Chapter 5- Policing Contemporary Issues and Challenges

Civilian Review Board

- Citizens' committee formed to investigate complaints against the police. - These people in the community are not sworn police officers. - They do not have the power to investigate or discipline individual officers though.

Community Policing

- Consists of attempts by the police to involve residents in making their own neighborhoods safer. - Emphasizes cooperation between the police and citizens in identifying community needs and determining the best ways to meet them. A central feature of community policing is problem-oriented policing

Internal Affairs Units

- Depending on the size of the department, a single officer or an entire section can serve as an internal affairs unit that receives and investigates complaints against officers. - An officer charged with misconduct can face criminal prosecution or disciplinary action leading to resignation, dismissal, or suspension. - Must have direct access to the chief. - Most of the times this officer does not have other friends because people view them as snitches.

Patrol Function

- Every local police department has a patrol unit. They account for most sworn officers. - The patrol function has three main parts: answering calls for help, maintaining a police presence, and probing suspicious circumstances. - Parol officers are well suited to answering calls, participating in prevention methods such as making themselves visible, they are the first to arrive at a crime scene. At the crime scene they must comfort the victims, identify and question the witnesses, control crowds, and gather evidence.

Two types of corrupt police officers

- Grass eaters: who accept payoffs that the routines of police work bring their way. These officers may accept gifts from businesses or take a $20 bribe instead of writing a ticket. Flys under the radar. They accept (bribes, negotiations). - Meat eaters: are officers who actively use their power for personal gain. For example, they rob drug dealers and pocket the money for themselves. "give me your money and we should be fine." They initiate it, they see an opportunity and take it, they are much more demanding.

Standards and Accreditation

- One way to increase police accountability is to require that police actions meet nationally recognized standards. - This has the support of the Commission on Accreditation of Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA): a nonprofit organization formed by major law enforcement executives associations to develop standards for police policies and practices; on request will review police agencies and award accreditation upon meeting those standards.

Productivity

- Police departments are emphasizing precinct-level accountability for crime reduction. Through twice a week briefings before their peers and senior executives, precinct commanders must explain the results of their efforts to reduce crime. - CompStat: Approach to crime prevention and police productivity measurement pioneered in New York City and the adopted in other cities that involves frequent meetings among police supervisors to examine detailed crime statistics for each precinct and develop immediate approaches and goals for problem solving and crime prevention. - The most basic measure of police performance is the clearance rate. The clearance rate is the percentage of crimes known to the police that they believe they have solved through an arrest; a statistic used to measure a police departments productivity. - These measures of police productivity are sometimes supplemented by other data such as the number of traffic citations issued, illegally parked cars ticketed, and subjects stoped for questioning. However, the community does not like the idea of the police using this as a quota meaning the more tickets they give, the better cops they are. People in the community think they should spend more time in activities that are hard to measure like order maintenance.

Examinations of police use of force reveal that:

- Police use force infrequently - Police use of force typically occurs in the lower end of the force spectrum and involves grabbing, pushing, or shoving. - Use of force typically occurs when police are trying to make an arrest and the suspect resists. Police force occurs more frequently when police are dealing with people affected by drugs, alcohol, or mental illness. As long as police carry weapons, some improper use of force including shootings will occur.

Homeland Security

- Preparing for threats- fusion centers made to share intelligence to help prepare for threats. - PATRIOT ACT: Has to do with the 4th Amendment, lifted 4th Amendment rights in airports, etc... Critical Infrastructures: 1. Power 2. Water 3. Transportation 4. Communication systems We must protect these in case of a terriorist attack. Review private policing in the textbook.

Violence between spouses or intimate partners

- Provides a good example of the role of police discretion. - Until the 1970s-1980s many male officers treated such events as private matters for couples to handle themselves rather than as crimes, even when there was clear evidence of violence and injuries. In the light of lawsuits, nearly half of the states have developed policies that require the arrest of suspects in violent incidents without a warrant even if the officer did not witness the crime.

