the 83) cause?
elevated levels of sex hormones
what is the root?
embedded in bone
The hardest substance in the body, found in the tooth, is called ________.
enamel
what are the types of glands?
endocrine and exocrine
What surrounds the individual muscle fiber?
endomysium
Which of the following surrounds the individual muscle cell?
endomysium
describe step 1 of cross-bridge cycling (cross bridge formation).
energized myosin head attaches to an actin myofilament, forming a cross bridge
A reaction requires a certain amount of ___ to occur.
energy
what is unique about passive transport?
energy is not used
What is activation energy?
energy needed to start a reaction
What is the functional role of the T tubules?
enhance cellular communication during muscle contraction
The main effect of the warm-up period of athletes, as the muscle contractions increase in strength, is to ________.
enhance the availability of calcium and the efficiency of enzyme systems
________ cells absorb the nutrients in the small intestine.
enterocytes
the route of absorption is through ___.
enterocytes
what does pepsin do?
enzyme that breaks down proteins by degrading bonds between amino acids
When the substrate is in the active site, it is called a ...
enzyme-substrate complex
What are biological catalysts?
enzymes
what do some peripheral membrane proteins function as?
enzymes and signaling proteins
The appearance of this structure signals the end of bone growth.
epiphyseal line
Area where bone longitudinal growth takes place.
epiphyseal plate
Which structure allows the diaphysis of the bone to increase in length until early childhood, as well as shaping the articular surfaces?
epiphyseal plate
what are the small sacs of adipose tissue on the large intestine called?
epiploic appendages
what is the mucosa made of?
epithelium and connective tissue (lamina propria-loose areolar)
describe multicellular exocrine glands.
epithelium derived duct and a secretory unit of secretory cells
what do we want/ what is the goal of passive transport?
equilibrium on both sides of the membrane
the ___ carries food to the stomach.
esophagus
the pharynx leads to the ___ and ___.
esophagus, trachea
What cells are humans made up of?
eukaryotic cells
how often is the stomach lining (mucosa layer) renewed/replaced? how?
every 3-6 days by stem cells in the gastric pits
where in the body is connective tissue found?
everywhere
the events at the neuromuscular junction set the stage for E-C coupling by providing ___.
excitation
what is the trans face of the Golgi apparatus?
exiting/shipping side
salivary glands are ___ glands.
exocrine
The major regions of a hair shaft include all of the following except
external root sheath
What is not included in the major regions of a hair shaft?
external root sheath
Eyebrow hairs are always shorter than hairs on your head because ________.
eyebrow follicles are only active for a few months
Manny does not pluck or trim his eyebrows, yet his eyebrow hairs only grow to about 1/2 inch long. Explain to Manny why his eyebrows remain so short while the hair on his scalp can grow several inches long.
eyebrow hairs have short active growth cycles before they become dormant and the hair falls out. The result is that the hair appears to stop growing Other hair, like that of the scalp, can grow very long because it has long growth and short dormant cycles
what is tonic contraction?
fairly constant contraction (holding it)
A deficit of potassium can cause rickets.
false
A dipeptide can be broken into two amino acids by dehydration synthesis.
false
A group of cells that are similar in structure and perform a common or related function are called membranes.
false
A major characteristic of fibrocartilage is its unique amount of flexibility and elasticity.
false
A motor neuron and all the muscle cells that it stimulates are referred to as a motor end plate.
false
About 60% to 80% of the volume of most living cells consists of organic compounds.
false
Achilles was wounded by damage to the tendon connecting his calf muscles to his heel. This and all tendons are composed mainly of dense irregular connective tissue.
false
All athletes require diets high in protein and calories in order to perform and to maintain their muscle mass.
false
All bones formed by intramembranous ossification are irregular bones.
false
Approximately 65% of the mass of bone is a compound called collagen.
false
Aquaporins are believed to be present in red blood cells and kidney tubules, but very few other cells in the body.
false
Beta oxidation is the initial phase of fatty acid oxidation, and it occurs in the cytoplasm.
false
Bone tissue in the skeleton of a human fetus is completely formed at six months' gestation.
false
Bones are classified by whether they are weight bearing or protective in function.
false
Bones formed by endochondral ossification are flat bones
false
Bones formed by endochondral ossification are flat bones.
false
Buffers cause abrupt and large changes in the pH of the body by releasing or binding H+ ions.
false
Ceruminous glands are modified merocrine glands.
false
Chemical properties are determined primarily by neutrons.
false
Chromatin consists of DNA and RNA.
false
Closure of the epiphyseal plate stops all bone growth.
false
Compact bone is replaced more often than spongy bone.
false
Connective tissues always exhibit polarity; that is, they have an apical surface and a basal surface.
false
Connective tissues that possess a large quantity of collagen fibers often provide the framework for organs such as the spleen and lymph nodes.
false
DNA contains "dark matter" that codes for specific structural proteins.
false
DNA transcription is another word for DNA replication.
false
Dentin anchors the tooth in place.
false
Destruction of the matrix of the hair bulb would result in its inability to produce oil.
false
Dietary protein (amino acids) are transported across the basal membrane of enterocytes via secondary active transport.
false
Diets high in cholesterol and saturated fats tend to produce high HDL concentrations.
false
During isometric contraction, the energy used appears as movement.
false
During isotonic contraction, the heavier the load, the faster the velocity of contraction.
false
Embryology concerns the structural changes that occur in an individual from conception through old age.
false
Endocrine glands are often called ducted glands.
false
Endothelium covers and lines internal cavities such as the pleural and peritoneal cavities.
false
Except for lactose and some glycogen, the carbohydrates we ingest are mainly from animals.
false
Facilitated diffusion always requires a carrier protein.
false
Glycolysis is a series of six chemical steps, most of which take place in the mitochondria.
false
If one motor neuron has an action potential all of the muscle fibers in a muscle contract.
false
In newborn infants, the medullary cavity and all areas of spongy bone contain yellow bone marrow.
false
In newborn infants, the medullary cavity and all areas of spongy bone contain yellow bone 38) marrow.
false
In newborn infants, the medullary cavity and all areas of spongy bone contain yellow bone marrow.
false
In osmosis, movement of water occurs toward the solution with the lower solute concentration.
false
In their resting state, all body cells exhibit a resting membrane potential ranging from -50 to about +50 millivolts.
false
Including the ATP from glycolysis, the cell gains 34 ATP molecules from aerobic metabolism of one glucose molecule.
false
Intercalated discs and striations are found in skeletal muscle.
false
Isotopes differ from each other only in the number of electrons contained.
false
Joe just burned himself on a hot pot. A blister forms and the burn is painful. Joe's burn would best be described as a third-degree burn.
false
Lipids are a poor source of stored energy.
false
Merocrine glands produce their secretions by accumulating their secretions internally and then rupturing the cell.
false
Microfilaments are thin strands of the contractile protein myosin.
false
Most connective tissues have regenerative capacity, while most epithelial tissues do not.
false
Most organelles are bounded by a membrane that is quite different in structure from the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane.
false
Muscle contraction will always promote movement of body parts regardless of how they are attached.
false
Negative feedback systems are responsible for a disruption of homeostasis.
false
Nervous tissue consists mainly of neurons and collagen fibers.
false
Normal body temperature range is 98.6-100°F, regardless of external temperature.
false
Once a motor neuron has fired, all the muscle fibers in a muscle contract.
false
Pepsinogen is the precursor to the gastric enzyme for protein digestion and is secreted by the parietal cells.
false
Peristalsis is the alternating contraction and relaxation of skeletal muscle layers in the alimentary canal
false
Peristalsis is the alternating contraction and relaxation of skeletal muscle layers in the alimentary canal.
false
Processes that break down complex molecules into simpler ones are anabolic.
false
Rigor mortis is a muscle contraction with excess ATP.
false
Salivary glands exhibit simple tubuloalveolar glandular arrangement.
false
Short, irregular, and flat bones have large marrow cavities in order to keep the weight of the bones light.
false
Short, irregular, and flat bones have large marrow cavities in order to keep the weight of the bones light.
false
Skeletal muscle receives Ca+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and from caveolae.
false
Skin surface markings that reflect points of tight dermal attachment to underlying tissues are called epidermal ridges.
false
Smooth muscle myosin consists of a tail, a hinge, an actin binding site, and an enzyme.
false
Stratified cuboidal epithelium is moderately rare in the body and found only in the pharynx, larynx, and anorectal junction.
false
Sweat glands are apocrine glands.
false
T/F Ceruminous glands are modified merocrine glands.
false
T/F Destruction of the matrix of the hair bulb would result in its inability to produce oil.
false
T/F Joe just burned himself on a hot pot. A blister forms and the burn is painful. Joe's burn would best be described as a third-degree burn.
false
T/F The hypodermis is composed of adipose and dense connective tissue.
false
T/F The hyponychium is commonly called the cuticle.
false
T/F The protein found in large amounts in the outermost layer of epidermal cells is collagen.
false
T/F The reason that the nail bed appears pink is the presence of a large number of melanocytes in the underlying dermis.
false
T/F The skin is not able to receive stimuli because the cells of the epidermis are not living and therefore there are no sensory receptors in the skin.
