Chapter 4

(2) no significant stability occurred for time intervals of more than __-

15 years

what percent of infants experienced separation protest in Guatemalan Indian culture:

60%

how does putting a red nose on an infant help mirror studing

The idea is that increased nose touching indicates that the infant recognizes themself in the mirror and is trying to touch or rub off the rouge because the rouge violates the infant's memory of how they looked in the past

Two types of smiling can be distinguished in infants:

refelxive, social

a longitudinal study revealed that changes in attachment security/insecurity from infancy to adulthood were linked to

stresses and supports in socioemotional contexts

what do babies do to sooth themselves?

thumbs in mouth In their second year, they may say things to help soothe themselves. When placed in his bed for the night, after a little crying and whimpering, a 20-month-old was overheard saying, "Go sleep, Alex. Okay."

According to Erikson (1968), the first year of life is characterized by the ___ stage of developmen

trust-versus mistrust

Caregivers of avoidant babies tend to be

unavailable or rejecting. They often don't respond to their babies' signals and have little physical contact with them. When they do interact with their babies, they may behave angrily and irritably

If the infant is not ____, a sense of mistrust is likely to develop

well fed and kept warm on a consistent basis

pros of Effortful Control (Self-Regulation)

who are high in effortful control show an ability to keep their arousal from getting too intense and have strategies for soothing themselves

can adults tell babies cries apart

yes they can tell the kinds crys apart, but do a much better job for their own baby

Basic Crying

A rhythmic pattern that usually consists of a cry, followed by a briefer silence, then a shorter whistle that is somewhat higher in pitch than the main cry, then another brief rest before the next cry.

Social smile:

A smile that occurs in response to an external stimulus, typically a face in the case of the young infant. Social smiling occurs as early as 2 months of age.

Anger cry:

A variation of the basic cry, with more excess air forced through the vocal cords.

temperament

An individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of responding.

stranger anxiety

An infant's fear and wariness of strangers that typically appears in the second half of the first year of life.

strange situation

An observational measure of infant attachment that requires the infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order

Securely attached babies

Babies that use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore their environment. When the caregiver departs, securely attached infants might protest mildly; when the caregiver returns, these infants re-establish positive interaction with them, perhaps by smiling or climbing onto their lap. Subsequently, they often resume playing with the toys in the room.

Signs of self-recognition began to appear among some infants when they were ___ old. By the time they were __, most children recognized themselves in the mirror. In sum, infants begin to develop a self-understanding, called self-recognition, at approximately ___

15 to 18 months, 2 years old, 18 months of age

Between ___, children markedly increase their imitative and reciprocal play—for example, imitating nonverbal actions like jumping and running

18 and 24 months

__ percent of the children they studied could be classified as easy, __ percent as difficult, and __ percent as slow to warm up

40, 10, 15

Even though infants as young as ___ show an interest in each other, their interaction with peers increases considerably in the ___

6 months, latter half of the second year

what percent of infants experienced separation protest in Israeli kibbutzim culture:

60%

By ___, fear of strangers is often more intense, and it continues to escalate through the infant's first birthday

9 months

what percent of infants experienced separation protest in Antiguan (Guatemala) culture:

>80%

an active temperament is valued more in some cultures ___ than in others ___

(such as Canada), (such as China)

Attachment

a close emotional bond between two people

inhibited temperament is associated with a unique physiological pattern that includes ____ This pattern may be tied to the excitability of the ___,

a high and stable heart rate, high levels of the hormone cortisol, and high activity in the right frontal lobe of the brain. amygdala

Reflexive smile:

a smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli and appears during the first month after birth, usually during sleep.

One study found links between disorganized attachment in infancy,

a specific gene (the short version of the serotonin transporter gene), and levels of maternal responsiveness

Pain cry:

a sudden, long, initial loud cry followed by the holding of the breath; no preliminary moaning is present. The pain cry may be stimulated by physical pain or by any high-intensity stimulus

effortful control was a strong predictor of

academic success skills in kindergarten children from low-income families

infant attachment insecurity (especially insecure resistant attachment) and early childhood behavioural inhibition predicted

adolescent social anxiety symptoms

by what age can children can use language to define their feeling states and identify the context that is upsetting them

age 2

separation protest

an infant's distressed crying when the caregiver leaves

Infants are less fearful of __ strangers than of ___ strangers

child, adult

Any coordinated actions of the 1-yearolds appeared to be ___, whereas the 2-year-olds' behaviour was characterized as ___

coincidental rather than cooperative, active cooperation to reach a goal

when toddlers hear their parents quarrelling, they often react with

distress and inhibit their play

(1) moderate stability of attachment security occurred from

early infancy to adulthood;

three basic types, or clusters, of temperament

easy child difficult child slow to warm up

Infants show less stranger anxiety when they are in

familiar settings, when they are sitting on their mothers' laps than when they are in an infant seat several feet away from their mothers

How might caregivers help a child become less fearful and inhibited?

find out what frightens the child. Comforting and reassuring the child and addressing their specific fears are good strategies.