Hot Spots

- Resources should be focused on the hot spots, the areas where crime is most likely to occur. - Research shows that focusing on these hot spots can prevent crime and also reduce arrests and costs of processing cases.

Civil Liability Lawsuits

- Section 1982 lawsuits: Civil lawsuits authorized by a federal statute against state and local agencies when citizens have evidence that these officials or agencies have violated their federal constitutional rights. - If an individual can show that harm was caused by employees whose wrongful acts were the result of these customs, practices and policies, then he or she can sue a local agency. - Lawsuits can charge police officers with brutality, improper use of weapons, dangerous driving and more in both state and federal courts. - Rights that are often the basis of such lawsuits are the 4th amendment.

The Police and the Community

- Special populations: homeless, mentally ill, drug addicted, need to take different approaches to these people. - Multicultural issues: Can be a challenge not to be comfortable/ aware of other multicultural issues. - Community crime prevention: Incorporate community into crime prevention.

Special Operations

- Special units are set to deal with specific types of problems. - The most common of such units concern traffic, vice, juveniles, and SWAT teams. - Drug law enforcement:

Detectives

- are police officers, typically working in plain clothes, who investigate crimes that have occurred by questioning witnesses and gathering evidence. - 15 percent of police personnel. - higher status - solely engage in law enforcement rather than in order maintenance or service work. - typically become involved after a crime has been reported and a patrol officer has done a preliminary investigation. They mainly talk to people about what happened, who was involved, to find out what went down.

Preventive Patrol

- making the police presence known, to deter crime and to make officers available to respond quickly to calls - Many argue that a patrol officers moving through an area will keep criminals from carrying out illegal acts.

The Patrol Function has Three Parts

1. Answering called for help 2. Maintaining a police presence 3. Probing suspicious circumstances

Police must be trained to look for and gather information about these such things

1. Emergence of radical groups, including religious groups. 2. Suspicious subjects observing infrastructure facilities. 3. Growth of phony charities that may steer money to terrorists. 4. Groups with links to foreign countries. 5. Unexpected terrorist information found during criminal searchers. 6. Reports of bomb-making operations

Four components of Community Policing

1. Focusing on community based crime prevention 2. Changing the focus of patrol activities to nonemergency services 3. Making the police more accountable to the public 4. Decentralizing decision making to include residents

Civic Accountability: What are the four ways of holding police accountable?

1. Internal affairs units 2. Civilian review boards 3. Standards and accreditation 4. Civil liability lawsuits

Five Factors that are Important with Police Discretion

1. The nature of the crime. The less serious crime is to the public, the more freedom the officers have to ignore it. 2. The relationship between the alleged criminal and the victim. The closer the personal relationship, the more variable is the use of discretion. Family squabbles may not be as grave as they appear, and police are wary of making arrests because a spouse may later decide not to press charges. They see brother and sister problems as just family things that they need to deal with on their own. 3. The relationship between the police and the criminal or victim. A polite complainant will be taken more seriously than a hostile one. Similarly, a suspect who shows respect to an officer is less likely to be arrested than one who does not. If the police get sent to deal with their brother or another member of their own family, they may be more likely to let them off lose. 4. Race/ethnicity, age, gender, class. Research studies show that some officers are more likely to investigate behavior and strictly enforce the law against young, minority, poor men while being more relaxed to elderly, white, and rich women. 5. Department policy. The policies of the police chief and city officials can authorize the exercise of either more or less discretion by officers.

Threats have spurred expansion in security management and private policing.

1. an increase in crime in the workplace 2. an increase in fear of crime 3. the fiscal crisis of the states which have limited public-police protection 4. increased public and business awareness and use of more cost-effective private security services

Three models of private employment of police officers

1. department contract model, 2.officer contract model 3. union brokerage model.

What are the four steps in apprehension process?