false
T/F The stratum corneum (outermost layer of skin) is a zone of approximately four layers of viable cells that are able to synthesize proteins that keep the outer layer of skin smooth and soft.
false
T/F When a patient is said to have "third-degree burns," this indicates that the patient has burns that cover approximately one-third of the body.
false
T/F When an individual is exposed to extremely low air temperatures, the dermal blood vessels will dilate so that blood and heat will be dissipated.
false
Telomeres are the regions of chromosomes that code for the protein ubiquitin.
false
The basic difference between dense irregular and dense regular connective tissues is in the amount of elastic fibers and adipose cells present.
false
The body is considered to be in nitrogen balance when the amount of nitrogen ingested in lipids equals the amount excreted in urine.
false
The body requires adequate supplies of only three minerals (calcium, sodium, chloride) and trace amounts of all others.
false
The body's thermoregulatory centers are located in the thalamus.
false
The dense fibrous connective tissue portion of the skin is located in the papillary region of the dermis.
false
The elbow is proximal to the shoulder.
false
The genetic information is coded in DNA by the regular alternation of sugar and phosphate molecules.
false
The glycocalyx is often referred to as the "cell coat" and plays a role in the transport of water across the membrane.
false
The glycocalyx is often referred to as the "cell coat," which is somewhat fuzzy and sticky with numerous cholesterol chains sticking out from the surface of the cell membrane.
false
The higher the pH, the higher the hydrogen ion concentration.
false
The hypodermis is composed of adipose and dense connective tissue.
false
The hyponychium is commonly called the cuticle.
false
The periosteum is a tissue that serves only to protect the bone because it is not supplied with nerves or blood vessels.
false
The periosteum is a tissue that serves only to protect the bone because it is not supplied with nerves or blood vessels.
false
The pharyngeal-esophageal phase of swallowing is involuntary and is controlled by the swallowing center in the thalamus and lower pons.
false
The protein found in large amounts in the outermost layer of epidermal cells is collagen.
false
The reason that the nail bed appears pink is the presence of a large number of melanocytes in the underlying dermis.
false
The right hypochondriac region contains the majority of the stomach.
false
The serous membrane that lines the peritoneal cavity wall is called visceral peritoneum.
false
The shock-absorbing pads between the vertebrae are formed of elastic cartilage.
false
The skin is not able to receive stimuli because the cells of the epidermis are not living and therefore there are no sensory receptors in the skin.
false
The soft palate rises reflexively to open the nasopharynx when we swallow food.
false
The stomach's contractile rhythm is set by pacemaker cells found in the spinal cord.
false
The stratum corneum (outermost layer of skin) is a zone of approximately four layers of viable cells that are able to synthesize proteins that keep the outer layer of skin smooth and soft.
false
The term essential nutrient refers to the chemicals that can be interconverted in the liver so that the body can maintain life and good health.
false
There are no complete proteins. All animal products should be eaten with plant material to make a complete protein.
false
Vitamins are inorganic compounds that are essential for growth and good health.
false
When a patient is said to have "third-degree burns," this indicates that the patient has burns that cover approximately one-third of the body.
false
When an individual is exposed to extremely low air temperatures, the dermal blood vessels will dilate so that blood and heat will be dissipated.
false
buffers cause abrupt and large changes in the pH of the body by releasing or binding H+ ions
false
cellular respiration is an anabolic process
false
connective tissues always exhibit polarity; that is, they have a apical surface and basal surface
false
covalent bonds are generally less stable than ionic bonds
false
dietary protein (amino acids) are transported across the basal membrane of enterocytes via secondary
false
group of cells that are similar in structure and perform a common or related function are called membranes
false
hydrogen bonds are comparatively strong bonds
false
if one motor neuron has an action potential all the muscle fibers in a muscle contract
false
negative feedback systems are responsible for a disruption of homeostasis
false
rigor mortis is a muscle contraction with excess ATP
false
skeletal muscle receives Ca++ from sarcoplasmic reticulum and from caveolae
false
smooth muscle myosin consists of a tail, a hinge, an actin binding site, and an enzyme
false
the higher the pH, the higher the hydrogen in concentration
false
the shock-absorbing pads between the vertebrae are formed of elastic cartilage
false
distal
farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
Yellow bone marrow contains a large percentage of ________.
fat
Even slight changes in pH can be ___.
fatal
Compounds with a high pH have ___ free hydrogen ions.
few
What is the name of the cell type that gives rise to adipocytes?
fibroblasts
The dermis is a strong, flexible connective tissue layer. Which of the following cell types are likely to be found in the dermis?
fibroblasts, macrophages, and mast cells
Scapula
flat bone
when the stomach decreases in size, ___, or ___ can be seen in the mucosa and submucosa.
folds, rugae
why do cells make proteins?
for structural or enzymatic reactions
the number of cross bridges forms the amount of ___ ___.
force generated
Briefly explain the relationship between length and force development in striated muscle.
force is influenced by the number of cross-bridges formed; more cross bridges means more tension. Maximal tension is developed at the optimal length. As the sarcomere is stretched, the number of cross-bridges formed and the tension developed will decrease. As length decreases below optimal, fewer cross-bridges form due to physical interference, less tension development.
what is epithelial tissue generally?
form the covering of the surfaces of the body and compose glands
what are serous membranes?
found on closed ventral body cavities to minimize friction
Imagine you visit the gymnasium for a workout and you suddenly remember a topic from chapter 9 in EXSC 223. Rather than a moment of panic, you walk over to the dumbell rack and pick up the lowest weight and perform a bicep curl. One by one you move down the rack progressively selecting heavier weights as you pick up, curl, then set down the weight. Now explain the regulation of skeletal muscle force production from the lowest to the heaviest weight lifted.
frequency of stimulation greater frequency of stimulation myofibers increases force production until tetany due to increased cytosolic calcium and more cross-bridges motor unit recruitment more motor units are recruited as need for force increases start with small, slow motor units progressively increase number of motor units recruit larger and faster motor units until all motor units are recruited (size principle)
in simple diffusion, where and how do particles move?
from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration through the membrane
where are bacterial flora present?
from the GI tract to the anus
Cartilage grows in two ways, appositional and interstitial. What is appositional growth?
from the edges inward
the ___ is the region of the stomach directly under the diaphragm (the dome).
fundus
where is simple columnar epithelium found?
gastrointestinal tract
vesicles
generic term for membranous sacs that can store or release substances
What does the pubic include?
genital
describe hematopoietic stem cells.
give rise to blood cells
what does the submucosa contain?
glands
Synthesizing glucose from amino acids is called...
gluconeogenesis
formation of glucose from proteins or fats
gluconeogenesis
what are examples of substances moved by carrier proteins?
glucose and amino acids
Triglycerides are hydrolyzed by lipases into:
glycerol; 3 fatty acids
storage in glucose in the form of glycogen
glycogenesis
breakdown of glycogen to release glucose
glycogenolysis
An anaerobic metabolic pathway that results in the production of two net ATPs per glucose plus two pyruvic acid molecules is ________.
glycolysis
Glucose serves as the initial reactant.
glycolysis
breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid
glycolysis
occurs in the cytosol of a cell
glycolysis
What would be uniquely important to a fibroblast?
golgi apparatus
what do molars do?
grind/crush
what do premolars (bicuspids) do?
grind/crush
What are the three main components of connective tissue?
ground substance fibers cells
what composes the extracellular matrix?
ground substance and fibers
what occurs during the G2 phase?
growth and final preparation for division
Growth of bones is controlled by a symphony of hormones. Which hormone is important for bone growth during infancy and childhood?
growth hormone
enamel is the ___ substance in the body.
hardest
nuclear envelope/membrane
has 2 distinct layers and nuclear pores- restricts what enters and leaves the nuclear
The dermis ________.
has two layers
teniae coli cause the formation of ___ and is made of ___ ___.
haustrum, smooth muscle
What is the axial division?
head, neck, trunk
What causes molecules to vibrate/increase their movement?
heat
what does indigestible fiber do?
helps feces retain water and keep fecal matter moving
what does bicarbonate secreted from the pancreas do? why?
helps to neutralize the chyme from the stomach because the small intestine cannot handle the acidity
ribosome
helps to synthesize new proteins
hemorrhoids are inflammation of ___ ___.
hemorroidal veins
What is an example of homeostatic imbalance that causes disease?
high blood sugar-> diabetes
In order for the DNA molecule to get "short and fat" to become a chromosome, it must first wrap around small molecules called ________.
histones
what are gastric pits?
holes in the surface epithelium that lead down into the gastric gland
the resting membrane potential is the cell in ___.
homeostasis
How does the body maintain homeostasis?
homeostatic control
How else do cells communicate?
hormones and receptors
chemical-gates channels require ___ or ___.
hormones, neurotransmitters
what is the function of nuclear pores?
how substances enter and exit the nucleus
The most abundant skeletal cartilage type is ________.
hyaline
What kind of tissue is the forerunner of long bones in the embryo?
hyaline cartilage
Most transmembrane proteins have ____ regions facing the intra- and extracellular fluid, and ____ regions embedded in the phospholipid bilayer
hydrophilic, hydrophobic
Interstitial fluid will move towards an are of:
hypertonicity
Describe growth.
hypertrophy, increase in size, and adaptation
How does carbonic acid act as a buffer in our blood?
