Chapter 6- Learning: PSYCH (Exam #2)
Conditioned Response (CR) (Classical Conditioning):
in classical conditioning, the learned or acquired response to a conditioned stimulus.
Continuous Reinforcement (CRF):
in operant and instrumental conditioning, the reinforcement of every correct (desired) response.
Describe the four temporal arrangements between US & CS that Pavlov studied (delay, trace, simultaneous, backward):
Delay: in delay conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (US) immediately follows or coterminates with the conditioned stimulus (CS) Trace: Trace conditioning, a form of classical conditioning in which the presentation of the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US) is separated in time by an interstimulus interval Simultaneous: the CS and US are presented at exactly the same time and for the same period of time, this is when the bell andthe food are brought at the same time. Backward: a procedure in which an unconditioned stimulus is consistently presented before a neutral stimulus. Generally, this arrangement is not thought to produce a change in the effect of a neutral stimulus.
Explain how the concept of biological constraints (predispositions) has changed our understanding of classical conditioning:
Early behaviorists believed that any natural response could be conditioned to any neutral stimulus in any living organism. Learning theorists have abandoned this belief. Each species is biologically prepared to learn associations-such as humans' fear of spiders and snakes, or rats' aversion to tastes associated with nausea-that enhance its survival.
Reinforcement:
(Primary): in operant conditioning, the process in which presentation of a stimulus or circumstance following a response increases the future probability of that response, without the need for special experience with the stimulus or circumstance. That is, the stimulus or circumstance, known as an unconditioned or primary reinforcer, functions as effective reinforcement without any special experience or training. (Conditioned): in operant conditioning, the process in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to influence the future probability of a particular response by virtue of being paired with another stimulus that naturally enhances such probability. That is, the initially neutral stimulus or circumstance functions as effective reinforcement only after special experience or training.
Describe the role of cognition in classical/operant conditioning:
- in the case of classical conditioning, the cognitive process involved is association, or having two things linked in the mind. This cognition often occurs subconsciously. - In operant conditioning, a person is associating a behavior with either a reward or a punishment. The cognitive process involved in operant conditioning is rule learning. Unlike simple association, rule learning is often conscious
Describe Skinner's experiments and explain why they are important to psychology, including different schedules of reinforcement:
-Skinner built on the behaviorist theories of Ivan Pavlov and John Watson as he studied the connection between stimuli and observable behavior in rats, which led to his eponymous Skinner box. With its levers and food pellets, the box allowed precise measurement and control of experimental conditions.
Extinction:
Extinction is the decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus.
Reinforcement Schedule (Fixed Interval, variable interval, fixed ratio, &variable ratio):
Fixed Interval: reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (ex: after 5, 10, 15, and 20 min) Variable Interval: reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (ex: after 5, 7, 10, and 20 min) Fixed ratio: reinforcement delivered after a predictable # of responses (ex: after 2, 4, 6, and 8 responses) Variable Ratio: reinforcement delivered after unpredictable # of responses (ex: 1, 4, 5, and 9 responses)
Acquisition (Classical Conditioning):
In classical conditioning, the initial period of learning is known as acquisition, when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus
Describe Pavlov's experiments on classical conditioning and explain why they are important:
In the famous experiments that Ivan Pavlov conducted with his dogs, Pavlov found that objects or events could trigger a conditioned response. The experiments began with Pavlov demonstrating how the presence of a bowl of dog food (stimulus) would trigger an unconditioned response (salivation). But Pavlov noticed that the dogs started to associate his lab assistant with food, creating a learned and conditioned response. This was an important scientific discovery. Pavlov then designed an experiment using a bell as a neutral stimulus. As he gave food to the dogs, he rang the bell. Then, after repeating this procedure, he tried ringing the bell without providing food to the dogs. On its own, an increase in salivation occurred. The result of the experiment was a new conditioned response in the dogs. Pavlov's theory later developed into classical conditioning, which refers to learning that associates an unconditioned stimulus that already results in a response (such as a reflex) with a new, conditioned stimulus. As a result, the new stimulus brings about the same response.
