Chapter 4 - Learning and Transfer of Training
Research on Learning
- Learning is deeper and more durable when it is effortful. - People are poor judges of whether they are learning well or not. - 'Massed practice', or rapid fire repetition, is among the least productive learning approaches. - Trying to solve a (math) problem before being taught the solution results in better learning, even when mistakes are made in the process of solving.
Implications of Social Learning on Training
- Learning new skills or behavior comes from: ~Directly experiencing the consequences of using a behavior or skill ~The process of observing others and seeing the consequences of their behavior -Demonstration helps trainees learn - Trainees need opportunities to practice
Learning Outcomes: Cognitive strategies
- Manage one's own thinking and learning processes. - regulate the processes of learning. Example: Use three different strategies selectively to diagnose engine malfunctions.
Motivation to Learn Theories: Maslow's Hierarchy(Needs)
- Needs are ordered from basic to complex, and must satisfiy lower needs before reaching self-actualization Levels (high to low) ~ Self-Actualization ~ Esteem Belonging ~ Safety ~ Physiological Needs - Theory suggests that Maslow's theory is not supported by evidence
Elements that Facilitate Learning and Transfer of Training
- Objectives - Meaningful content - Opportunities to practice - Methods for committing training content to memory -Feedback - Observation, experience, and social interaction - Proper coordination and arrangement of the training program - Encourage trainee responsibility and self-management - Ensure that the work environment supports learning and transfer
Implications of Gagne's on Training
- Optimize trainee perception by minimizing distractions - To gain attention: present stimuli (e.g., images, figures) with distinctive features - To stimulate prior knowledge: relate the training material to other, more familiar knowledge, skills, and behavior - To enhance retention and transfer: design the training context to share elements of workplace situation
Components to Build Self-Efficacy: Logical Verification
- making the connection between a new task and a task already mastered
Transfer of Training Theories: Stimulus Generalization Approach
- most effective when the most important features or general principles are emphasized - emphasizes far transfer - want to use open skills while focusing on key behaviors
Transfer of Training Theory
- occur when the trainee works on tasks during training that is very similar, if not identical, to the work environment (near transfer).
Gagne's 9 Steps: Stimulate Prior Knowledge
- - Step 3 of Gagne's - Topics covered in a training session usually refers to prior knowledge either from experience or training -Process of retrieval recalls long-term knowledge to add to knowledge base -Can use a review, pop quiz, short case study, ask to recall knowledge (by asking a question)
Learning
- A relatively permanent change in some human capability - May involve knowledge, skills, attitudes, and/or behaviors -Training is one (among many) organizational intervention that facilitates learning.
Social Learning Theory: Self-Efficacy
- An individual's belief in his or her own capability to organize and execute tasks and activities that are required for effective performance
Learning Outcomes: Intellectual skills
- Apply generalizable concepts and rules to solve problems and generate novel products. - include concepts and rules critical to solving problems, serving customers, and creating products. Example: Design and code a computer program that meets customer requirements.
Steps for Social Learning Theory
- Attention - Retention - Motor Reproduction - Motivational Process
Components to Build Self-Efficacy: Vicarious Learning
- Behavior models - Modeling involves having employees who already have mastered the learning outcomes demonstrate them for trainees. - As a result, employees are likely to be motivated by the confidence and success of their peers
Reinforcement Theory: Thorndike's Law of Effect
- Behaviors with favorable consequences are repeated; those with unfavorable consequences disappear. - A response followed by a reward is more likely to recur in the future. - Important element of this theory is the actual experience of the reward as an outcome of high performance
Learning Outcomes: Attitudes
- Choose a personal course of action. - a combination of beliefs and feelings that predispose a person to behave a certain way. Example: Choose to respond to all incoming mail within 24 hours.