1. detection of crime 2. preliminary investigation 3. follow-up investigation 4. clearance and arrest

Six priority crime areas:

1. drugs and criminal organizations 2. public safety and terrorism 3. financial and high tech crime 4. trafficking in human beings 5. fugitive apprehension 6. corruption

USA PATRIOT Act

A federal statute passed in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, that broadens government authority to conduct searches and wiretaps and that expands the definitions of crimes involving terrorism.

Aggressive Patrol

A patrol strategy designed to maximize the number of police interventions and observations in the community. - Includes zero tolerance policing during the 90's as well as the war on drugs. Stop and frisk is common with this type of patrolling.

motorized patrol

Cars increase the amount of territory that officers can patrol; plus with advances in communications technologies and onboard computers, patrol officers have direct links to headquarters and to criminal information databases. They can quickly be sent where needed with crucial information.

Fusion Centers

Centers run by state and large cities that analyze and facilitate sharing of information to assist law enforcement and homeland security agencies in preventing and responding to crime and terrorism threats.

Police Brutality

Citizens use the term police brutality to describe a wide range of practices from the use of profane or abusive language to physical force and violence. We can arrange the various types of force on a continuum ranging from the most severe to the least severe.

What has caused the growth of security management and private policing?

Companies' recognition of the need to protect assets and plan for emergencies, as well as problems with employee left, computer crime, and other issues.

U.S Border Patrol

Federal law enforcement agency with responsibility for border security by patrolling national land borders and coastal waters to prevent smuggling, drug trafficking, and illegal entry, including entry by potential terrorists.

Police Response

In our society, people do not want the police just standing by every street corner and waiting for crime. Thus, the police play mostly a reactive role in society. Reactive: acting in response to a notification about suspicious activity, a crime, a medical emergency, or other service need. Example is responding to citizens calls. Proactive: Acting in anticipation; actively searching for potential offenders without waiting for a crime to be reported. Arrests for victimless crimes are usually proactive. Some proactive strategies include surveillance camera and undercover cop work. Differential Response: A patrol strategy that assigns priorities to calls for service and chooses the appropriate response.

Law enforcement intelligence

Information, collected and analyzed by law enforcement officials, concerning criminal activities and organizations such as gangs, drug traffickers, and organized crime.

Prevention Patrol

Making the police presence known, to deter crime and to make officers available to respond quickly to calls

Police Services

Police Response: 1. Reactive vs. proactive: most policing is reactive, some have become more proactive. 2. Differential Response: Prioritize calls based on emergency and urgency, sometimes based on geographic location. Productivity: 1. Clearance rates: amount of cases solved by police through arrest. 2. Review Compstat (an approach that looks at crime statistics to gain productivity) and patrol function in the textbook.

Police Discretion

Police have the power to deprive people of their liberty , to arrest them, to take them into custody, and to use force to control them. In carrying out their professional responsibilities, officers are expected to exercise discretion- to make wise choices as how to and when to apply the law. The officer at the scene must also define the situations, decide how to handle it, and determine whether and how the law should be applied. An example of police discretion includes domestic violence.

Police Abuse of Power

Police officers can break the law and disobey departmental policies through corruption, favoritism, discrimination, and the failure to carry out their duties properly. - Police corruption and abuse of power becomes a major issue on the public agenda. - The news highlights this abuse from the cops. - Although more officers do no engage in such misconduct, these problems deserve study because they raise questions about the extent to which the public can control and trust the police. - Excessive use of force: they can use force if necessary, its part of their job. However, sometimes they can use too much and it becomes police brutality. - Police corruption can be present: grass eaters vs. meat eaters. - Police officers are infrequently disciplined for their roles in events that produce injuries or questionable arrests.

Evidence Based Policing

Police strategies and deployment of resources developed through examination of research on crime, social problems, and previously used strategies. The effective use of evidence based practices can be enhanced through cooperation and communication between law enforcement officials and criminal justice researchers.

directed patrol

Proactive strategy designed to direct resources to known high-crime areas

community crime prevention

Programs through which criminal justice officials cultivate relationships with and rely on assistance from citizens in preventing crime and apprehending offenders within neighborhoods.