Positive Reinforcement:
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
Operant Conditioning:
Operant conditioning is based on a simple premise - that behavior is influenced by the consequences that follow. When you are reinforced for doing something, you're more likely to do it again. When you are punished for doing something, you are less likely to do it again.
five basic processes in operant conditioning:
Postive Reinforcement--the term reinforcement always indicates a process that strengthens a behavior; the word positive has two cues associated with it. First, a positive or pleasant stimulus is used in the process, and second, the reinforcer is added (i.e., "positive" as in + sign for addition). In positive reinforcement, a positive reinforcer is added after a response and increases the frequency of the response. Negative Reinforcement-- the term reinforcement always indicates a process that strengthens a behavior; the word negative has two cues associated with it. First, a negative or aversive stimulus is used in the process, and second, the reinforcer is subtracted (i.e., "negative" as in a "-" sign for subtraction). In negative reinforcement, after the response the negative reinforcer is removed which increases the frequency of the response. (Note: There are two types of negative reinforcement: escape and avoidance. In general, the learner must first learn to escape before he or she learns to avoid.) Response Cost--if positive reinforcement strengthens a response by adding a positive stimulus, then response cost has to weaken a behavior by subtracting a positive stimulus. After the response the positive reinforcer is removed which weakens the frequency of the response. Punishment--if negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior by subtracting a negative stimulus, than punishment has to weaken a behavior by adding a negative stimulus. After a response a negative or aversive stimulus is added which weakens the frequency of the response. Extinction--No longer reinforcing a previously reinforced response (using either positive or negative reinforcement) results in the weakening of the frequency of the response.
Describe self-punitive behavior and learned helplessness and explain how they might relate to depression and abusive relationships:
Self-punishment: the act of inflicting physical or psychological harm on oneself for one's perceived misdeeds. Self-punishment ranges from blaming oneself unjustifiably for negative occurrences to attempted suicide, and it commonly occurs in severe cases of major depressive disorder. Learned Helplessness: a phenomenon in which repeated exposure to uncontrollable stressors results in individuals failing to use any control options that may later become available. Essentially, individuals are said to learn that they lack behavioral control over environmental events, which, in turn, undermines the motivation to make changes or attempt to alter situations.
Describe Thorndike's experiments, including his "Law of effect", and explain why they are important to psychology:
The law of effect: the principle that consequences of behavior act to modify the future probability of occurrence of that behavior. The law of recency: a memory phenomenon in which the most recently presented facts, impressions, or items are learned or remembered better than material presented earlier. This effect can occur in both formal learning situations and social contexts The law of exercise: states that when a stimulus is administered upon response, each subsequent response is strengthened.
Sensitization:
a form of nonassociative learning in which an organism becomes more responsive to most stimuli after being exposed to unusually strong or painful stimulation.