Goal Setting Theory: Bloom's Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain
- Cognitive skills can be broken down into six levels: (High to Low) - Evaluation (making judgments about info) - Comprehension (understands training material) - Application (can they solve problems after taking training) - Analysis (Look for causes and patterns) - synthesis (putting things together to produce something new) - Evaluation (recalling info)
Goal Setting Theory: Components of Task Performance
- Directing Trainees' attention - Regulating trainees' effort - Increasing Persistence - Goal-attainment strategy or action plans
Components to Build Self-Efficacy
- Enactive Mastery - Vicarious Learning - Verbal Persuasion from others - Logical Verification - Physiological Arousal
Learning Outcomes: Motor skills
- Execute a physical action with precision and timing. - include coordination of physical movements. Example: Shoot a gun and consistently hit a small moving target.
Motivation to Learn Theories
- Expectancy Theory - Maslow's Hierarchy(Needs) - Alderfer's ERG (Needs) - Reinforcement Theory - Goal Setting Theory
How Learning Occurs Theories
- Gagne's Learning Process Model - The Learning Cycle Model - Social Learning Theory
Gagne's 9 Steps for Instruction
- Gain Attention - Describe Goal - Stimulate Prior Knowledge - Present Material - Provide Guidance - Elicit Performance/Practice - Provide Feedback - Assess Performance - Enhance Retention and Transfer
Learning Cycle Model: concrete experience
- Going out in the field to collect data or have an experience
Components to Build Self-Efficacy: Physiological Arousal
- Heightened physical and or emotional state - bringing coffee to trainees for the training session) - Icebreakers/Energizers
Types of Transfer of Training Theories
- Identical Elements - Stimulus Generalization Approach - Cognitive Theory of Transfer
Types of Instructional Interaction
- Learner-content - Learner-learner - Learner-instructor
Implications of Goal Setting Theory on Training
- Learning can be facilitated by providing trainees with specific challenging goals and objectives - Incorporated in the development of training lesson plans, with objectives stated from the trainee's point of view - Trainees need to know the learning objectives
Characteristics of Good Learning Objectives
- Provide a clear idea of what the trainee is expected to be able to do at the end of training. - Include standards of performance that can be measured or evaluated. - State the specific resources (e.g., tools and equipment) that the trainee needs to perform the action or behavior specified. - Describe the conditions under which performance of the objective is expected to occur (e.g., the physical work environment, such as at night or in high temperatures; mental stresses, such as angry customers; or equipment failure, such as malfunctioning computer equipment).
Issues with Learning Styles
- Research suggests learning styles are bogus, not supported by evidence - Problem of convergence: proliferation of models -Problems with measurement: lack of validity and reliability - Lack of evidence for the predominant meshing hypothesis
Motivation to Learn Theories: Alderfer's ERG (Needs)
- Similar to Maslow's but motivation is based on: ~ Existence ~ Relatedness ~ Growth - There is no hierarchy of needs
Motivation to Learn Theories: Expectancy Theory
- Similar to Self-Efficacy - Motivation is a function of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence Job Performance = Effort x Ability x Situational Constraints
Learning Outcomes: Verbal information
- State, tell, or describe previously stored information. - includes names or labels, facts, and bodies of knowledge. Example: State three reasons for following company safety procedures.