What Special Populations pose challenges for policing?

Runaways and neglected children; homeless, drug addiction, mentally ill, alcoholism, AIDS, orphans, people that have been abused and more. They must be careful with each individual population.

What factors make policing in a multicultural society difficult?

Stereotyping, cultural difference, language differences.

Interpol

The International Criminal Police Organization formed in 1946 and based in France with the mission of facilitating international cooperation in investigating transnational criminal activities and security threats.

Domestic Violence Definition

The term commonly used to refer to intimate partner violence or violent victimizations between spouses, boyfriends, and girlfriends or those formerly in intimate relationships. Such actions account for a significant percentage of the violent victimizations experienced by women.

Investigation

There are many different types of investigation officers including: 1. Detectives 2. Other federal law enforcement agencies including the FBI, DEA, and secret services who also focus on different types of investigations. - Detectives - Federal law enforcement agencies: - A difference between these guys and detectives are they are more likely to be proactive in their jobs.

What are the 5 assignments of patrol personnel?

These include five specific options: 1. preventive patrol 2. hot spots 3. foot versus motorized patrol 4. aggressive patrol 5. community policing

How are citizen watch groups and similar programs helpful to the police?

They assist the police by reporting incidents and providing information

Encounters Between Police and Citizens

Yearly, 1/5 of Americans have face to face contact with the police. - 1/5 are from assistance calls or automobile collisions. - 1/5 are from people reporting a crime. - 1/5 involve police investigating crimes or providing services. - Remaining 40% involve drivers/passengers stopped by officers.

Traffic

a major job of the police in which they regulate the flow of cars, investigate accidents, and enforce traffic laws. It is mostly proactive work and they can use a lot of discretion.

problem orientated policing

an approach to policing in which officers routinely seek to identify, analyze, and respond to the circumstances underlying the incidents that prompt citizens to call the police

What are the three parts of the patrol function?

answering calls for assistance, maintaining a police presence, probing suspicious circumstances.

Excessive use of force

applications of force against individuals by police officers that violate either departmental policies or constitutional rights by exceeding the level of force permissible and necessary in a given situation.

aggressive patrol

assigning resources so as to get largest number of arrests and stop street dealing

fusion centers

centers run by states and large cities that analyze and facilitate sharing of information to assist law enforcement and homeland security agencies in preventing and responding to crime and terrorism threats

Vice

depends on proactive work which often involves the use of undercover agents and informers. Includes posing as drug dealers and prostitutes

Proactive

initiating actions in absence of citizen requests

Federal Law Enforcement Agencies

more likely to be proactive compared to local detective who are reactive

officer contract model

officer applies to off-duty private firm with permission from department

departmental contract model

permits close control of off-duty work, because firms must apply to the department to have officers assigned to them

What have law enforcement officials done to enhance homeland security?

planning and coordinating with other agencies, gathering intelligence, acquiring new equipment, and providing training.

Sworn officers

police employees who have taken an oath and been given powers by the state to make arrests and to use necessary force in accordance with their duties.

Police Corruption

police officers' violations of law and departmental policy for personal gain or to help their family and friends. Examples include taking bribes, having close ties with politicians, protecting illegal operations, stealing property and cash from drug suspects. Sometimes corruption is defined so broadly that it ranges from accepting a free cup of coffee to robbing businesses or beating suspects. Police corruption is not just black and white.

Hambi v. Rumsfeld (2004)

president does not posses unlimited authority and the American detainees are entitled to challenge their confinement through court procedures

Reactive

responding to citizen calls for service

SRO

school resource officer: police officers assigned for duty in schools to assist in order maintenance while also developing positive relationships with students, which may assist in delinquency prevention.

Foot Patrol

stay close to the daily life of the neighborhood. They detect criminal activity and apprehend lawbreakers more easily than do car patrols.

union brokerage model

the police union or association finds off-duty employment for its members.

What are three kinds of special operations units the PDs often employ?

traffic, vice, narcotics