Chapter 7 Anatomy and Physiology

Where is the inter tubercular (bicipital) groove?

Between the greater and lesser tubercle is a groove called the intertubercular (bicipital) groove.

Give some examples of flat bones.

Examples of flat bones include certain skull bones, the ribs, the breastbone (sternum), and the shoulder blades (scapulae).

What forms the soft plate?

Extending posteriorly from the hard palate are soft tissues, which collectively form the soft palate.

External auditory canal

External canal of the ear; carries sound to the ear

What are intervertebral disks?

Intervertebral disks are composed of fibrocartilage, and are located between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae.

Pterygoid hamalus

Process around which the tendon passes from a muscle to the soft palate

pectoral girdle

Site of attachment of the upper limb to the trunk; consists of the scapula and the clavicle; also called shoulder girdle.

What is the styloid process?

The styloid process projects form the inferior of the petrous part of the temporal bone.

What does the styloid process serve as?

The styloid process serves as an attachment site for three muscles necessary for movement of the tongue, hyoid bone, and pharynx.

Where is the stylomastoid foramen located?

The stylomastoid foramen is located between the styloid process and mastoid process and allows for passage of a nerve controlling facial muscles.

How many bones does the thigh contain?

The thigh, like the arm, contains a single bone, the femur.

Where does the thoracic region curve?

The thoracic region curves posteriorly.

How many pairs of ribs are there?

There are 12 pairs of ribs.

How many tarsal bones are there?

There are seven tarsal bones.

What joins the two pubic bones?

The two pubic bones are joined by the pubic symphysis, a thick pad of fibrocartilage.

FIGURE 7.8 Anterior View of the Face

View of bony landmarks on the anterior of the face. (The names of the bones are in bold.)

What are attached to the carpal bones to make up the central portion of the hand?

Five metacarpal bones are attached to the carpal bones and make up the central portion of the hand.

What are flat bones?

Flat bones have a relatively thin, flattened shape and are usually curved.

What are phalanges?

Each digit consists of small long bones called phalanges.

How many phalanges does each finger have?

Each finger has three phalanges, designated proximal, middle, and distal.

What does the intertubercular groove contain?

The inter tubercular groove contains one of the two biceps brachia tendons.

FIGURE 7.18 Intervertebral Disk

(b) superior view

Sella turcica

Fossa containing the pituitary gland

Coronoid

Shaped like a crow's beak-for example, a process on the mandible.

Where are the sphenoidal sinuses?

Within the body of the sphenoid are the sphenoid sinuses.

What becomes evident as the calvaria is removed?

When the calvaria is removed and the floor of the cranial cavity is visible, these depressions, the cranial fossae, become evident.

Orbital plate

Forms the medial wall of the orbit

What do the two pubic bones surround?

A the point of fusion with the ischium, the two bone surround the noticeable obturator foramen. However, in a living person, only a few nerves and blood vessels pass through; it is otherwise closed by a ligament.

What is the pelvic inlet?

The opening to he true pelvis is the pelvic inlet.

What does fibula articulate with?

The fibula does not articulate with the femur, but its head articulates with the proximal end of the tibia.

What do the orbits have?

The orbits have several openings through which structures communicate between the orbit and other cavities.

What do the orbits do?

The orbits protect the eyes and are the locations where the muscles controlling eye movements attach.

What is the sternal angle?

The point at which the manubrium joins the body of the sternum can be felt as a prominence on the anterior thorax called the sternal angle.

What articulates with the C-shaped trochlear notch?

The portion of the ulna that articulates with the humerus is the C-shaped trochlear notch.

What does the posterior cranial fossae support?

The posterior cranial fossae supports the cerebellum of the brain.

Which rib separation is most common?

Separation of rib 10 is the mot common.

Where is the transverse arch located?

The transverse arch is located at the connection between the five metatarsal, the three cuneiforms, and the cuboid.

Where does the trochlear notch rotate over?

The trochlear notch rotates over the trochlea of the humerus when bending the elbow.

External Features: Temporal lines

Bone on Which Feature Is Found: Parietal Description: Attachment site for the temporails muscle, which closes the jaw.

External Features: Angle

Bone on Which Feature is Found: Mandible Description: Posterior, inferior corner of the mandible.

