Chapter 6 (Operant Conditioning)

Behavioral Modification

Behavior modification: the use of operant-conditioning techniques to eliminate unwanted behaviors and replace them with desirable ones Token economies operate on the principle of secondary reinforcement. Tokens are earned for completing tasks and lost for bad behavior. Tokens can later be traded for objects or privileges

Reinforcement increases behavior

30 Years after Thorndike, Skinner developed a more formal learning theory based on the law of effect. He objected to the subjective aspects of Thorndike's law of effect: States of "satisfaction" are not observable empirically. Skinner believed that behavior occurs because it has been reinforced. (Coined Term) Reinforce-r: A stimulus that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated. Skinner believed that behavior occurs because it has been reinforced.

Behavioral persistence

Continuous reinforcement is highly effective for teaching a behavior. If the reinforcement is stopped, however, the behavior extinguishes quickly variable-ratio schedule: persistent behavior that only sometimes results in reward partial-reinforcement extinction effect: Behavior is more persistent under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement Can this explain why gambling is so addictive?

reinforcer potency-power

David Premack theorized about how a reinforcer's value could be determined. In order to determine how potent a reinforcement is you look at the amount of time it takes to lead to reinforcer. The key is the amount of time an organism, when free to do anything, engages in a specific behavior associated with the reinforcer. Premack principle: Using a more valued activity can reinforce the performance of a less valued activity. How do you think you could use this principle on yourself?

Acquisition/ Performance distinction

Edward Tolman argued that learning can take place without reinforcement latent learning: takes place in the absence of reinforcement insight learning: A solution suddenly emerges after either a period of inaction or of contemplation Tolman's studies involved rats running through mazes cognitive map: a visual/spatial mental representation of an environment The presence of reinforcement does not adequately explain insight learning, but it helps determine whether the behavior is subsequently repeated Learning can happen purely in the mind.

Operant conditioning is influenced by schedules of reinforcement.

How often should reinforcers be given? continuous reinforcement: a type of learning in which behavior is reinforced each time it occurs (great schedule in early stages of learning process). partial reinforcement: a type of learning in which behavior is reinforced intermittently Partial reinforcement's effect on conditioning depends on the reinforcement schedule

Learning can be passed on through cultural transmission

Meme: a unit of knowledge transmitted within a culture Memes can be conditioned through association or reinforcement, but are often learned by watching the behavior of other people Through social learning, some behaviors are passed along from one generation to the next

Learning can occur through observation and imitation

Observational learning: the acquisition or modification of a behavior after exposure to at least one performance of that behavior Observational learning is a powerful adaptive tool for humans and other animals Can you think of some examples of observational learning in animals? We learn by watching the behaviors of others.

How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?

Operant (Instrumental- behavior is done for purpose) conditioning: A learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future. B.F. Skinner chose the term operant to express the idea that animals operate on their environments to produce effects. Edward Thorndike performed the first reported carefully controlled experiments in comparative animal psychology using a puzzle box. Law of effect: Any behavior that leads to a "satisfying state of affairs" is likely to occur again, and any behavior that leads to an "annoying state of affairs" is less likely to occur again.

Fixed and variable schedules

Partial reinforcement can also be given on a fixed schedule or a variable schedule fixed schedule: Reinforcement is provided after a specific number of occurrences or after a specific amount of time variable schedule: Reinforcement is provided at different rates or at different times

Ratio and interval schedules

Partial reinforcement can be administered according to either the number of behavioral responses or the passage of time ratio schedule: Reinforcement is based on the number of times the behavior occurs interval schedule: Reinforcement is provided after a specific unit of time Ratio reinforcement generally leads to greater responding than does interval reinforcement.

Dopamine activity underlines reinforcement

Positive reinforcement works in two ways: provides the subjective experience of pleasure increases wanting for the object or event that produced the reward The neurotransmitter dopamine is involved in addictive behavior and plays an important role in reinforcement Reinforcements create responses in the brain that supports re-occurrence of behavior.

Positive and negative punishment

Punishment reduces the probability that a behavior will recur positive punishment: the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring, e.g. receiving a ticket for speeding negative punishment: the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring, e.g. taking away driving privileges for bad behavior (Take something you like)

Both reinforcement and punishment can be positive of negative.

Reinforcement and punishment have the opposite effects on behavior Reinforcement increases a behavior's probability Punishment decreases its probability Both reinforcement and punishment can be positive (added of applied) or negative (removed of taken away). This designation depends on whether something is given or removed, not on whether any part of the process is good or bad.

positive and negative reinforcement

Reinforcement — positive or negative — increases the likelihood of a behavior positive reinforcement: the administration of a stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior's being repeated, e.g. a reward negative reinforcement: the removal of a stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior's being repeated, e.g. requiring a rat to press a lever to turn off a shock

Shaping

Sometimes animals take a long time to perform the precise desired action. What can be done? Shaping: an operant-conditioning technique that consists of reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior successive approximations: any behavior that even slightly resembles the desired behavior Suppose you wanted to teach yourself to do something. Which behavior would you choose, and how would you go about shaping it? One thing that researcher discovered is that people can influence animal behavior by systematically rewarding the designed behavior.

Dopamine and reward

The nucleus accumbens is a subcortical brain region that is part of the limbic system More dopamine is released under deprived conditions than under nondeprivedconditions Do you have the intuition that food tastes better when you are hungry? In operant conditioning, dopamine release sets the value of a reinforcer, and blocking dopamine decreases reinforcement Dopamine blockers are can also help people with Tourette's syndrome regulate their involuntary body movements Robinson and Berridge (1993) introduced an important distinction between the wanting and liking aspects of reward For example, a smoker may want a cigarette but not especially enjoy it Dopamine appears to be especially important in wanting a reward

Mirrior Neurons

What happens in the brain during imitation learning? mirror neurons: neurons that are activated when one observes another individual engaging in an action and when one performs the action that was observed May serve as the basis of imitation learning, but the firing of mirror neurons does not always lead to imitative behavior May be the neural basis for empathy and play a role in humans' ability to communicate through language Debatable if brain activity reflects prior learning rather than imitation

Demonstration and imitation

modeling: the imitation of behavior through observational learning Modeling is effective only if the observer is physically capable of imitating the behavior Imitation is much less common in nonhuman animals than in humans Adolescents who associate smoking with admirable figures are more likely to begin smoking

Reinforcers can be conditioned

primary reinforcers: satisfy biological needs such as food or water secondary reinforcers: events or objects established through classical conditioning that serve as reinforcers but do not satisfy biological needs, e.g. money or compliments

Vicarious reinforcement

vicarious learning: learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action A key distinction in learning is between the acquisition of a behavior and its performance In other words, learning a behavior does not necessarily lead to performing that behavior