Gagne's 9 Steps: Gain Attention
- Step 1 of Gagne's - Need to have minimal distractions because learning cannot commence until a person is focused on the function of learning - trainees will ignore everything else outside of your personal attention -Can pay attention to 1 thing at a time, any distractions will have sub-optimal learning environment (there can be 2 pictures but a person can only perceive 1 picture at a time) -Multitasking is always suboptimal for learning -Can use audio, verbal, visual, video
Gagne's 9 Steps: Describe Goal
- Step 2 of Gagne's - When introducing the lesson need to state the achieved goal of the program (goal setting theory)
Gagne's 9 Steps: Present Material
- Step 4 of Gagne's - when introducing new learning material want to utilize semantic encoding - will create new links between long-term knowledge and new concepts
Gagne's 9 Steps: Provide Guidance
- Step 5 of Gagne's - use diagrams and models to show relationships among concepts; supply verbal links to the larger context - Want to use visual tools (symbols, diagrams, models) to reinforce learning new material -Ex. Job Satisfactions -> Performance
Gagne's 9 Steps: Elicit Performance/Practice
- Step 6 of Gagne's - provide opportunities for practice - Give the opportunity for trainees to put new knowledge into short-term memory - Builds working storage -If content is on skills, give opportunity to practice skills -If content is knowledge based, illicit performance by asking to recite back information (basic form)
Gagne's 9 Steps: Provide Feedback
- Step 7 of Gagne's - Provide reassurance to reinforce learning new skills - trainee's have a psychological need for reassurance of skills (gratifying) -Different from assessing performance, given in the moment for the training Example: -During training can move around the room to provide feedback to trainee
Gagne's 9 Steps: Assess Performance
- Step 8 of Gagne's - occurs after the training class has ended - Can use a quiz or exam, help reinforce working storage of knowledge and transition into longer term memory
Gagne's 9 Steps: Enhance Retention & Transfer
- Step 9 of Gagne's -The last step for trainees to apply what they have learned to the job - Ask trainee about situations that are similar but not identical to the example in the class
Reinforcement Theory: Skinner's Operant Theory
- Systematic "if-then" linkage between target behavior and consequence is critical
Expectancy Theory: Instrumentality
- The belief that a particular reward is contingent on a specific level of performance (the "performance-reward" relationship) - the employee's belief if they complete the training, they will get the incentive - If employee doesn't believe they will get promoted after completing training, will have low motivation
Expectancy Theory: Expectancy
- The perceived positive or negative value attached by a person to a reward ("reward-goals" relationship) - the importance that the employee places on the reward for completing the training activity - Employee values the incentive, they will be more motivated
Expectancy Theory: Valence
- The perceived relationship between level of effort and level of performance (the "effort-performance" relationship) - a employee belief that when they work hard, they will achieve the performance target
Motivation to Learn Theories: Goal Setting Theory
- The process of formulating goals, either as an individual or as part of a collective (e.g., team, organization) - Assumes that behavior results from a person's conscious goals and intentions - Goals influence a person's behavior by directing energy and attention, sustaining effort over time, and motivating the person to develop strategies for goal attainment - Specific, difficult goals motivate more than "do your best" goals
Reinforcement Theory: Extinction
- The process of withdrawing positive or negative reinforcers to eliminate a behavior - ignoring the bad behavior until it goes away
Positive Climate for Transfer of Training
- Trainees' perceptions about a wide variety of characteristics of the work environment that facilitate or inhibit the use of trained skills or behavior. - These characteristics include manager and peer support, the opportunity to use skills, and the consequences of using learned capabilities - Research has shown that transfer of training climate is significantly related to positive changes in managers' administrative and interpersonal behaviors following training.
Alderfer's ERG (Needs): Relatedness
- the desire to have meaningful relationships with others
Pre-Practice Conditions
- Trainers need to focus not just on training content but also on enabling trainees to process information to facilitate learning and the use of training on the job. Can enhance motivation to learn by: - Provide information about the process or strategy that will result in the greatest learning -Encourage trainees to develop a strategy (metacognition) to reflect on their own learning process - Provide advance organizers—outlines, texts, diagrams, and graphs that help trainees organize the information that will be presented and practiced. - Help trainees set challenging mastery or learning goals - Create realistic expectations for trainees by communicating what will occur in training. -When training employees in teams, communicate performance expectations and clarify the roles and responsibilities of team members.