if pH rises, it will dissociate into its anion and its proton, thus increasing the amount of free hydrogens and lowering pH AND if pH drops, the anion and proton will recombine to form carbonic acid, decreasing the amount of free hydrogens in solution and raising pH
What does it mean that protein function is regulated by its shape?
if something changes the shape of a protein, it can become active and catalyze a reaction
what do Cdks and cyclins determine?
if we can proceed to the next phase
how does motor unit recruitment and force work?
if you have 1 myofiber, you will be able to produce X amount of force while if you have 2 myofibers, you will be able to produce 2X amount of force
the large intestine runs from the ___ ___ to the ___.
ileocecal valve, anus
The longest portion of the small intestine is the ________.
ileum
what are tonsils important for?
immune function
Where and how do action potentials occur?
in all excitable cells- by the membrane potentials caused by Na+ on inside (negative) and K+ on outside
where are gap junctions very prevalent?
in cells in the heart
where are endoplasmic reticulum well developed?
in secretory cells and liver cells
Apocrine glands, which begin to function at puberty under hormonal influence, seem to play little role in thermoregulation. Where would we find these glands in the human body?
in the axillary and anogenital area
Where is HCl primarily found in the body?
in the stomach
where are secreted or plasma proteins made?
in/on the rough endoplasmic reticulum
what is pepsinogen?
inactive form of pepsin
what is splanchnic circulation?
includes arteries that branch off the abdominal aorta to serve digestive organs and the hepatic portal circulation
what is it called when frequency waves of contraction are unfused?
incomplete tetanus
the rugae of the stomach help ___ surface area.
increase
Which of the following is not a usual result of resistance exercise?
increase in the number of muscle cells
what do the circular folds, villi, and microvilli do overall?
increase the surface area for absorption and to increase contact with enzymes
How does concentration of reactants influence reaction rate?
increased concentration of reactants leads to increased reaction rate
How does temperature influence reaction rates?
increased temperature leads to increased reaction rates
The likelihood of a reaction occurring (increases/decreases) as the amount of heat/energy increases.
increases
blood flow ___ to the digestive organs when you eat a meal.
increases
what does the muscularis mucosae do?
increases surface area to enhance absorption
Which of the choices below does not describe how recovery oxygen uptake (oxygen deficit) restores metabolic conditions?
increases the level of lactic acid in the muscle
The strongest muscle contractions are normally achieved by ________.
increasing the stimulation up to the maximal stimulus
What does organism activity depend on?
individual and collective activities of cells
muscle contraction in the large intestine is ___ and ___ ___.
infrequent, short lived
What does the pelvic include?
inguinal (groin)
what does the sympathetic nervous system control in the GI tract? what structures are a part of this?
inhibits motility...splanchnic nerves through the celiac and mesenteric plexus
In addition to storage and mechanical breakdown of food, the stomach ________.
initiates protein digestion and denatures proteins
Fatigued muscle cells that recover rapidly are the products of ________.
intense exercise of short duration
what does being a phospholipid bilayer allow the plasma membrane to do?
interact with water and fats
epithelial tissue functions as ___ tissue.
interface
What is surface (functional) anatomy?
internal body structures as they relate to the skin
The term diploë refers to the ________.
internal layer of spongy bone in flat bones
Lengthwise, long bone growth during infancy and youth is exclusively through ________.
interstitial growth of the epiphyseal plates
the alimentary canal nervous system is called the ___ ___ ___. what does it regulate?
intrinsic nerve plexus...regulates contraction of smooth muscle
the pH scale is ___ and ___.
inverse, logarithmic
what is an example of a type of substance/molecule moved though a channel protein?
ions
Hip bones
irregular bone
hyperplasia is generally ___.
irreversible
Ossification of the ends of long bones ________.
is produced by secondary ossification centers
what is the function of tRNA?
it carries an amino acid on one end determined by an anticodon sequence complementary to the RNA sequence on the mRNA
what does it mean that epithelial tissue is innervated by avascular?
it does not have access to direct nutrient supply- gets nutrients from underlying capillary beds, but has nerves
how does epithelial tissue have polarity?
it has an apical and basal surface
what happens to proteasomes and ubiquitin?
it is recycled
How does negative feedback work?
it is stimulated when a system goes out of balance... a stimulus is abnormal...a receptor detects this abnormality...the central nervous system is alerted...information is sent to an effector, which will act in order to eliminate the stimulus
what is the mitotic promoting factor and what does it do?
it is the combination of a Cdk and a cyclin- it helps the cell move from the G2 phase to the mitotic phase
how is calcium a regulator in muscles?
it keeps filaments relaxed or leads to the creation of cross-bridges
what does Ca2+ do when a signal occurs?
it moves from the interstitial fluid to the cytoplasm of the axon terminal
what must happen to cyclin after it is produced and use?
it must be degraded by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway to stop the cell from keeping moving on in the cell cycle
How does Ca2+ binding to calmodulin activate it?
it phosphorylates it
Cholesterol is an essential molecule because:
it stabilizes the membrane while allowing it to remain fluid
Describe maintaining boundaries.
keeping stuff we want in, and stuff we do not want out
formation of ketone bodies
ketogenesis
what are examples of motor molecules?
kinesin and dynein
what proteins are associated with the centromere? what do they do?
kinetochore proteins- what the mitotic spindle attaches to
Which statement correctly explains why hair appears the way it does?
kinky hair has flat, ribbonlike hair shafts
During vigorous exercise, there may be insufficient oxygen available to completely break down pyruvic acid for energy. As a result, the pyruvic acid is converted to ________.
lactic acid
What are the small spaces in bone tissue that are holes in which osteocytes live called?
lacunae
Layers of bone matrix.
lamallae
simple diffusion cannot occur with ___ molecules
large
In what organ does bacteria process the undigested chyme from the small intestine?
large intestine
What is recruited later in muscle stimulation when contractile strength increases?
larger motor units with less excitable neurons
the nucleus is the ___ organelle in the cell.
largest
Immediately following the arrival of the stimulus at a skeletal muscle cell there is a short period called the ________ period during which the events of excitation-contraction coupling occur.
latent
different proteins have different ___.
lifespans
another name for a mesentery is a ___.
ligament
What is the appendicular division?
limbs (arms and legs)
microfilaments
line interior of plasma membrane and help stabilize it- play key role in movement of cells, muscle contraction
describe the structure of the oral cavity.
lined by stratified squamous epithelium (some is keratinized)
what is the mucous membrane?
lines body cavities open to the exterior (mouth, nose, airway, GI tract, urinary tract, etc)
what does the mucosa do?
lines the lumen
the ___ tonsils are located at the base of the tongue.
lingual
what type of molecules are transported by simple diffusion?
lipid soluble molecules- CO2, O2, fatty acids, steroids
synthesis of lipids from glucose or amino acids
lipogenesis
splitting of triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids
lipolysis
the peritoneum contains ____, which is ___ ___.
liquid, hyaluronic acid
THis organs main function is to filter and process the nutrient-rich blood that is delivered to it.
liver
What receives blood via the hepatic portal system?
liver
Which of the following is a factor that affects the velocity and duration of muscle contraction?
load on the fiber
twitch characteristics vary by ___ of muscle by ___/___.
location, speed/duration
Describe movement.
locomotion (moving about) and movement within
Radius
long bone
what is a tubular duct structure?
long, tube shaped duct
what are the differences between loose and dense connective tissue?
loose- lots of ground substance, few fibers dense- little ground substance, lots of fibers
chromatin
loosely wound DNA within the nucleus
what must people with no gallbladder eat?
low fat diets
in osmosis, water moves from areas of ___ solute concentration to areas of ___ solute concentration.
low, high
What do catalysts do?
lower the activation energy and increase the rate of a reaction
If a splinter penetrated the skin into the second epidermal layer of the sole of the foot, which cells would be damaged?
lucidum
The integumentary system is protected by the action of cells that arise from bone marrow and 67) migrate to the epidermis. Which of the following cells serve this function?
macrophages called epidermal dendritic cells
what is dentin?
made up of dentin tubules (mostly protein)
What is the goal of negative feedback systems?
maintain or restore balance
Describe reproduction.
maintenance of the species
DNA replication ________.
makes a duplicate of each strand of DNA
what is the G2 checkpoint?
makes sure that appropriate proteins are present prior to the mitotic phase
Male pattern baldness has a genetic switch that turns on in response to ________.
male hormones
What produces nutrients for newborns?
mammary gland
the extrinsic muscle attaches to the ___.
mandible
Compounds with a low pH have ___ free hydrogen ions.
many
what do the villi contain?
many blood vessels and lymphatic vessels
chewing is also called ___.
masticating
when frequency waves are fused, cross-bridges are ___.
maximized
during the contraction period, the ___ # of cross bridges under the given ___ form.
maximum, conditions
what is apoptosis?
means by which cells terminate their own existence-programmed cell death
what type of digestion occurs in the oral cavity?
mechanical and chemical
what role do teeth play?
mechanically breaking down food- crushing and tearing
Which of the following cutaneous receptors is specialized for the reception of touch or light pressure?
meissner's corpuscles
Which of the following is a skin sensory receptor for touch?
meissner's corpuscles
what do bound ribosomes synthesize?