Cognitive Map:
a mental understanding of an environment, formed through trial and error as well as observation. The concept is based on the assumption that an individual seeks and collects contextual clues, such as environmental relationships, rather than acting as a passive receptor of information needed to achieve a goal. Human beings and other animals have well-developed cognitive maps that contain spatial information enabling them to orient themselves and find their way in the real world
Method of Successive Approximations (shaping):
a method of shaping operant behavior by reinforcing responses similar to the desired behavior. Initially, responses roughly approximating the desired behavior are reinforced. Later, only responses closely approximating the desired behavior are reinforced. The process gradually leads to the desired behavior
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) (Classical Conditioning):
a neutral stimulus that is repeatedly associated (see pairing) with an unconditioned stimulus until it acquires the ability to elicit a response that it previously did not. In many (but not all) cases, the response elicited by the conditioned stimulus is similar to that elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
Premack's Principle:
a principle of operant conditioning originally identified by David Premack in 1965. According to this principle, some behavior that happens reliably (or without interference by a researcher), can be used as a reinforcer for a behavior that occurs less reliably. For example, most children like to watch television--this is a behavior that happens reliably (they learn to like TV all on their own and it is something they will do willingly without any interference from their parents)--and parents often use this behavior to reinforce something children like to do less such as washing dishes. So, some parents might condition children to wash dishes by rewarding dish washing with watching television. I'm not saying that is the right thing to do, only that it is an example of the Premack Principle
Desensitization (classical conditioning):
a reduction in emotional or physical reactivity to stimuli that is achieved by such means as deconditioning techniques
Mirror Neuron:
a type of cell in the brains of certain animals (including humans) that responds in the same way to a given action (e.g., grasping an object) whether the animal performs the action itself or sees another animal (not necessarily of the same species) perform the action
Classical Conditioning:
a type of learning in which an initially neutral stimulus—the conditioned stimulus (CS)—when paired with a stimulus that elicits a reflex response—the unconditioned stimulus (US)—results in a learned, or conditioned, response (CR) when the CS is presented. For example, the sound of a tone may be used as a CS, and food in a dog's mouth as a US. After repeated pairings, namely, the tone followed immediately by food, the tone, which initially had no effect on salivation (i.e., was neutral with respect to it), will elicit salivation even if the food is not presented
Negative Reinforcement:
an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior. For example, car manufacturers use the principles of negative reinforcement in their seatbelt systems, which go "beep, beep, beep" until you fasten your seatbelt. The annoying sound stops when you exhibit the desired behavior, increasing the likelihood that you will buckle up in the future.
Punishment:
in operant conditioning, the process in which the relationship, or contingency, between a response and some stimulus or circumstance results in the response becoming less probable. For example, a pigeon's pecks on a key may at first occasionally be followed by presentation of food; this will establish some probability of pecking. Next, each peck produces a brief electric shock (while the other conditions remain as before). If pecking declines as a result, then punishment is said to have occurred, and the shock is called a punisher
Partial Reinforcement:
in operant or instrumental conditioning, any pattern of reinforcement in which only some responses are reinforced
Latent Learning:
learning that is acquired without conscious effort, awareness, intention, or reinforcement and is not manifested as a change in performance until a specific need for it arises. For example, a student writing an exam may be able to cite a quotation encountered earlier accurately without having made an effort previously to learn it
Habituation:
occurs when we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change. As the stimulus occurs over and over, we learn not to focus our attention on it.
Discrimination:
the ability to respond in different ways in the presence of different stimuli. In conditioning, this is usually established in experiments by differential reinforcement or differential conditioning techniques.
Learning:
the acquisition of novel information, behaviors, or abilities after practice, observation, or other experiences, as evidenced by change in behavior, knowledge, or brain function. Learning involves consciously or nonconsciously attending to relevant aspects of incoming information, mentally organizing the information into a coherent cognitive representation, and integrating it with relevant existing knowledge activated from long-term memory.
Associative Learning (Classical Conditioning):
the process of acquiring new and enduring information via the formation of bonds or connections between elements. In different types of associationistic learning theories, these associated elements may be stimulus and response, mental representations of events, or elements in neural networks.
Spontaneous Recovery:
the reappearance of a conditioned response, following either operant or classical conditioning, after it has been experimentally extinguished
Stimulus Generalization:
the spread of effects of conditioning (either operant or classical) to stimuli that differ in certain aspects from the stimulus present during original conditioning. If responding is indistinguishable from that seen in the presence of the original stimulus, generalization is said to be complete (or no attention is commanded by the stimulus difference). If responding is different enough to be detected, discrimination is evident as well as generalization.
Unconditioned Response (UCR) (Classical Conditioning):
the unlearned response to a stimulus. In other words, it is any original response that occurs naturally and in the absence of conditioning (e.g., salivation in response to the presentation of food). The unconditioned response is a reflex that serves as the basis for establishment of the conditioned response in classical conditioning.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) (classical conditioning):
they evoke unconditioned responses (UR or UCR), or responses that are completely natural and occur without an organism going through any prior learning. For example, if you smell a lemon, it might get a sour taste in your mouth and you may salivate. This may occur from the time you are born and can occur without you ever having tasted a lemon before.