Kagan's Concept of Behavioural Inhibition

focuses on the differences between a shy, subdued, timid child and a sociable, extroverted, bold child

Bowlby's phase 2

from 2 to 7 months. Attachment becomes focused on one figure, usually the primary caregiver, as the baby gradually learns to distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar people

Bowlby's pahse 4

from 24 months on. Children become aware of other people's feelings, goals, and plans and begin to take these into account in directing their own actions

Bowlby's phase 3

from 7 to 24 months. Specific attachments develop. With increased locomotor skills, babies actively seek contact with regular caregivers, such as the mother or father

Bowlby's phase 1:

from birth to 2 months Infants instinctively direct their attachment to human figures. Strangers, siblings, and parents are equally likely to elicit smiling or crying from the infant

mothers were more responsive to the crying of irritable __ than to that of irritable __

girls, boys

Caregivers of resistant babies tend to be

inconsistent; sometimes they respond to their babies' needs, and sometimes they don't. In general, they tend not to be very affectionate with their babies and show little synchrony when interacting with them

Erikson (1968) stressed that ___ is an important issue in the second year of life.

independence

Social referencing

involves "reading" emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation

developmental cascade model

involves connections across domains over time that influence developmental pathways and outcomes

how did they study Babies pick up on momentary changes in their mothers' stress?

mothers were separated from their babies and required to give a 5-minute speech. The independent variable was the type of evaluation mothers received: half received a positive evaluation and half received a negative evaluation. Mothers who received negative feedback reported an increase in negative emotion and cardiac stress, while those who were given positive feedback reported an increase in positive emotion. The dependent variable was infant heart rate when mothers and infants were reunited. Babies whose mothers received negative feedback showed an increased heart rate, and the greater the mother's stress response, the more her baby's heart rate increased

Caregivers of disorganized babies often

neglect or physically abuse them

is smiling a learned behaviour

no blind from birth children do ti

are erikson's stages static

no the issues of trust mistrust cna rearise at every stage

Insecure resistant babies

often cling to the caregiver and then resist by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away In the strange situation, these babies often cling anxiously to the caregiver and don't explore the playroom. When the caregiver leaves, they often cry loudly and then push away if they try to comfort the babies upon their return.

Infants in agricultural societies tend to form attachments to

older siblings, who have major responsibility for their younger siblings' care.

Freud theorized that infants become attached to the person or object that provides them with

oral satisfaction (ie mother because she feeds them)

early secure attachment (assessed by the behaviour during the strange situation at 12 and 18 months) was linked with

positive emotional health; high self-esteem; self-confidence; and socially competent interaction with peers, teachers, camp counsellors, and romantic partners through adolescence. linked to social competence with peers in childhood

rats who partake in high quality licking have

pups that are better at stress regulation and alter gene expresstion in rats

interactions between parents and infants are described as

reciprocal, or synchronous

Goodness of fit

refers to the match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with

should parents respond to crying? Why or why not?

responding positively to an infant's cry helps the infant to develop a sense of trust and secure attachment to the caregiver. Mothers' negative emotional reactions (anger and anxiety) to crying increase the risk of subsequent attachment insecurity

a central, more complete index of self-recognition—the ability to recognize one's physical features—does not emerge until the

second year

Research has found that smiling and laughter at 7 months of age are associated with ___

self-regulation at 7 years of age

Securely attached babies have caregivers who are

sensitive to their signals and are consistently available to respond to the infants' needs These caregivers often let their babies take an active part in determining the onset and pacing of interactions in the first year of life.

Insecure avoidant babies

show insecurity by avoiding the caregiver. In the strange situation, these babies engage in little interaction with the caregiver, are not distressed when they leave the room, usually do not re-establish contact with them upon their return, and may even turn their back on them. If contact is established, the infant usually leans away or looks away.

having an inhibited temperament at 2 to 3 years of age was related to having ___ symptoms at 7 years of age

social phobia

Emotions that infants express in the first 6 months of life include

surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust

internal working model of attachment

the child's mental representation of the self, of attachment figure(s), and of relationships in general that is constructed as a result of experiences with caregivers. The working model guides children's interactions with caregivers and other people in infancy and at older ages

why is frueds oral attachment theory wrong

the cloth mother monkey study

A study of 18- to 24-month-olds found that parents' elicitation of talk about emotions was associated with

their toddlers' sharing and helping behaviours

differential susceptibility model

these models emphasize that certain characteristics—such as a difficult temperament—that render children more vulnerable to difficulty in adverse contexts also make them more susceptible to optimal growth in very supportive conditions.