membrane and secreted proteins
what is hyperpolarization of a membrane?
membrane potential drops slightly below membrane potential after repolarization
what is the nuclear envelope?
membrane with nuclear pores
The sheets of peritoneal membrane that hold the digestive tract in place are called ________.
mesentary
connective tissue is the first tissue formed from the ___ layer.
mesoderm
twitch characteristic reflect the ___ properties of myofibrils.
metabolic
what are the functions of hormones and receptors?
method for the cell to interact with its environment and other cells
Cells have an internal skeleton. What helps stiffen microvilli?
microfilaments
what are the cytoskeletal elements?
microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules
The absorptive effectiveness of the small intestine is enhanced by increasing the surface area. What modifications are manipulations of the epithelial cell membrane in the intestinal wall?
microvilli
enterocytes contain ___.
microvilli
What are cofactors composed of?
minerals or vitamins
What are buffers?
mixture of compounds that resist pH changes
what kinds of carbohydrates can be absorbed?
monosaccharides- galactose, glucose, and fructose
more cross bridges=___ force.
more
what happens if frequency of a stimulus increases?
more force is generated
when wave summation occurs, what happens to Ca2+?
more is released into the cytoplasm and binds to troponin, causing more cross-bridges to be formed
Where is the energy in ATP that is used to drive reactions in cells?
mostly in the high energy bond between the 2nd and 3rd phosphates
what is the soft palate?
mostly skeletal muscle, containing the uvula and blocking nasopharynx
What part of the sarcolemma contains acetylcholine receptors?
motor end plate
how do muscle contraction and cilia movement occur with the help of motor molecules?
motor molecules attach to one element of the cytoskeleton and cause it so slide over another element
how do microtubules serve as a "highway"?
motor molecules can attach to receptors on vesicles or organelles and "walk" them along the microtubules
Which of the following is the correct sequence of events for muscle contractions?
motor neuron action potential, neurotransmitter release, muscle cell action potential, release of calcium ions from SR, ATP-driven power stroke, sliding of myofilaments
how do motor neurons connect to myofibers?
motor neuron branches
Describe EC coupling in skeletal muscle, beginning with the vesicle binding to bouton of the motor neuron.
motor neuron secretes Ach Ach diffuses across synaptic cleft and binds to Ach receptor Ach receptor changes shape and allows Na+ and K+ to diffuse down their concentration gradients (more Na+ than K+) if membrane potential reaches threshold, voltage gated Na+ channels open and allow Na+ to diffuse into myofiber (depolarization of action potential) action potential propagates like dominos down the membrane to t-tubules action potential opens coupling proteins between t-tubules and SR, releasing Ca++ into the cytosol Ca++ binds to troponin and moves tropomyosin myosin binds to actin (cross bridge) and begins to contract
Transcytosis involves ________.
motor proteins transporting a vesicle from one region of a cell to another
Which of the following would be recruited later in muscle stimulation when contractile strength increases?
motor units with larger, less excitable neurons
some sugar, in small amounts, can be absorbed in the ___.
mouth
Carbohydrate digestion starts in the ________.
mouth oral cavity
describe carrier proteins.
move substances from one side of the membrane to the other down the concentration gradient
Passive membrane transport processes include ________.
movement of solute from an area of high solute concentration to an area of low concentration
what is transcytosis?
moving substances in a vesicle into, across, and then out of a cell.. along cytoskeleton
Name the layers of the stomach in order starting with the layer that comes into contact with food.
mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa
Which muscle type has only one nucleus, no sarcomeres, and rare gap junctions?
multi-unit smooth muscle
How a smooth increase in muscle force is produced.
multiple motor unit summation
Smooth muscles that act like skeletal muscles but are controlled by autonomic nerves and hormones are ________.
multiunit muscles
Of the following muscle types, which has only one nucleus, no sarcomeres, and rare gap junctions?
multiunit smooth muscle
the tube like structures of the alimentary canal contain a small, thin layer called the ___ ___.
muscularis mucosae
different sized motor units consist of different numbers of ___.
myofibers
The contractile units of skeletal muscles are ________.
myofibrils
The oxygen-binding protein found in muscle cells is ________.
myoglobin
describe the 4th step of E-C coupling (contraction begins).
myosin binding to actin forms cross bridges and contraction (cross-bridge cyclin) begins and E-C coupling is over
What does it mean that negative feedback regulation is essential to homeostasis?
negative feedback loops helps us to restore and maintain homeostasis
the inside of a cell has a ___ charge, while the outside has a ___ charge.
negative, positive
Distinguish between a benign and a malignant neoplasm. Although the advances in medical imaging technology in recent years has been tremendous, a biopsy is still required to type and identify whether a growth is cancerous. What role does imaging play in the diagnosis of cancer.
neoplasm refers to an "abnormal mass of proliferating cells" benign means "kindly" and are local, encapsulated, slow growing neoplasms that are rarely lethal malignant means "bad" and they are rapidly growing neoplasms that are not encapsulated (or rupture the capsule) and metastasize (spread to other regions of the body) imaging can indicate the size, location, and degree of metastasis necessary for taking a biopsy and with the staging
A central (haversian) canal may contain arteries, veins, capillaries, lymph vessels, and ________ fibers.
nerve
what are found in the serosa?
nerves, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels
varicosities release ___ into ___ ___.
neurotransmitter, diffuse junctions
the enzymes secreted from the pancreas require a ___ pH to function.
neutral
what does HCO3 (bicarbonate) in the stomach do?
neutralizes the acid
are myofibers innervated by the same motor neuron clumped together?
no
are there neuromuscular junctions in smooth muscle?
no
are troponin and tropomyosin present in smooth muscle?
no
does any absorption occur in the stomach?
no
Rigor mortis occurs because ________.
no ATP is available to release attached actin and myosin molecules
Hypothetically, if a muscle were stretched to the point where thick and thin filaments no longer overlapped, ________.
no muscle tension could be generated
(All, not all) mucous membranes produce mucous.
not all
what happens if the threshold is not reached?
nothing
why is it important that blood from the digestive organs flows to the liver?
nutrients absorbed are sent to the liver, repackaged and sent out to the rest of the body
What are the most important factors influencing hair growth?
nutrition and hormones
What is a typical characteristic of positive feedback?
occurs in a small region
another name for the peritoneum is the ___.
omentum
the term ___ is the serosa associated with the stomach.
omentum
Each type of enzyme only catalyzes ___ type of reaction.
one
What is the cytosol?
only the "watery" or liquid portion of the inside of the cell
what are voltage gated channels?
open and close in response to changes in membrane potential
With every condition that increases reaction rate, there is an ___ condition.
optimal
there is ___ sarcomere operating length where max tension is produced.
optimal
What is the organ system level?
organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely
Cells only contain the ___ they need to fulfill their function.
organelles
What is the organ level?
organs are made up of different types of tissues
The cell responsible for secreting the matrix of bone is the ________.
osteoblast
Cells that can build bony matrix.
osteoblasts
Bones are covered and lined by a protective tissue called periosteum. The inner (osteogenic) layer consists primarily of ________.
osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Bones are covered and lined by protective membranes called the periosteum and the endosteum. The inner (osteogenic) layer consists primarily of ________.
osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Bones are constantly undergoing resorption for various reasons. Which of the following cells accomplishes this process?
osteoclast
Cells that can dissolve the bony matrix.
osteoclasts
________ are multinucleated cells that destroy bone.
osteoclasts
What causes osteoporosis?
osteoclasts out-pace osteoblasts
________ is a disease of the bone in which resorption outpaces deposition, leaving the person with thin and fragile bones.
osteoporosis
What is the final electron acceptor?
oxygen
Each enzyme has an optimal ___ range.
pH
Higher pH increases reaction rates until it reaches its optimal. Then what happens?
pH is too high and enzymes cannot function as well at that pH
How does pH influence reaction rate?
pH outside the desired range lowers reaction rates
Ostealgia is ________.
pain in a bone
the ___ tonsils sit on either side of your throat.
palatine
the bile duct merges with the ___ duct, where they secrete together into the ___.
pancreatic, duodenum
the ___ nervous system promotes GI tract contraction.
parasympathetic
how is salivation controlled primarily?
parasympathetic control by the autonomic nervous system
Which hormone increases osteoclast activity to release more calcium ions into the bloodstream?
parathyroid hormone
the ___ peritoneum is the portion not associated directly with organs.
parietal
the outer wall of the serous membrane is referred to as the ___ layer.
parietal
What is the restriction on particle size and increasing reaction rate?
particles can only get so small
The periosteum is secured to the underlying bone by dense connective tissue called ________.
perforating fibers
___ aids the movement of food down the esophagus.
peristalsis
_________ are wave-like smooth muscle contractions that move foodstuffs through the alimentary canal.
peristalsis
what does the muscularis externa cause?
peristalsis
the stomach can have ___ contractions to help move food.
peristaltic
parts of the stomach are lined by the ___.
peritoneum
the serosa is the ____.
peritoneum
An epidermal dendritic cell is a specialized ________.
phagocytic cell
What does the esophagus connect?
pharynx to stomach
What is a principle of the fluid mosaic model of cell membrane structure?
phospholipids form a bilayer with a variety of integral proteins
how do Cdks and cyclins interact?
