Chapter 6: Learning

Learning

A relatively enduring change in behavior, resulting from experience.

Rescorla-Wagner Model

A cognitive model of classical conditioning; it holds that the strength of the CS-US association is determined by the extent to which the unconditioned stimulus is unexpected.

Stimulus Discrimination

A differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

Law of Effect

Thorndike's general theory of learning: Any behavior that leads to a "satisfying state of affairs" is likely to occur again, and any behavior that leads to an "annoying state of affairs" is less likely to occur again.

Spontaneous Recovery

A process in which a previously extinguished conditioned response reemerges after the presentation of the conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

A process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus.

Shaping

A process of operant conditioning; it involves reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

A response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that elicits a response, such as a reflex, without any prior learning.

Reinforcer

A stimulus that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning)

A type of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response.

Continuous Reinforcement

A type of learning in which behavior is reinforced each time it occurs.

Partial Reinforcement

A type of learning in which behavior is reinforced intermittently.

Cognitive Map

A visual/spatial mental representation of an environment.

Modeling

The imitation of observed behavior.

Phobia

An acquired fear that is out of proportion to the real threat of an object or of a situation.

Sensitization

An increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus.

Identify three types of learning processes.

There are three types of learning: nonassociative, associative, and observational. Associative learning processes include classical and operant conditioning.

Mirror Neurons

Neurons in the brain that are activated when one observes another individual engage in an action and when one performs a similar action.

Define observational learning.

Observational learning is learning by watching how others behave.

Define operant conditioning.

Operant conditioning is a learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that is will be performed in the future.

Habituation

A decrease in behavioral response after repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Conditioning)

A learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future.

Observational Learning

Acquiring or changing a behavior after exposure to another individual performing that behavior.

Describe acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination, second-order conditioning, and blocking.

Acquisition is the gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. Extinction is a process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus. Spontaneous recovery is a process in which a previously extinguished conditioned response reemerges after the prescription of the conditioned stimulus. Generalization is learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response. Discrimination is a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus. Second-order conditioning is when a previously conditioned stimulus that has acquired value is paired with a new stimulus in the absence of a US. Blocking is when a previously conditioned stimulus is presented at the same as a new stimulus, and both are followed by the presentation of the US.

Describe the role of conditioning in the development and treatment of phobias and addictions.

Classical conditioning explains the development of phobias and contributes to drug addiction. Accordingly, techniques based on classical conditioning may be used to treat phobias and drug addiction.

Define classical conditioning.

Classical conditioning is a type of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response.

Differentiate between the US, UR, CS, and CR.

Conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (US) and begins to elicit a conditioned response (CR) - that is, the response normally elicited by the US. For learning to occur, the CS needs to predict the US, not simply be contiguous with it.

Distinguish between schedules of reinforcement.

Four schedules of reinforcement have been identified: variable ratio, fixed ratio, variable interval, and fixed interval. Each schedule has a distinct effect on behavior.

Generate examples of observational learning, modeling, and vicarious learning.

Humans learn behaviors by observing the behavior of others. We tend to imitate models who are attractive, who have high status, who are similar to ourselves, and whom we admire. Through vicarious learning, we learn about an action's consequences. We are more likely to perform a behavior when a model has been rewarded for the behavior than when a model has been punished for the behavior.

Defining learning.

Learning is a relatively enduring change in behavior, resulting from experience.

Stimulus Generalization

Learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response.

Latent Learning

Learning that takes place in the absence of reinforcement.

Vicarious Learning

Learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action.

Associative Learning

Linking two stimuli, or events, that occur together.

Discuss contemporary evidence regarding the role of mirror neurons in learning.

Mirror neurons, which fire when a behavior is observed and performed, may be involved in learning about and predicting what others are thinking. Mirror neurons may also be involved in empathy, the emotional response of feeling what someone else is experiencing.

Distinguish between positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment.

Reinforcement increases a behavior's likelihood of being repeated. Punishment reduces that likelihood. Positive reinforcement and positive punishment involve the administration of a stimulus. Negative reinforcement and negative punishment involve the removal of a stimulus.

Nonassociative Learning

Responding after repeated exposure to a single stimulus, or event.

Identify biological and cognitive factors that influence operant conditioning.

Skinner maintained that operant conditioning could explain the administration of a stimulus. Contemporary theorists recognize that biological predispositions and cognitive processes influence animals' ability to learn. An animal's biological makeup constrains the types of behaviors the animal can learn. Latent learning takes place without reinforcement. Latent learning may not influence behavior until a reinforce is introduced. Dopamine activity underlies reinforcement, in part by its role in prediction error.

Describe the Rescorla-Wagner model of classical conditioning, including the role of prediction error and dopamine in the strength of associations.

The Rescorla-Wagner model states that the degree to which conditioning occurs is determined by the extent to which the US is unexpected or surprising, with stronger effects occurring with positive prediction errors. The neurotransmitter dopamine is released in the brain after positive prediction errors. Dopamine is no longer released when no surprise is associated with the presentation of the CS.

Positive Punishment

The administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring.

Positive Reinforcement

The administration of a stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior's being repeated.

Acquisition

The gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.

Partial-Reinforcement Extinction Effect

The greater persistence of behavior under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement.

Describe the nonassociative learning processes: habituation and sensitization. Explain the significance of each.

The nonassociative learning processes - habituation and sensitization - are simple forms of learning. Habituation results in decreased responding after repeated presentations of a stimulus. Sensitization results in increased responding after repeated presentations of a stimulus. Kandel's work on the aplysia has shown that habituation and sensitization occur through alteration in neurotransmitter release.

Negative Punishment

The removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring.

Negative Reinforcement

The removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior's being repeated.

Behavior Modification

The use of operant-conditioning techniques to eliminate unwanted behaviors and replace them with desirable ones.