Middle cranial fossa

Depression in the floor of the cranial cavity formed by the temporal lobe of the brain

Posterior cranial fossa

Depression in the posterior of the cranial cavity formed by the cerebellum

Ramus

Description: Branch off the beyond the angle Example: Mandibular ramus

hard palate

Floor of the nasal cavity that separates the nasal cavity from the oral cavity; composed of the palatine processes of the maxillary bones and the horizontal plates of the palatine bones; also called bony palate.

Area: Subpubic angle

Less than 90 degrees in males; 90 degrees or more in females

Where is the lesser trochanter?

Lesser trochanter inferior and posterior to the neck.

Where do sesamoid bones form?

One or two sesamoid bones often form near the junction between the proximal phalanx and the metacarpal bone of the thumb.

Formen magnum

Opening around the point where the brain and spinal cord conenct

Incisive canal

Opening through which a nerve exits the nasal cavity to the root of the oral cavity

Superior orbital fissure

Opening through which nerves and vessels enter the orbit from the cranial cavity

Pterygoid canal

Opening through which nerves and vessels exit the cranial cavity

Supraorbital foramen

Opening through which nerves and vessels exit the skulll to the skin of the forehead

Mandibular foramen

Opening through which nerves and vessels to the mandibular teeth enter the bone

Hypoglossal canal

Opening through which the hypoglossal nerve (cranial nerve XII) passes

Ethmoidal foramina

Openings through which nerves and vessels pass form the orbit to the nasal cavity

Where is an external occipital protuberance?

Posteriorly, an external occipital protuberance is present on the occipital bone.

Medial pterygoid plate

Posterolateral walls of the nasal cavity

Where does the removal of the humeral head occur?

Removal of the humeral head due to disease or injury occurs down to the level of the surgical neck.

What are ribs 1-7 called?

Ribs 1-7 are called true ribs.

What ribs are joined by a common cartilage?

Ribs 8-10 are joined by a common cartilage to the coastal cartilage of rib 7, which in turn is attached to the sternum.

How are ribs classified?

Ribs are classified as either true ribs or false ribs.

Why is the male pelvis usually more massive than the female pelvis?

The male pelvis is usually more massive than the female pelvis as a result of the greater weight and size of the male body.

What is the ball of the foot?

The ball of the foot is the junction between the metatarsal bones and phalanges.

Where does the base of the triangle face?

The base of the triangle, the superior border, faces superiorly.

What do the bodies have?

The bodies have articular facets for the heads of the ribs.

What does the body of the sphenoid bone form?

The body of the sphenoid bone forms a central prominence within the floor of the cranial cavity.

What is the body?

The body, where the "chin" is located, is U-shaped and extends both anteriorly and posteriorly.

What does the pectoral girdle consist of?

The pectoral girdle consists of two pairs of bones that attach each of the upper limbs to the body.

How many carpal bones are taken together, and are convex posteriorly and concave anteriorly.

The eight carpal bones, taken together, are convex posteriorly and concave anteriorly.

Is the hyoid bone unpaired?

The hyoid bone is unpaired, and is often listed as part of the facial bone. However, it is not part of the adult skull.

What does the iliac crest form?

The iliac crest forms the most superior border of the ilium.

Where is the incisive foramen?

The incisive foramen is located just posterior to the incisor teeth and allows passage of blood vessels and nerves.

Where do the inferior articular facets face?

The inferior articular facets face inferiorly.

Where do the inferior articular facets of the lumbar vertebrae face?

The inferior articular facets face laterally.

What is the inferior nasal concha?

The inferior nasal concha is a separate bone, which will be discussed later.

What does the inferior nasal concha provide?

The inferior nasal concha, as discussed with the ethmoid bone, is one of the three conchae in the nasal cavity that provide increased surface area.

What is the pelvic outlet?

The inferior opening of the true pelvis is the pelvic outlet.

What does the ischium have?

The ischium has a thick ischial tuberosity.

Where does the lumbar region curve?

The lumbar region curves anteriorly.

What does the lumbar vertebrae support?

The lumbar vertebrae support the majority of the body's weight.

What does the axial skeleton form?

The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body.