Types of Learning Outcomes
- Verbal information - Intellectual skills - Motor skills - Attitudes - Cognitive strategies
How Learning Occurs Theories: Gagne's Learning Process Model
- a form of Information Processing Theory - Learning consists of several mental and physical states and processes, each of which suggests how training can be optimally conducted. - Informs trainer how people learn and how to conduct training
Reinforcement Theory: Positive Reinforcement
- a pleasurable outcome resulting from a behavior - words of encouragement for completing a task or project
Transfer of Training: Generalization
- a trainee's ability to apply what has been learned to on-the-job work problems and situations that are similar but not necessarily identical to those problems and situations encountered in the learning environment (i.e., the training program)
Components to Build Self-Efficacy: Verbal Persuasion from others
- a words of encouragement from peers or managers - You can do it!
Retrieval
- accessing material in long-term memory (for use in learning new knowledge/tasks)
Learning Cycle Model: abstract conceptualization
- conclusion of thoughts or learning from the experience
Conditions for Learning Outcomes
- conditions are necessary for learning to successfully take place Specifically: ~ Internal Conditions ~ External Conditions
situational constraints
- external circumstances will take cognitive ability that can diminish performance
Types of Instructional Interaction: Learner-learner
- interaction between learners, with or without an instructor. - observing and sharing experiences with peers, - especially useful for training: ~ interpersonal skills (such as communications), ~ acquiring personal knowledge based on experience (such as tacit knowledge about how to close a sale or resolve a conflict), ~ providing context-specific knowledge (such as managing in an international location) ~ learning to cope with uncertainty or new situations (such as marketing a new product or service). - Requires mastering a task that is completed in a group. Learners gain new knowledge or validate their understanding by discussing content with peers.
Types of Instructional Interaction: Learner-instructor
- interaction between the learner and the expert (trainer). - Trainers can facilitate learning by presenting, demonstrating, and reinforcing content. - provide support, encouragement, and feedback that are valued by most learners. - discussions can be useful for helping learners understand content, enhance their self-awareness and self-assessment, gain an appreciation for different opinions, and implement ideas on the job. - Best for in-depth topic exploration and to develop strengths in critical analysis and thinking. Discussion may be limited when large amounts of material need to be presented in a short timespan.
Learning Occurs Theories: Learning Cycle Model
- learn more effectively by going through stage within the cycle of learning - Use of experiential learning: occurs outside the classroom or hands-on learning - Learning can be considered a dynamic cycle that involves four stages: ~ concrete experience ~ reflective observation ~ abstract conceptualization ~ active experimentation
Steps for Social Learning Theory: Retention
- learners have to code the observed behavior and skills in memory in an organized manner so they can recall them for the appropriate situation. - Behaviors or skills can be coded as visual images (symbols) or verbal statements. Includes: - Coding - Organization - Rehearsal
How Learning Occurs Theories: Social Learning Theory
- people learn by observing other people (models) who they believe are credible and knowledgeable - Behavior that is reinforced or rewarded by others tends to be repeated - Components of Learning ~ directly experiencing the consequences of using that behavior or skill ~ the process of observing others and seeing the consequences of their behavior - Key to this model self-efficacy - Important for training skills/behaviors
Steps for Social Learning Theory: Attention
- persons cannot learn by observation unless they are aware of the essential aspects of a model's performance. Include: - Model Stimuli - Trainee Characteristics
Needs
- physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior - motivates a person to behave in a manner that satisfies the deficiency.
Learning Cycle Model: active experimentation
- planning and trying our what you have learned
Reinforcement Theory: Punishment
- presenting an unpleasant outcome after a behavior, leading to a decrease in that behavior. - to weaken bad behavior and reinforce good behaviors (written up, not allowed opportunity at work)
Components to Build Self-Efficacy: Enactive Mastery
- prior experience/past accomplishments
Conditions for Learning Outcomes: External Conditions
- processes or states in the training environment that facilitate the attainment of the learning outcomes Example: ~ quiet learning environment, images, or visual cues that facilitate knowledge retention
Conditions for Learning Outcomes: Internal Conditions
- processes or states within the trainee that are necessary for learning the appropriate outcome Example: ~ personal techniques for coding information into memory, previously learned verbal information
Key Behaviors
- refers to a set of behaviors that can be used successfully in a wide variety of situations.
