Chapter 4: Purposes of Texts and Graphic Sources

Right there questions.

These are answers to literal questions students will find right in the text.

Author and me questions.

These questions are a combination of ideas the author shares and some the reader thinks of. These questions are inferential and applied.

Irony.

Within a literary work is a situation or event resulting in the opposite of what might be expected. For example, in O. Henry's The Gift of the Magi, Della finds the perfect chain for Jim's watch (she sold her hair to buy it) while Jim sheepishly explains how he got the money for a set of magnificent combs for Della's hair (he sold his watch).

Conflict.

Work of literature is a struggle between opposite forces. Almost every story is built around a central conflict the main character faces. Conflicts may involve one person against another, a person against society, a person against nature, or a person against him- or herself.

Personification.

A figure of speech in which an inanimate object or abstraction is given human qualities or abilities. Example: The daffodils nodded their heads at the baby bunny.

Hyperbole.

A figure of speech in which statements are exaggerated. It is not used to mislead the reader, but to emphasize a point. Example: I'm so hungry I could eat a horse.

Simile.

A figure of speech which involves a direct comparison between two unlike things, usually with the words like or as. Example: Stop it! You're acting like a baby.

Metaphor.

A figure of speech which involves an implicit comparison of one thing with another word or phrase unlike itself; the comparison is not preceded by like or as. Example: The river was a silk ribbon.

Allegory.

A form of extended metaphor in which objects, persons, and actions are equated with meanings that have moral, social, religious, or political significance. Characters are often personifications of such abstract ideas as charity, greed, or envy. Fables like The Hare and the Tortoise or The Ant and the Grasshopper are examples of stories having disguised meanings other than those indicated on the surface.

Fictional works most often include:

A plot, setting, characters, theme, conflict, and resolution

Informational (nonfiction) texts.

Nonfiction or informational texts are designed to offer children verifiable, current, and accurate knowledge. The content of this genre is endless.

Ancient peoples created stories to explain natural phenomena. These stories are known as:

myths

Cause-and-effect.

An author lists one or more causes and the resulting effect(s). Paragraphs explicitly or implicitly describe relationships between events and results. Cue words include the reason why, then, as a result, therefore, and because.

Problem-solution.

An author states a problem and lists one or more solutions to it. Paragraphs often present problems and discuss solutions. Cue words include the problem is, the puzzle is, and the solution to this problem is.

On my own questions.

Answers for these questions require that readers critically analyze what is read, draw some conclusions, and come up with applied, evaluative responses.

Think and search questions.

Answers that students will find in the text but will need to hunt for them. Often, these are inferential questions.

Transfer.

People, places, words, or ideas having positive connotations are used to suggest that the positive qualities can be transferred to the user. For example, "Buy this deodorant and you'll be as attractive, popular, or happy as (the attractive person using it)."

Dramatic works (or plays) most often include:

Plot, setting, characters, and dialogue and also use a specific form (or script) that organizes the work into acts and scenes

Graphic organizers.

Provide a mediated and concrete way for students to see the organizational patterns of informational text structures. Graphic organizers visually display key ideas, words, or phrases that organize content knowledge and help students see how the relationships between concepts in a text are related to one another. See Figure 4.1 for use of a Venn diagram to illustrate the compare and contrast pattern.

Historical fiction.

Realistic fiction set in the historical past (Hancock, 2004). Works of historical fiction are stories of the lives of people who lived in the past. The characters may be based on real or fictional people. Even if the story is not real, authors skillfully blend drama and interest using historical settings, events, or people.

In the short story, Another Old Car, the central character, Mary Grady, is embarrassed to ride in her father's used car. This story could best be classified as:

Realistic fiction.

Anticipation guides.

Teachers can develop anticipation guides to activate students' background knowledge before reading an informational text. They begin by reading the text they are going to ask students to read and then composing four to six statements that are likely to challenge the students' beliefs about a topic or that present an opinion about it. They write the statements in the wide third column of a three-column table. The first two columns are narrow, and are labeled "Agree" and "Disagree" respectively. The teacher asks the class to read the statements in the anticipation guide and respond to them. Students decide whether they agree or disagree with each statement. The teacher then asks students to discuss their responses with the class and defend their positions. Then the teacher directs students to read the text. After reading, students are asked to compare their responses to what is written in the text and discuss each statement again.

Dialogue.

A conversational exchange between two or more characters. It is used to reveal character and/or advance the plot.

Prereading.