Axial skeleton

Thoracic Cage Ribs 24 Sternum 1 Total thoracic cage bones 25 Total axial skeleton bones 80

Openings: Sinus, labyrinth

Description: Cavity Example: Ethmoid labyrinth

Openings: Fissure

Description: Cleft Example: Superior orbital fissure of sphenoid bone

Neck

Description: Constriction between head and body Example: Neck of femur

Depressions: Groove, sulcus

Description: Deep, narrow depression Example: Intertubercular groove of humerus

Depressions: Notch

Description: Depression in margin of a bone Example: Mandibular notch

Head

Description: Enlarged, often rounded end Example: Head of femur

Projections: Lingula

Description: Flat, tongue-shaped process Example: Lingula of mandible

Ridges: Line, linea

Description: Low ridge Example: Intertrochanteric line of femur

Body

Description: Main part Example: Body of femur

Projections: Process

Description: Prominent projection Example: Acromion process of scapula

Ridges: Crest, crista

Description: Prominent ridge Example: Iliac crest

Projections: Tuberosity, tuber

Description: Rounded projection; larger than a tubercle Example: Deltoid tuberosity of humerus

Facet

Description: Small, flattened articular surface Example: Superior articular facet of atlas

Projections: Tubercle

Description: Small, rounded projection Example: Greater tubercle of humerus

Openings: Canal, meatus

Description: Tunnel Example: Hypoglossal canal of occipital bone

Projections: Epicondyle

Description: Upon a condyle Example: Lateral epicondyle of femur

Ridges: Spine

Description: Very high ridge Example: Scapular spine

How many bones does the average adult have?

The average adult has 206 bones. However, the actual number of bones varies between people and decreases with age as bones become fused.

What does the axial skeleton consist of?

The axial skeleton consists of the bones of the skull, the auditory ossicles, the hyoid bone, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage (rib cage).

What are the cranial bones connected by?

The cranial bones are connected by immovable joints called sutures.

What do the cranial bones, or cranium do?

The cranial bones, or cranium, house and protect the brain.

What do the facial bones do?

The facial bones form the basis of the face; contain cavities for the eyes, nose, and mouth; and are the attachment sites for our facial expression muscles. We discuss the fetal skull in chapter 8. Tables 7.4 - 7.8 list key features of the skull.

What is the top of the skull called?

The top of the skull called the calvaria, is often removed to view the interior of the skull.

What are the four principal sutures?

There are four principal sutures: (1) coronal (2) sagittal, (3) lambdoid, and (4) squamous. The specific sutures will be discussed along with the bones they connect.

What are the two zones of the body?

These two zones are the pectoral girdle and the pelvic girdle.

What does each of the following terms mean: tubercle, condyle, spine, foramen, fossa

Tubercle- small, rounded projection Condyle- Bend Spine-very high ridge Foramen- hole Fossa- General term for a depression

Axial Skeleton

Vertebral Column Cervical vertebrae 7 Thoracic vertebrae 12 Lumbar vertebrae 5 Sacrum 1 Coccyx 1 Total vertebral column bones 26

Capitulum

Head-shaped structure.

Foramen

Hole

What is the difference in coccyx between males and females?

In males, the coccyx may project anteriorly, but in females, it often projects more inferiorly.

A decubitus ulcer is a chronic ulcer that appears in pressure areas of skin overlying a bony prominent in bedridden or otherwise immobilized patients. Where are decubitus ulcers likely to occur?

Ankle bone, coccyx, hip bones, knee. Any hard bony prominences are susceptible to decubitus ulcer.

Carotid canal

Canal through which the internal carotid artery enters the cranial cavity

Opening: Olfactory foramina

Bone Containing the Opening: Ethmoid Structures Passing Through Openings: Olfactory nerves

Opening: Infraorbital foramen

Bone Containing the Opening: Maxilla Structures Passing Through Openings: Infraorbital nerve

Opening: Foramen magnum

Bone Containing the Opening: Occipital Structures Passing Through Openings: Spinal cord, accessory nerves, and vertebral arteries.