Resistance to attachment theory

these theories may underplay the role of temperment in bio ignores the diversity of socializing agents and contexts that exists in an infant's world. A culture's value system can influence the nature of attachment

is early infancy a critical or sesnitive preriod for attachement

they are trying to figure that our but one study leans towards sensative because of the study that showed the best predictor of an insecure attachment classification at 18 was the occurrence of parental divorce in the intervening years

whereas the Japanese mother's motivation for extreme closeness to her infant may explain why Japanese infants become __ when they are separated from their mother.

upset

___ infants display less frequent and less intense positive and negative emotions than do ___

East Asian, Caucasian infants because parents

how to prevent shame and doubt fro developing in a toddler

It is important to recognize toddlers' motivation to do what they are capable of doing at their own pace. Then they can learn to control their muscles and their impulses themselves. Conversely, when caregivers are impatient and do for toddlers what they are capable of doing themselves, shame and doubt develop It is only when parents consistently overprotect toddlers or criticize accidents (wetting, soiling, spilling, or breaking, for example) that children are likely to develop an excessive sense of shame and doubt about their ability to control themselves and their world.

Temperament experts Ann Sanson and Mary Rothbart (1995) also recommend the following strategies for temperament-sensitive parenting

Pay attention to and respect the child's individuality Structure the child's environment Avoid applying negative labels to the child.

___, according to Erikson (1968), are key to establishing a basic level of trust during infancy which leads to attachment

Physical comfort and sensitive care

what is a condition that eleicits a basic cry

Some experts believe that hunger is one of the conditions that incite the basic cry

Slow-to-warm-up child:

This child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood.

Easy child:

This child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences.

Difficult child:

This child reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change.

inhibition to the unfamiliar

This is Jerome Kagan's term for the shy child react to many aspects of unfamiliarity with initial avoidance, distress, or subdued affect, beginning around 7 to 9 months

what percent of infants experienced separation protest in African Bushman culture:

100%

A study of four different cultures found that separation protest peaked at about

13 to 15 months

___often begins to characterize caregiver-infant interactions when the infant is about 2 to 3 months of age

Face-to-face play

emotion

Feeling, or affect, that occurs when a person is in a state or interaction that is important to them. Emotion is characterized by behaviour that reflects (expresses) the pleasantness or unpleasantness of the state a person is in or the transactions being experienced.

who proposed the most influential attachment theorys:

Freud, Erikson, and Bowlby

biological sensitivity to context model

These models emphasize that certain characteristics—such as a difficult temperament—that render children more vulnerable to difficulty in adverse contexts also make them more susceptible to optimal growth in very supportive conditions.

A rudimentary form of self-recognition—being attentive and positive toward one's image in a mirror—appears

appears as early as 3 months

Insecure disorganized babies

are disorganized and disoriented. In the strange situation, these babies might appear dazed, confused, and fearful. To be classified as disorganized, babies must show strong patterns of avoidance and resistance or display certain specified behaviours, such as extreme fearfulness around the caregiver.

Erikson's second stage of development is identified as ___

autonomy versus shame and doubt

caregiving is associated with

better biological recovery when stressors do occur

Bowlby believed that both the infant and their primary caregivers are

biologically predisposed to form attachments

self-conscious or other-conscious emotions

jealousy, empathy, embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt

(3) attachment stability was greater when the time span was __- than when it was ___;

less than 2 years, more than 5 years

In northern Germany, for example, expectations for an infant's independence may be responsible for infants showing

little distress upon a brief separation from the mother,

(4) securely attached children at risk were less likely to ___ while insecurely attached children at risk were ___

maintain attachment security, likely to continue to be insecurely attached

A study of 130 mother-infant dyads when infants were 7 months to 2 years of age found that ___ predicted secure attachment

maternal sensitivity and autonomy support

are faicail emotional reactions learned

maybe but they are the same across most cultures fo rht ebasic emaotions

Twin and adoption studies also suggest that heredity has a __ influence on differences in temperament within a group of peopl

moderate

infants who were insecurely attached to their mother and father ("double-insecure") at 15 months of age had

more externalizing problems (out-of-control behaviour, for example) in the elementary school years than their counterparts who were securely attached to at least one parent.

Decreases in infants' negative emotionality occur when parents are

more involved, responsive, and sensitive when interacting with their children