physically- like a lock and key (Cdk=lock, cyclin=key)
________ is explained by chemical and physical principles and is concerned with the function of specific organs or organic systems.
physiology
what are clotting proteins and what do they do?
platelets- stop bleeding and help form a scab, prevent contamination
centrioles
play a role in mitosis
what proteins are digested by proteasomes?
polyubiquitinated proteins
what are haustrum?
pouch like structures present in the large intestine that can hold fecal matter
mitochondria is known as the cellular "___ ___."
power plant
what are the types of active transport?
primary and secondary
what occurs during the G1 phase?
primary growth- all proteins needed to survive are produced
Keratinocytes are an important epidermal cell because they ________.
produce a fibrous protein that gives the skin much of its protective properties
what does the pancreas do?
produces many enzymes and bicarbonate
what is fibrosis?
proliferation of connective tissue fibers (creating a scar)
Positive feedback ___ its own actions.
promotes
what does the parasympathetic nervous system control in the GI tract? what structures are a part of this?
promotes glandular secretion and increases intestinal motility...vagus nerve
what are kinetochores?
protein complexes found at each centromere that connects the mitotic spindle to the chromatids
the large intestine contains a large amount of what type of epithelium?
pseudostratified epithelium
the ___ ___ is the part of the stomach that leads to the pyloric canal.
pyloric antrum
the ___ ___ is the part of the stomach where chyme leaves the stomach.
pyloric canal
chyme leaves the pyloric canal in the stomach through the ___ ___.
pyloric sphincter
the small intestine is from the ___ ___ to the ___ ___.
pyloric sphincter, ileocecal valve
Which of the following is a bone marking name that indicates a projection that helps to form joints?
ramus
Higher temperature increases reaction rate until temperature is past optimal conditions. Then what happens?
reaction rates are decreased because it is so hot that proteins (including enzymes) begin to denature
what is the cis face of the Golgi apparatus?
receives vesicles from the RER
Describe responsiveness.
receptors inside and outside of the body and response to stimuli
What are examples of cells that work primarily individually?
red and white blood cells
what is an example of an anucleated cell? why is it anucleated?
red blood cells (erythrocytes)- they are easier to pass though capillaries without a nucleus
What is not a function of bone?
reduce friction
The universal loss of mass seen in the skeleton, which begins about the age of 40, ________.
reflects incomplete osteon formation and mineralization
When a muscle is unable to respond to stimuli temporarily, it is in which of the following periods?
refractory period
what is a telomere?
region of DNA at each end of a chromosome- end cap that protects against deterioration
what is a centromere?
region of a chromosome where the 2 sister chromatids attach
what is the root canal?
regions in center of the tooth where nerves and blood vessels come up from the jaw
stimulation frequency and motor unit recruitment are both used to ___ ___.
regulate force
The major function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle contraction is to ________.
regulate intracellular calcium
moving chyme from the stomach to the small intestine is a ___ process. why?
regulated...so the duodenum is not overwhelmed
what does the anal canal do?
regulates defecation through 2 sphincters
what does the submucosal nerve plexus do?
regulates glands and smooth muscle in the mucosa
what does the pyloric sphincter do?
regulates the movement of chyme/contents of the stomach to the small intestine
what does troponin do?
regulates the position of tropomyosin
Cdk and cyclin are ____ proteins.
regulatory
tropomyosin is a ___ protein.
regulatory
what do paneth cells do?
release lysozyme and defensin, which defend against pathogens
how are proteins sent to the Golgi released?
released in new vesicles and released via exocytosis
What is dephosphorylation?
removal of a phosphate group
the phases of gastric emptying occurs ___ after ___.
repeatedly, eating
what do stem cells in intestinal crypts do?
repopulate other cells
Although the integument is a covering, it is by no means simple, and some of its functions include ________.
resident macrophage-like cells whose function is to ingest antigenic invaders and present them to the immune system
where is pseudostratified columnar epithelium found?
respiratory airways (ciliated)
nucleolus
ribonucleic acids and ribosomes are produced
What do right and left refer to when talking anatomically?
right and left of the body being viewed, not right and left of the observer
The muscle cell membrane is called the ________.
sarcolemma
The myofiber membrane is called the ________.
sarcolemma
What is the functional unit of a skeletal muscle called?
sarcomere
Calcium storage is associated with the ________.
sarcoplasmic reticulum
What structure in skeletal muscle cells functions in calcium storage?
sarcoplasmic reticulum
Acne is a disorder associated with ________
sebaceous glands
Acne is a disorder associated with ________.
sebaceous glands
Sebum comes from:
sebaceous glands
what do exocrine cells in intestinal crypts do?
secrete into the intestinal crypts
what do goblet cells do? why?
secrete mucous to protect the duodenum from chyme and minimize contact between bacteria and the lining of the intestines
what do enteroendocrine cells do?
secrete secretin and CCK, which regulates eating behavior, into the interstitial fluid
Muscle tissue has all of the following properties except ________.
secretion
there is some ___ in the anal canal.
secretion
the plasma membrane is ___ permeable
selectively
Negative feedback systems are ___.
self-limiting
replication of DNA is referred to as ___-___.
semi-conservative
myosin heads go through the cross-bridge cycle at ___ times.
separate
the cells of the circular layer are ___ from the cells of the longitudinal layer.
separate
the peritoneum is a ___ membrane.
serous
The salivary glands are composed of which types of secretory cells?
serous and mucous cells
what types of cells are salivary glands made up of?
serous cells and mucous cells (not in parotid)
What do we use carbonic acid for in the body?
serve an important role as a buffer
what is the function of glycoproteins?
serve as identification tags that are specifically recognized by other cells
Patella
sesamoid bone
The ___ of cells are very important when it comes to their function.
shape
what is epithelium?
sheets of cells lining a body surface or body cavity
Carpals
short bone
How are fats transported across the apical membrane of enterocytes?
simple diffusion
________ is the epithelium found in the alveoli of the lungs where blood is oxygenated.
simple squamous epithelium
what are serous membranes composed of?
simple squamous epithelium on loose areolar connective tissue
a twitch is a result of a ___ stimulus.
single
most cells are ___ nucleated.
single
myofibers are only innervated by a ___ motor neuron.
single
some ___ muscle is found in the upper regions of the esophagus.
skeletal
the tongue is ___ muscle.
skeletal
describe the pharyngeal-esophageal phase of deglutition.
skeletal muscle contracts and continues to push food downwards
the small intestine has a (small/large) diameter.
small
What organ contains the brush border enzymes that complete digestion of carbohydrates and proteins?
small intestine
What organ has an increased surface area for absorption via villi and microvilli?
small intestine
Which muscle cells have the greatest ability to regenerate?
smooth
what is the stress-relaxation response?
smooth muscle responds to stretching only briefly, then adapts to its new length
why is it important for vesicles to be recycled?
so the plasma membrane does not keep increasing in size
what do free ribosomes synthesize?
soluble/cytosolic proteins
diffusion is the movement of ___.
solute
what is an isotonic solution?
solution with the same solute concentration outside of the cell and in the cytosol
what is a hypertonic solution?
solutions having greater solute concentration than that of the cytosol
what is a hypotonic solution?
solutions having less solute concentration than that of the cytosol
Cells have very ___ functions.
specialized
what help cells hold on to one another?
specialized membrane proteins
Active sites are substrate ___.
specific
What is the principle of complementarity in reference to the cell theory?
specific sub cellular structures dictate biochemical activities of cells
Common sports fracture resulting from a twisting force.
spiral
what is the peritoneum made of?
squamous epithelium and connective tissue
hydrogen bonds in DNA make DNA ___
stable
describe the structure of the Golgi apparatus.
stacked membranous sacs
When talking in anatomical terms, what is direction always based on?
standard anatomical position
what does the movement of Ca2+ into the cytoplasm of axon terminals do?
stimulates the exocytosis of ACh vesicles
What organs is the only digestive structure with three muscle layers?
stomach
what organ produces a mucoid barrier to prevent self-digestion?
stomach
what organ produces the intrinsic factor?
stomach
what occurs during acid reflux?
stomach acid causes the gastroesophageal sphincter to relax, allowing acid to go upwards and irritate the esophagus
what does the cardiac sphincter prevent?
stomach juices from going up the esophagus
ATP is the means by which we ___ energy for ___ cellular work.
store, immediate
what does the gallbladder do?
stores bile
what does the rectum do?
stores feces prior to elimination and initiates defecation
what does the appendix do?
stores important gut bacteria
Myoglobin ________.
stores oxygen in muscle cells
Creatine phosphate functions in the muscle cell by ________.
storing energy that will be transferred to ADP to resynthesize ATP
What is true regarding stratified epithelia?
stratified epithelia is present where protection from abrasion is important
what is the muscosa made of in the esophagus? why?
stratified squamous epithelium for abrasion
The epidermis consists of five layers of cells, each layer with a distinct role to play in the health, well-being, and functioning of the skin. Which of the following layers is responsible for cell division and replacement?
stratum basale
The epidermis consists of five layers of cells, each layer with a distinct role to play in the health, well-being, and functioning of the skin. Which of the following layers is responsible for cell division and replacement?
stratum basale
The layer that contains the mitotic viable cells of the epidermis.
stratum basale
Which layer of cells in the epidermis contains melanocytes?