Fidelity
- refers to the extent to which the training environment is similar to the work environment.
Far Transfer
- refers to the trainee's ability to apply learned capabilities to the work environment, even though the work environment (equipment, problems, and tasks) is not identical to that of the training session
Working Storage
- rehearsal and repetition of information for short-term memory
Learning Cycle Model: reflective observation
- review data or reflect on a experience
Long-Term Storage
- storing of information over longer periods of time
Implications of Alderfer's ERG on Training
- suggest that to motivate learning, trainers should identify trainees' needs and communicate how training program content relates to fulfilling these needs.
Implications of Expectancy Theory on Training
- suggests that learning is most likely to occur when employees believe that they can learn the content of the program (expectancy). - earning and transfer of training are enhanced when they are linked to outcomes such as better job performance, a salary increase, or peer recognition (instrumentality) - employees value these outcomes (valence).
Steps for Social Learning Theory: Motivational Process
- that behaviors that are reinforced will be repeated in the future. Includes: Reinforcement
Implications of Reinforcement Theory on Training
- that for learners to acquire knowledge, change behavior, or modify skills, the trainer needs to identify what outcomes the learner finds most positive (and negative). - Employees need feedback that is timely, relevant, and constructive - Motivating through fear is consistent with reinforcement theory, but is unlikely to work with adult learners - Celebrate learning; make it fun
Motivation to Learn Theories: Reinforcement Theory
- that people are motivated to perform or avoid certain behaviors because of past outcomes that have resulted from those behaviors Strengthen behavior by ~ Positive Reinforcement ~ Negative Reinforcement Weaken behavior by ~ Punishment ~ Extinction
Alderfer's ERG (Needs): Existence
- the desire for physiological and materialistic well-being
Alderfer's ERG (Needs): Growth
- the desire to grow as a human being and to use one's abilities
Types of Instructional Interaction: Learner-content
- the learner interacts with the training content. - includes reading text on the web or in books, listening to multimedia modules, performing activities that require the manipulation of tools or objects (such as writing), completing case studies and worksheets, or creating new content based on learned information - Requires mastering a task that is completed alone. Learn process of studying information and acting on it .
Perception
- the process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret the input from their senses
Transfer of Training: Maintenance
- the process of trainees continuing to use what they have learned over time.
Semantic Encoding
- the processing of incoming messages and association with words
Reinforcement Theory: Negative Reinforcement
- the removal of an unpleasant outcome - subjecting a person to a negative behavior until they complete the task Example: repeat the training until you pass the exam, the training activity might be unpleasant
Transfer of Training
- trainees effectively and continually applying what they have learned in training to their jobs Need both: ~ Generalization ~ Maintenance
Meshing Hypothsis
- trainees will learn best when their learning style matches the training method (not valid)
Near Transfer
- trainees' ability to apply learned capabilities exactly to the work situation.
Closed Skills
- training objectives that are linked to learning specific skills that are to be identically produced by the trainee on the job - There is only one correct way to complete a task
Transfer of Training Theories: Identical Elements
- transfer of training occurs when what is being learned in the training session is identical to the tasks the trainee has to perform on the job - want to use when training closed skills with near transfer - found in the use of simulators for training airline pilots.
Steps for Social Learning Theory: Motor Reproduction
- trying out the observed behaviors to see if they result in the same reinforcement that the model received. - The ability to reproduce the behaviors or skills depends on the extent to which the learner can recall the skills or behavior. Includes: - Physical Capability - Accuracy - Feedback
Goal
- what an individual tries to accomplish; an object or aim of action
Low Expectancy
- when a person believes that no matter how hard they try, they cannot complete the task
Transfer of Training Theories: Cognitive Theory of Transfer
-Transfer of training becomes more likely when: -training content and materials are meaningful -When trainees are able to connect what they learn in training with what they experience in the work environment - Allow trainees to identify work problems or situations where the training content may be applied - Not mutually exclusive with other theories