Activities are set up to build readers' background knowledge and interest in the book.

Description.

An author describes the topic by listing characteristics, features, and examples. Paragraphs often describe an idea, event, object, or topic. Cue words include for example and characteristics are.

Comparison and contrast.

An author explains how two or more things are alike and/or how they are different. Cue words include compare, similarly, and differently.

Sequence.

An author lists items or events in numerical or chronological order. Paragraphs present information sequentially across time so that readers know what comes before and after. Cue words include first, second, next, then, or finally.

Biography.

Are a form of nonfiction. They tell authentic stories of the lives of people from the past or present, sharing their accomplishments and their challenges. Biographies often inspire readers to examine their lives and aspire to certain goals. This genre includes autobiographies (stories a person writes about his or her own life).

Realistic fiction.

Are contemporary stories that tell of real events and reflect on contemporary life with which a reader can identify. The protagonists in realistic fiction face real-life problems, confront them, and grow from their experiences. Realistic fiction often features children or adolescents as the main characters, which is why this genre may be the most popular of all children's literature genres (Norton, 2011).

Narrative forms of literature:

Are developed using various structural elements.

Fables.

Are short stories with a moral ending, intended to teach lessons about life. Fables are most popularly associated with Aesop (sixth century BC).

Literature circles

Are small, student-led discussion groups where students choose the books they read from high quality children's literature, including stories, poems, biographies, or information books

Myths.

Are stories that grew out of people's need to understand and explain the world around them and their own existence (e.g., the beginning of the world, the relationships between gods and humans, and the creation of people).

Legends.

Are tales about heroes and are rooted in historical events. Legends often exaggerate the adventures of a real person.

Functional texts

Are texts that are important to everyday use; they include food labels, nutrition labels, warranties, contracts, directions, schedules, and so on. Functional text is designed to assist readers in accomplishing tasks such as making purchases, assembling furniture, choosing and preparing nutritious meals, using equipment, completing application forms, planning travel, or caring for plants and animals. Functional text asks readers to interpret information—e.g., by correctly following the sequence in a set of instructions. Functional text might also require readers to draw inferences or conclusions based on the information shared.

Labeling.

Cartoonists often label objects or people to make it clear exactly what they stand for. Watch for the different labels that appear in a cartoon and ask yourself why the cartoonist chose to label that particular person or object. Does the label make the meaning of the object or person clearer?

Symbolism.

Cartoonists use simple objects, or symbols, to stand for larger concepts or ideas. After you identify the symbols in a cartoon, think about what the cartoonist intends each symbol to stand for.

Analogy.

Comparison between two unlike things that have common characteristics. By comparing a complex issue or situation with a more familiar one, cartoonists can help their readers see it in a different light. After you've studied a cartoon for a while, try to decide what the cartoon's main analogy is. What two situations does the cartoon compare? Once you understand the main analogy, decide if this comparison makes the cartoonist's point clearer to you.

Traditional literature.

Encompasses stories originally shared in an oral tradition through storytelling. Thus, traditional literature includes stories that have been passed down from generation to generation, sharing cultural traditions and values. Stories included in this genre can be further broken down as

Organization of informational texts.

Description Sequence Comparison and contrast Cause-and-effect Problem-solution

Reader's theatre.

Dramatic performance of a script by a group of readers. Each student in the group assumes a part, rehearses it, and reads his or her character's lines. It's valuable for readers to hear interpretations of the play through voices without much accompanying action. Communication of the plot, characterization, mood, and theme is carried out through the students' voices, gestures, and facial expressions. No memorization is needed. Reader's theatre supports the development of fluency skills as well as comprehension.

Persuasive Texts

E.g., newspaper editorials, political petitions, written speeches, letters to the editor—share facts, but also share opinions. Persuasive text uses various types of appeals to show readers that one idea is better than another. It attempts to persuade a reader to adopt a certain point of view or to take a particular action. Traditionally, the general characteristics of persuasive text writing include

Rising action.

Events in a story that move the plot forward. Rising action involves conflicts and complications and usually builds toward the climax.

Fairy tales.

F`eature magical and enchanted people (e.g., fairy godmothers and ogres) or objects (e.g., mirrors and swords). They always have a "happily ever after" ending, where good is rewarded and evil is punished

Brief narratives designed to teach a moral are referred to as:

Fables

Poetry.

Imaginative written interpretation of an experience expressed through meaning, sound, and rhythmic language so as to evoke an aesthetic, emotional response. A poem can be expressed rhythmically or in prose.