stratum basale
smooth muscle exhibits ___-___ response.
stress-relaxation
what are caveolae?
structures that account for the majority of the cell membrane that are the primary means of brining Ca2+ into the cell
What is gross anatomy?
study of large structures (heart, lungs, etc)
name the two mechanisms by which a cell can synthesize ATP
substrate level phosphorylation; oxidative phosphorylation
What are the reactants of reactions catalyzed by enzymes called?
substrates
The glands that serve an important function in thermoregulation.
sudoiferous glands
what is the apical surface?
surface exposed to local environment
the soft palate is important in ___.
swallowing
what are the 5 basic tastes?
sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami (savory)
the ___ nervous system inhibits GI tract contraction and excites cardiovascular contraction/blood vessels.
sympathetic
Which of the following is not a function of LDLs? A) make cholesterol available to tissue cells for membrane or hormone synthesis B) influence cholesterol synthesis in tissue cells C) transport cholesterol from the peripheral tissues to the liver D) regulate cholesterol synthesis in tissue cells
synthesis in tissue cells C) transport cholesterol from the peripheral tissues to the liver
What is an essential role played by large intestine bacteria?
synthesize vitamin K and B vitamins
what do canines do?
tear/pierce food
List 3 factors that affect chemical reaction rates with catalysts.
temperature pH concentration of substrate concentration of product particle size (small is faster)
what is the "band" that runs longitudinally on the large intestine called?
teniae coli
Mary noticed a large, brown spot on her skin. She has been playing tennis in the sun for several years without sun protection. She reported the discovery to a friend, who told her to apply the ABCD rule to determine whether or not she had malignant melanoma. Her friend told her that if her answer was "no" to the questions that were asked by the ABCD rule, she had nothing to worry about. What is the ABCD rule, and should she ignore the spot if her answers are negative?
the ABCD rule refers to the following: asymmetry- the two sides of the spot do not match border irregularity- the borders are not round and smooth color- the pigmented spot contains shades of black diameter- the spot is larger than 6mm in diameter it is imperative that Mary have a physician examine the spot immediately. Any unusual lesion on the skin of a sun worshipper should be examined and the ABCD rule does not account for all possible factors, such as rapid growth, even if less than 6mm
where is visceral muscle commonly found?
the GI tract
what happens when a cell's membrane potential reaches +30mV?
the Na+ voltage gated channel closes and the K+ voltage gated channel is opened and K+ flows in
what is the difference between the smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum?
the RER contains ribosomes (has a rough exterior) and is associated with protein synthesis
What is the most distinguishing characteristic of muscle tissue?
the ability to transform chemical energy into mechanical energy
What is phosphorylation?
the addition of a phosphate group to a molecule
what is the outermost layer of the esophagus? what is it made of?
the adventitia- fibrous dense irregular connective tissue
what occurs during relaxation of muscle cells?
the amount of Ca2+ in the cell in reduced
twitches are labeled as fast or slow based on what?
the amount of time it takes to reach the peak
what is the cecum associated with?
the appendix
The appearance of striations in muscle is due to ________.
the arrangement of myofilaments
What produces the striations of a skeletal muscle cell?
the arrangement of myofilaments
what is the largest region of the stomach?
the body
What is energy?
the capacity to do work
What does the cell theory say?
the cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms
what will happen to a cell in a hypertonic solution?
the cell will lose water by osmosis and shrink/shrivel up
What do pH changes in the body interfere with?
the cell's function and condition of living tissues
why is the circular layer of smooth muscle named as such?
the cells are arranged/oriented around the lumen of the tube
what are parietal cells?
the cells that produce HCl and make the stomach acidic and produce intrinsic factor
Describe metabolism.
the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life
What happens during telophase?
the chromosomes uncoil to form chromatin
what is tonicity?
the concentration of charged solutes
The "Cell Theory" states:
the continuity of life is passed down through cells
What does the cytoplasm include?
the cytosol and all the organelles
What does oxygen deficit represent?
the difference between the amount of oxygen needed for totally aerobic muscle activity and the amount actually used
what is the common hepatic duct?
the duct that merges other ducts of the liver that eventually carries bile
Describe excretion.
the elimination of wastes/waste products
what protects the trachea from food entering?
the epiglottis
Smooth muscle is not characterized by _________.
the fact that there are more thick filaments than thin filaments
What is the principle of complementarity?
the function is dependent on the form (the function of the system is formed by the anatomy)
What is physiology?
the function of the living systems
what is a nucleosome?
the fundamental DNA packing unit
what reflex is caused by consuming food?
the gastrocolic reflex
what is an example of secondary active transport?
the gradient created from the movement of Na+ molecules provides a gradient to move glucose
what allows absorption of carbohydrates to occur?
the gradient of Na+ and K+ between the cytosol of enterocytes and the lumen of the small intestine created by the sodium-potassium pump
what is the outer curve of the stomach called?
the greater curvature
What is the organism level?
the human organism is made up of many organ systems
where does blood from the liver go?
the inferior vena cava
What happens during anaphase?
the initial separation of chromatids chromosomal centromeres split and chromosomes migrate to opposite ends of the cell
what creates the negative inside of a cell?
the inside has many negative molecules (proteins, phosphates, etc.)
where does most absorption occur?
the jejunum of the small intestine
What in the body regulates pH?
the kidneys, lungs, and buffers
describe the latent period.
the lag between the stimulus and tension development/onset of contraction
what is the inner curve of the stomach called?
the lesser curvature
The papillary layer of the dermis is composed of loosely packed connective tissue with numerous peg-like projections that provide a great deal of surface area connecting the dermis to the epidermis. What does NOT represent the benefits provided by the papillary layer's anatomy?
the looseness allows for easy separation of the dead cell layer of the epidermis to be shed.
what happens to the size of the GI lumen and organ when circular muscle contracts?
the lumen decreases and the organ elongates
what happens to the organ and size of the lumen when the longitudinal layer contracts?
the lumen dilates/increases and the length of the organ decreases
The reason the hypodermis acts as a shock absorber is that ________.
the major part of its makeup is adipose, which serves as an effective shock absorber
what does the diffusion of K+ and Na+ ions cause?
the membrane potential to move towards 0
where are the cells in connective tissue from?
the mesenchyme
what is osmosis?
the movement of water across a membrane
what would happen if ATP was not present?
the myosin heads will not detach, causing rigor mortis
how is cholesterol embedded in the plasma membrane?
the negative charge on the OH molecule allows it to interact with water, but the tail is hydrophobic
What happens in late prophase?
the nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrate spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochore
where does transcription occur?
the nucleus
what does tension development reflect?
the number of cross-bridges formed
where does ingestion and digestion first take place?
the oral cavity/mouth
What is the structural unit of compact bone?
the osteon
what is the extracellular matrix?
the outside of the cells
Describe type 1 diabetes.
the pancreas does not produce insulin, so the cells do not take up the glucose from your blood and the blood glucose levels remain high
Describe type 2 diabetes.
the pancreas produces insulin, but the cells do not take glucose up as they should/recognize the insulin, and the blood glucose levels remain high
what is the largest salivary gland?
the parotid
what is the sac like structure surrounding the alimentary canal?
the peritoneum
What gets longer as the ribosome advances along the mRNA/translates?
the polypeptide
where does the liver receive blood from?
the portal vein
what is digestion?
the process of chemically breaking down food
what is absorption?
the process of moving substances from the lumen of the gut into the body
What is an example of homeostasis maintained by negative feedback?
the release of sweat by eccrine glands in response to heat
what is regeneration?
the replacement of damaged tissue with the same type of tissue
The dermis has two major layers; which of the following constitutes 80% of the dermis and is responsible for the tension lines in the skin?
the reticular layer
what is the hard palate?
the roof of the mouth- a rigid surface against which the tongue forces food during chewing
what is the specific name of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum that stores and releases calcium in the muscles?
the sarcoplasmic reticulum
where is Ca2+ stored in muscle cells?
the sarcoplasmic reticulum
The mechanism of contraction in smooth muscle is different from skeletal muscle in that ________.
the site of calcium regulation differs
What is an example of a boundary in humans?
the skin
what is the cutaneous membrane?
the skin
what is an examples of an integral membrane protein?
the sodium-potassium pump
what works to restore resting potential after an action potential?
the sodium-potassium pump
what is the synaptic cleft?
the space between the axon terminal and sarcolemma
what is the leading strand of DNA replication?
the strand of DNA read by DNA polymerase in one continuous direction/stretch
what is the lagging strand of DNA replication?
the strand of DNA read in fragments
What is anatomy?
the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another
What is cytology?
the study of cells
What is histology?
the study of tissues
what is the basal surface?
the surface of the cell you cannot see, adjacent to the basement membrane
what is ubiquitin?
the tag for protein degradation
what are the fungiform papilla, vallate papilla and folate papillae associated with?
the tastebuds- they are taste receptors
Wolff's law is concerned with ________.
the thickness and shape of a bone being dependent on stresses placed upon it
from where is lipase secreted?
the tongue
what is the name of the pathway that primarily targets/destroys cytosolic proteins?
the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway
what is secondary active transport?
the use of the electrochemical gradient of one molecule to move a second molecule
what do ribosomes accept tRNA molecules based off of?