Opening: Pterygoid canal

Bone Containing the Opening: Sphenoid Structures Passing Through Openings: Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves to the face

Opening: Optic canal

Bone Containing the Opening: Sphenoid Structures Passing Through Openings: Optic nerve and ophthalmic artery

Opening: Carotid canal

Bone Containing the Opening: Temporal Structures Passing Through Openings: Carotid artery and carotid sympathetic nerve plexus

External Features: Mastoid process

Bone on Which Feature Is Found: Temporal Description: Enlargement posterior to the ear; attachment site for several muscles that move the head.

Angle

Corner between the body and ramus

acetabulum

Cup-shaped depression on the external surface of the coxa.

Mandibular notch

Depression between the condylar process and the coronoid process

Ischial spines

Farther apart in females

List the bone shapes.

Flat Short Irregular Long

What are floating ribs?

Two of the false ribs, ribs 11 and 12, are also called floating ribs because they do not attach to the sternum.

What arches across the lateral surface of the parietal bone?

Two sets of muscle attachment sites, the superior temporal line and the inferior temporal line, arch across the lateral surface of the parietal bone.

alae

Wing-shaped structure.

Where can the external occipital protuberance be felt?

It can be felt through the scalp at the base of the head and varies considerably in size form person to person.

How is the coccyx formed?

It can be formed from three to five semifused vertebrae.

What does the thoracic cage consist of?

It consists of (1) the thoracic vertebrae, (2) the ribs with their associated costal (rib) cartilages, and (3) the sternum.

What does the thoracic cage form?

It forms a semirigid chamber, which can increase and decrease in volume during respiration.

What does the frontal bone form?

It forms the roof of both the orbit of the eye and the nasal cavity.

Where is the hyoid embedded?

It has no direct bony attachment. Instead, muscles and ligaments attach it to the skull, so the hyoid is embedded soft tissue in the neck just below the mandible.

Where is the medial bone?

It is centrally located in the skull, forming the nasal septum, a large portion of the nasal cavity, as well as the medial wall of the orbits.

What forms the anterior nasal spine?

Just inferior to the nasal cavity, the two maxillae fuse medially forming the anterior nasal spine.

Where is the radial tuberosity?

Just inferior tot eh radial head on the medial side is the radial tuberosity, the site of attachment for the bicep brachia muscle of the arm.

What portion becomes curve as the infant learns to sit and walk?

Later, when the infant learns to sit and then walk, the lumbar portion of the column also becomes curved anteriorly.

FIGURE 7.31 Surface Anatomy Showing Bones of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

Lateral view of the pectoral girdle and upper limb.

What attaches to the styloid process?

Ligaments of the wrist attach to the styloid process.

What muscles attach to the mastoid process?

Neck muscles that rotate the head attach to the mastoid process.

What forms along the lambdoid suture?

Occasionally, extra, small bones called sutural bones, or workman bones, form along the lambdoid suture.

What is more posterior than the pubis?

Of the two infrerior hip bones, the ischium is more posterior than the pubis.

Foramen ovale

Opening through which a branch of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V) exits the cranial cavity

Foramen rotundum

Opening through which a branch of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V) exits the cranial cavity

Foramen spinosum

Opening through which a major artery to the meninges (membranes around the brain) enters the cranial cavity

Where do sesamoid bones form

Small sesamoid bones often forming the tendons of muscles attached to the great toe.

Nucleus pulposus

Soft central portion of the intervertebral disk.

Articular processes

Superior and inferior projections containing articular facets where vertebrae articulate with each other; strengthen the vertebral column and allow for movement.

What are orbits?

Th orbits are cone-shaped fossae, each with a posterior-facing apex.

What is the weakest part of the rib?

The angle is the weakest part of the rib and can be fractured in a crushing injury, as many occur in an automobile accident.

Where is the angle of the rib located?

The angle of the rib is located just lateral to the tubercle and is the point of greatest curvature.

What is the coccyx?

The coccyx is commonly referred to as the tailbone.

What are the paranasal sinuses?

The paranasal sinuses are openings within particular bones that open into the nasal cavity.

What is the posterior one-third formed by?

The posterior one-third is formed by two other facial bones, the palatine bones to be discussed later.

What does the posterior part of the nasal septum consist of?

The posterior part of the nasal septum consists primarily of the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone as discussed earlier and the vomer bone to be discussed with the facial bones.

What does the proximal end of the humerus have?