Resolution.

In the plot of a story, resolution occurs after the climax. During the falling action, conflicts are resolved and any loose ends are tied up.

Modern fantasy.

Includes contemporary imaginative tales with story elements and story lines that clearly defy the natural and physical laws of our known world. Imaginary elements of modern fantasy stories provide a bridge that separates fantasy from realism. Types of modern fantasies include animal fantasies, humorous and exaggerated tales, magic adventures and toy fantasies, ghost fantasies, fantasies about time travel, adventure fantasies that transport readers to secondary worlds, and science fantasies (more popularly called science fiction).

Foreshadowing.

Is a hint of things to come later in the story. For example, a diary hidden in a drawer early in the story might foreshadow a future secret.

Euphemism.

Is an agreeable word or expression substituted for one that is potentially offensive. For example, shell shocked would have been an acceptable term during World War I to describe the medical condition of soldiers placed in high stress situations. But it is now taboo; it has been replaced by the less offensive posttraumatic stress disorder.

Flashback.

Is an interjected scene that depicts an event that happened in the past, to illustrate the passage of time or to remind or inform viewers of past events. For example, Howard studies his image in the mirror and touches the number on the front of his old, worn basketball jersey. "I'll always remember that night at the championship finals..." The author then takes the reader back to the past to reveal something important to the plot.

Irony.

Is the difference between the ways things are and the way things should be, or the way things are expected to be. Cartoonists often use irony to express their opinion on an issue. When you look at a cartoon, see if you can find any irony in the situation the cartoon depicts. If you can, think about what point the irony might be intended to emphasize. Does the irony help the cartoonist express his or her opinion more effectively?

Mood.

Is the feeling a literary work creates for the reader: for example, happiness, sadness, suspense, anger, or hope.

Theme.

Literary work is the underlying idea that ties the plot, characters, and setting together into a meaningful whole. Authors of children's literature sometimes state the theme directly rather than make it implicit.

Card stacking.

Means stressing the positive qualities of a person or product and suppressing unfavorable facts. Although the majority of information presented by the card stacking approach is true, the technique is dangerous because it omits important information.

Fifth-grade student Marie loves to gaze at the night sky and imagine planets filled with interesting people. Because of this interest, her teacher believes that Marie would enjoy reading:

Science fiction

Folktales.

Seek to explain things about life, nature, or the human condition. They feature common folks, such as peasants, and commonplace events. They may include some "make-believe" elements, like talking animals, but the stories, overall, sound logical and even realistic.

Plot.

Sequence of related events that usually focuses on the central conflict, a problem faced by the main character. In a typical plot, the action that the characters take to solve the problem builds towards the climax. The problem may be solved or changed and the story ends.

Exaggeration.

Sometimes cartoonists overdo, or exaggerate, the physical characteristics of people or things in order to make a point. When you study a cartoon, look for any characteristics that seem overdone or overblown. (Facial characteristics and clothing are some of the most commonly exaggerated characteristics.) Then, try to decide what point the cartoonist was trying to make through exaggeration.

Applying.

Students apply their learning when they create oral and written projects to share with classmates.

Responding.

Students participate in conversations—discussions to share the big ideas of the story, express their views, and make personal connections—and then complete reading logs. Reading logs are where students summarize what they have read; discuss characters, plot, or other story elements; and record unfamiliar or interesting words.

Exploring.

Students post vocabulary on word walls, participate in word study activities, learn comprehension strategies, examine text factors, and research the book's author or participate in activities relating to other topics.

Reading workshop.

Students read books they have chosen themselves. They write responses to the books in their reading logs. The last 15 minutes of reading workshop is spent in a shared reading where the class gathers together and students discuss the book. Teachers provide mini-lessons on comprehension strategies and text factors. Some mini-lessons are taught to the whole class and some to small groups. Alternatively, teachers use an interactive read-aloud to read books that students may not be able to read themselves.

Reading.

Students read the book independently or the teacher reads it aloud or sets up shared reading groups.

Climax.

The climax is the turning point in a story or play.

Point of view.

The position or standpoint from which a literary text is presented.

Alliteration.

The repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of several words in close succession. Example: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.

Setting.

The time and place in which the action takes place.

Onomatopoeia.

The use of words that imitate the sound that they describe. Example: boom, munch, or boo-hoo.

Characterization.

The way an author creates, develops, and presents characters.