their anti codon sequence
why is the plasma membrane referred to as a "mosaic"?
there are glycoproteins and glycolipids embedded in the membrane
what keeps DNA strands together?
there are hydrogen bonds between base pairs
Smooth muscle is characterized by all of the following except ________.
there are more thick filaments than thin filaments
what happens if sarcomeres are TOO short?
there may be interference between filaments, preventing cross-bridges
What is an example of a negative feedback system?
thermoregulation
what is the function of glycocalyx?
they allow the immune system to distinguish you from "not you" because we have a unique sugar sequence and help attract water to the surface of the cell
when are cyclins in the cell?
they are not usually present unless the cell is going to advance to the next phase
what happens to proteins created in the ribosomes on the RER?
they are released into the lumen of the ER to be processed
Smooth muscle and cardiac muscle are similar and different in several ways. What is true about them?
they both may have gap junction
How do buffers work?
they convert strong (completely dissociated) acids or bases into weak (slightly dissociated) ones
what happens to the roots of baby teeth?
they degenerate and eventually die
generally, what happens to the microtubules during mitosis?
they disassemble, the centrioles migrate towards opposite ends of the cell, and they reassemble
what does it mean that humans are diploid in reference to chromosomes?
they have 23 chromosomes from EACH parent
what does it mean that cells are polarized when in homeostasis?
they have a different charge inside than the outside
what must happen in order for carrier proteins to perform their function?
they must change shape
what happens when monoglycerides and fatty acids are in intestinal cells?
they reform into larger lipids and join with proteins to form chylomicrons
what will happen to a cell in an isotonic solution?
they retain normal size and shape...water moves in and out
how are the cells of the longitudinal layer organized?
they run length wise in the organs
where in the plasma membrane are integral membrane proteins?
they span the entire thickness of the membrane
how do desmosomes help to distribute stress?
they tie into other structures throughout the cell to distribute stress when desmosomes are pulled on
Which of the following are composed of myosin?
thick filaments
the sliding filament theory says that during contraction, the ___ filaments slide past the ___ filaments so that actin and myosin ___ to a ___ degree.
thin, thick, overlap, greater
What does it mean that physiology depends on gradients?
things move down gradients- from high concentration to low
the majority of the esophagus is found in the ___ cavity.
thoracic
how are glucose and galactose absorbed?
through secondary active transport, they are transported across the apical surface of enterocytes
how does bile enter the small intestine?
through the bile duct
Which of the following glands or organs produces hormones that tend todecrease blood calcium levels?
thyroid
Help create water tight tissues by physically binding cells together.
tight junctions
there are ___ ___ between cells in the small intestine. why?
tight junctions- to prevent substances from moving in-between the cells
what is connective tissue generally?
tissue that supports, protects, and binds
What is the tissue level?
tissues consist of similar types of cells
what is the role of ATP?
to break the actin and myosin bond
what is the function of serous membranes?
to enrich capillary fluid with hyaluronic acid (a lubricant) so that the parietal and visceral layers of the membrane can slide across each other without friction
What is the goal of physiology?
to maintain the internal environment of the body
why is mucous secreted in the stomach?
to prevent acid in the stomach from digesting the lining of the stomach
what is the function of histones?
to stabilize DNA and make it more difficult to damage and regulate access to the TATA box for transcription
what is the function of ribosomes?
to translate mRNA transcripts into a protein/polypeptide
All organ systems function ___.
together
multi unit contraction is associated with ___ contraction.
tonic
There becomes a point where the concentration of reactants is ___ ___.
too high
dentin is ____, yet ___.
tough, flexible
posterior (dorsal)
toward the back
Inferior (caudal)
toward the feet
anterior (ventral)
toward the front
superior (cranial)
toward the head
Spongy bones are made up of a framework called ________.
trabeculae
What is developmental anatomy?
tracing structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span
The RNA that has an anticodon and attaches to a specific amino acid is ________ RNA.
transfer
what is tRNA?
transfer RNA
The warm-up period required of athletes in order to bring their muscles to peak performance is called ________.
treppe
T troponin attaches to ___.
tropomyosin
how is cross-bridge cycling regulated?
tropomyosin prevents actin and myosin from binding, blocking the binding sites
___ attaches to tropomyosin.
troponin
calcium binds to ___ ___, causing it to ___ ____.
troponin C, change shape
(True/False) Enzymes can both synthesize things and break things down.
true
A charged particle is generally called an ion.
true
A contraction in which the muscle does not shorten but its tension increases is called isometric.
true
A major function of serous membranes is to decrease friction.
true
A molecule consisting of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms is correctly written as CO2.
true
A physician is often able to detect homeostatic imbalances in the body by observing changes in the skin color.
true
A process by which large particles may be taken into the cell for food, protection of the body, or for disposing of old or dead cells is called phagocytosis.
true
A resting potential is caused by a difference in the concentration of certain ions inside and outside the cell.
true
A tissue consists of groups of similar cells that have a common function.
true
Achilles was wounded by damage to the tendon connecting his calf muscles to his heel. This and all tendons are composed mainly of dense regular connective tissue.
true
All organic compounds contain carbon.
true
All the chemical and mechanical phases of digestion from the mouth through the small intestine are directed toward changing food into forms that can pass through the epithelial cells lining the mucosa into the underlying blood and lymphatic vessels.
true
Alpha particles, although relatively weak energy particles, are second only to smoking as a cause of lung cancer.
true
Although there are no sarcomeres, smooth muscle still possesses thick and thin filaments.
true
An increase in the calcium ion level in the sarcoplasm starts the sliding of the thin filaments. When the level of calcium ions declines, sliding stops.
true
An osteon contains osteocytes, lamellae, and a central canal, and is found in compact bone only.
true
Another term for swallowing is deglutition.
true
Apoptosis is programmed cell suicide, but cancer cells fail to undergo apoptosis.
true
As food passes through the digestive tract, it becomes less complex and the nutrients are more readily available to the body.
true
Blood is considered a type of connective tissue.
true
Brown fat is frequently deposited between the shoulder blades of infants.
true
Buffers resist abrupt and large changes in the pH of the body by releasing or binding ions.
true
Carbohydrate and fat pools are oxidized directly to produce cellular energy, but amino acid pools must first be converted to a carbohydrate intermediate before being sent through cellular respiration pathways.
true
Cartilage has a flexible matrix that can accommodate mitosis of chondrocytes.
true
Cartilage tissue tends to heal less rapidly than bone tissue.
true
Contractures are a result of a total lack of ATP.
true
Current information theorizes that omega-3 fatty acids decrease the risk of heart disease.
true
Depending on the functional state of the bladder, transitional epithelium may resemble stratified squamous or stratified cuboidal epithelium.
true
Diffusion is always from areas of greater to areas of lesser concentration.
true
During the resting phase of hair growth, the matrix is inactive and the follicle atrophies.
true
Each consecutive bone lamella has collagen fibers that wrap in alternating directions.
true
Each daughter cell resulting from mitotic cell division has exactly as many chromosomes as the parent cell.
true
Eccentric contractions are more forceful than concentric contractions.
true
Emulsions and colloids are the same thing.
true
Epithelial tissues always exhibit polarity; that is, they have a free surface and a basal surface.
true
Fats significantly delay the emptying of the stomach.
true
Final preparation for cell division is made during the cell life cycle subphase called G2.
true
Food is contained in the gastrointestinal tract from the time of ingestion until it is completely digested and the waste prepared for elimination.
true
For use as fuel, all food carbohydrates are eventually transformed to glucose.
true
Functions of connective tissues include binding, support, insulation, and protection.
true
Ghrelin, produced by the stomach, is a powerful appetite stimulant.
true
Glucose is an example of a monosaccharide.
true
Glycogenesis begins when ATP levels are high, and glucose entering cells is phosphorylated to glucose-6-phosphate and converted to its isomer, glucose-1-phosphate.
true
Goblet cells are found with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
true
Hair growth and density are influenced by hormones, nutrition, and, in some cases, lifestyle.
true
Hematopoiesis refers to the formation of blood cells within the red marrow cavities of certain bones.
true
Hematopoiesis refers to the formation of blood cells within the red marrow cavities of certain bones.
true
High levels of HDLs are considered good.
true
Imaging is useful in discovering obstructed blood supplies in organs and tissues.
true
In order for amino acids to be oxidized for energy, the amine group (NH2) must be removed.
true
Interstitial fluid represents one type of extracellular material.
true
Ionic iron is actively transported into the mucosal cells, where it binds to the protein ferritin, a phenomenon called the mucosal iron barrier.
true
It is important for any organism to maintain its boundaries, so that its internal environment remains distinct from the external environment surrounding it.
true
It would not be healthy to eliminate all fats from your diet because they serve a useful purpose in maintaining the body.
true
Kupffer cells are found in the liver and are responsible for removing bacteria and worn-out cells.
true
Lungs carry out an excretory function.
true
Macrophages are found in areolar and lymphatic tissues.
true
Microtubules are hollow tubes made of subunits of the protein tubulin.
true
Mixtures are combinations of elements or compounds that are physically blended together but are not bound by chemical bonds.
true
Most nutrients are absorbed through the mucosa of the intestinal villi by active transport.
true
Mumps is an inflammation of the parotid glands caused by myxovirus.
true
Muscle tone is the small amount of tautness or tension in the muscle due to weak, involuntary contractions of its motor units.
true
Nitric oxide may act as a biological messenger.
true
No chemical bonding occurs between the components of a mixture.
true
One of the functions of skeletal muscle contraction is the production of heat.
true
One of the important functions of skeletal muscle contraction is production of heat.
true
Only one cell type in the human body has a flagellum.
true
Peptides called NPY and AgRP are powerful appetite enhancers.
true
Peristalsis is characteristic of smooth muscle.
true
Peyer's patches are found in the submucosa of the distal end of the small intestine.
true
Positive feedback mechanisms tend to increase the original stimulus.
true
Regardless of race, all human beings have about the same number of melanocytes.
true
Regardless of the variable being regulated, all homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three interdependent components.
true
Simple cuboidal epithelia are usually associated with secretion and absorption.
true
Single-unit smooth muscle is found in the intestines.
true
Sixty-five percent of the mass of bone is a compound called collagen
true
Sixty-five percent of the mass of bone is a compound called hydroxyapatite.
true
Skin surface markings that reflect points of tight dermal attachment to underlying tissues are called flexure lines
true
Skin surface markings that reflect points of tight dermal attachment to underlying tissues are called flexure lines.
true
Smooth muscle cells are found in the internal anal sphincter.
true
Smooth muscle cells possess central nuclei but lack striations.
true
Smooth muscles relax when intracellular Ca2+ levels drop but may not cease contractions.
true
Some of the microbes that often invade other organs of the body are rarely found in the stomach. The reason for this is the presence of HCl.
true
Squamous cells are flattened and scalelike when mature.
true
Sweat glands continuously produce small amounts of sweat, even in cooler temperatures.
true
T/F A physician is often able to detect homeostatic imbalances in the body by observing changes in the skin color.
true
T/F During the resting phase of hair growth, the matrix is inactive and the follicle atrophies.
true
T/F Hair growth and density are influenced by hormones, nutrition, and, in some cases, lifestyle.
true
T/F Regardless of race, all human beings have about the same number of melanocytes.
true
T/F Sweat glands continuously produce small amounts of sweat, even in cooler temperatures.
true
T/F The dense fibrous connective tissue portion of the skin is located in the reticular region of the 24) dermis.
true
T/F The dermis is rich in blood vessels and nerve fibers.
true
T/F The most dangerous skin cancer is cancer of the melanocytes.
true
T/F The outermost sheath of a hair follicle is the connective tissue root sheath.
true
T/F The pinkish hue of individuals with fair skin is the result of the crimson color of oxygenated hemoglobin (contained in red blood cells) circulating in the dermal capillaries and reflecting through the epidermis.
true
T/F: In redox reaction, reduction refers to a gain of energy
true
T/F: Production of ATP from ADP and Pi is an anabolic reaction
true
The amount of protein needed by each person is determined by the age, size, and metabolic rate of the person.
true
The anatomical position means the body is standing at attention with the palms facing forward and the thumbs pointing away from the body.
true
The apocrine sweat glands are fairly unimportant in thermoregulation.
true
The atomic weight is only an average of relative weights of an atom and its isotopes, and it may vary from the weight of a specific isotope.
true
The cell (plasma) membrane normally contains substantial amounts of cholesterol.
true
The circular folds of the small intestine enhance absorption by causing the chyme to spiral, rather than to move in a straight line, as it passes through the small intestine.
true
The dense fibrous connective tissue portion of the skin is located in the reticular region of the dermis.
true
The dense fibrous connective tissue portion of the skin is located in the reticular region of the dermis.
true
The dermis is rich in blood vessels and nerve fibers.
true
The digestive function of the liver is to produce bile.
true
The effect of a neurotransmitter on the muscle cell membrane is to modify its ion permeability properties temporarily.
true
The epigastric region is located superior to the umbilical region.
true
The fact that no chemical bonding occurs between the components of a mixture is the chief difference between mixtures and compounds.
true
The first teeth to appear are the deciduous teeth.
true
The force of muscle contraction is controlled by multiple motor unit summation and recruitment.
true
The force of muscle contraction is controlled by multiple motor unit summation or recruitment.
true
The increased use of noncarbohydrate molecules for energy to conserve glucose is called glucose sparing.
true
The intrinsic ability of visceral smooth muscle to exhibit the stress-relaxation response is termed plasticity.
true
The lower the pH, the higher the hydrogen ion concentration.
true
The main chemical activity of the stomach is to begin the digestion of proteins.
true
The major role of absorption in the ileum is to reclaim bile salts to be recycled back to the liver.
true
The major stimulus for production of intestinal fluid is distention or irritation of the intestinal mucosa by hypertonic or acidic chyme.
true
The most abundant dietary lipids in the diets of most Americans are triglycerides.
true
The most dangerous skin cancer is cancer of the melanocytes.
true
The myenteric nerve plexus provides the major nerve supply to the GI tract wall and controls GI motility.
true
The orderly sequence of the phases of mitosis is prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
true
The outermost sheath of a hair follicle is the connective tissue root sheath.
true
The pH of body fluids must remain fairly constant for the body to maintain homeostasis.
true
The pancreas has both an endocrine and an exocrine function.
true
The peritoneum is the most extensive serous membrane in the body.
true
The pinkish hue of individuals with fair skin is the result of the crimson color of oxygenated hemoglobin (contained in red blood cells) circulating in the dermal capillaries and reflecting through the epidermis.
true
The primary function of carbohydrates is energy production within cells.
true
The protein found in large amounts in the outermost layer of epidermal cells is soft keratin.
true
The shock-absorbing pads between the vertebrae are formed of fibrocartilage.
true
The skin receives stimuli because the merkel cells of the epidermis are sensory receptors.
true
The structural unit of compact bone (osteon) resembles the growth rings of a tree trunk.
true
The term osteoid refers to the organic part of the matrix of compact bones.
true
The thin filaments (actin) contain a polypeptide subunit G actin that bears active sites for myosin attachment
true
The trabeculae of spongy bone are oriented toward lines of stress.
true
Thin filaments in striated muscle contain actin, troponin, and tropomyosin.
true
Triglycerides and cholesterol do not circulate freely in the bloodstream.
true
Ubiquitin tagged proteins are targets for elimination by the proteasome.
true
When a muscle fiber contracts, the I bands diminish in size, the H zones disappear, and the A bands move closer together but do not diminish in length.
true
Without some sort of negative feedback mechanism, it would be impossible to keep our body chemistry in balance.
true
smooth muscle cells are found in the internal anal sphincter
true
the force of muscle contraction is controlled by multiple motor unit summation and
true
the protein found in large amounts in the outermost layer of epidermal cells is soft keratin
true
the skin receives stimuli because the Merkel cells of the epidermis are sensory receptors
true
thin filaments in striated muscles contain actin, troponin, and tropomyosin
true
ubiquitin tagged proteins are targets for elimination by the proteosome
true
what is an alveolar duct structure?
tube shaped duct that expands at the bottom into a circular shape (looks like dead end street)
What does the abdominal include?
umbilical
what are the types of exocrine glands?
unicellular and multicellular
What are life processes?
unique characteristics of living things
without the proteins and lipids embedded in the membrane, the membrane is relatively ___.
unstable
When does positive feedback stop?
until it is no longer self-sustaining
generally, what is exocytosis?
vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and dump their contents into the extracellular fluid
how are amino acids absorbed?
via cotransport/secondary active transport with Na+ at the apical surface of enterocytes
the ___ peritoneum is associated with an organ.
visceral
the inner wall of the serous membrane is referred to as the ___ layer.
visceral
what is single-unit smooth muscle also called?
visceral muscle
what happens when a cell reaches threshold?
voltage Na+ gated channels in the membrane of the cell open and Na+ flows in, making the interior of the cell more positive
what are tight junctions?
water tight/impermeable multi-protein junction between cells
the mucous membrane is a ___ membrane. why?
wet- covered with secretions or urine
what do genes code for?
what can become a protein
describe the 3rd step of E-C coupling (calcium binds to troponin and removes the blocking action of tropomyosin).
when Ca2+ binds, troponin changes shape, which pulls on the tropomyosin, exposing myosin-binding sites on the thin filaments
what is a nonsense mutation?
when a mutation in the nucleotide sequence still codes for the same amino acid and there is no effect
when is a cross-bridge formed?
when a myosin head is attached to actin
what is tetanus?
when stimuli to a particular muscle are repeated so rapidly that decrease of tension between stimuli cannot be detected
what is acid reflux?
when stomach acid goes up into the esophagus
what is hyperplasia?
when undergone, certain smooth muscles can divide by mitosis and increase their numbers
What is homeostatic imbalance?
when we cannot restore balance/homeostasis
Vernix caseosa is a ________.
whitish material produced by fetal sebaceous glands
what are diffuse junctions ?
wide synaptic clefts
Cranial bones develop ________.
within fibrous membranes
what does anucleated mean?
without a nucleus
What is positive feedback?
works to amplify/magnify the stimulus
can epithelial tissue be regenerated/made new again?
yes
can multiple nucleotide sequences code for the same amino acid?
yes
is ATP necessary for muscle relaxation?
yes