The proximal end of the humerus has two prominent landmarks, both sites of muscle attachment: (1) Laterally, it is the greater tubercle. (2) Anteriorly, it is the lesser tubercle.

What is the vertebral arch divided into?

The vertebral arch is divided into left and right halves, and each half has two parts: (1) the pedicle, which is attached to the body, and (2) the lamina which forms the posterior portion of the vertebral foramen.

Where does the vertebral arch project?

The vertebral arch projects posteriorly from the body.

What do true ribs attach directly through?

True ribs attach directly through costal cartilage to the sternum.

Ischial tuberosities

Turned laterally in females and medially in males.

Petrous part

Thick portion of the temporal bone

What are the temporal bones connected by?

The temporal bones are connected to the skull by the squamous sutures.

Where is the ulna?

The ulna is medial, the same side as little finer.

TABLE 7.11

Comparison of Vertebral Regions

Condylar process

Extension containing the mandibular condyle

Body

Major portion of the bone

Where does the apex face?

The apex, the inferior angle, is directed inferiorly.

What do the metacarpal bones form?

The metacarpal bones form a curve so that, in the resting portion, the palm of the hand is concave.

FIGURE 7.40 Right Femur

(a) Anterior and posterior view of the right femur. (b) Photo of anterior view of the right femur.

FIGURE 7.42 Right Tibia and Fibula

(a) Anterior view of the articulate right tibia and fibula. (b) Photo of the same view.

FIGURE 7.29 Right Humerus

(a) Anterior view of the right humerus. (b) Posterior view of the right humerus. (c) Photo of the anterior view of the right humerus.

FIUGRE 7.30 Right Ulna and Radius

(a) Anterior view of the right ulna and radius. (b) Photo of the same view. (c) Proximal ends o fate right ulna and radius.

FIGURE 7.24 Sacrum

(a) Anterior view of the sacrum. (b) Posterior view of the sacrum.

FIGURE 7.11 Paranasal Sinuses

(a) Anterior view. (b) Lateral view. (c) X-ray of the sinuses, lateral view. (d) X-ray of the sinuses anterior view.

FIGURE 7.41 Right Patella

(a) Anterior view. (b) Posterior view.

FIGURE 7.13 Inferior View of the Skull

(a) Drawing of an inferior view of the skull with the mandible removed. The base of the skull is complex, with a number of foramina and specialized surfaces. (b) Photo of the same view in (a). (The names of the bones are in bold.)

FIGURE 7.12 Floor of the Cranial Cavity

(a) Drawing of the floor of the cranial cavity. The calvaria has been removed, and the floor is viewed from above. (b) Photo of the same view in (a). (The names of the bones are in bold.)

FIGURE 7.25 Thoracic Cage

(a) Entire thoracic cage as seen from an anterior view. (b) Typical rib, inferior view. (c) Photograph of two thoracic vertebrae and the proximal end of a rib, as seen from the left side, showing the relationship between he vertebra and the head and the tubercle of the rib.

FIGURE 7.25 Thoracic Cage

(a) Entire thoracic cage as seen from an anterior view. (b) Typical rib, inferior view. (c) Photograph of two thoracic vertebrae and the proximal end of a rib, as seen from the left side, showing the relationship between the vertebra and the head and the tubercle of the rib.

FIGURE 7.25 Thoracic Cage

(a) Entire thoracic cage as seen from an anterior view. (b) Typical rib, inferior view. (c) Photograph of two thoracic vertebrae and the proximal end of a rib, as seen from the left side, showing the relationship between the vertebra and the head and tubercle of the rib.

FIGURE 7.39 True and False Pelvises in Males and Females

(a) In a male, the pelvic inlet (red dashed line) and outlet (blue dashed line) are small and the subpubic angle is less than 90 degrees. The true pelvis is shown as blue. The false pelvis is shown as natural bone color. (b) In a female, the pelvic inlet (red dashed line) and outlet (blue dashed line) are larger and the subpubic angle is 90 degrees or greater. (c) Midsagittal section through the pelvis to show the pelvic inlet (red arrow and red dashed line) and the pelvic outlet (blue arrow and blue dashed line).

FIGURE 7.10 Bones of the Nasal Cavity

(a) Nasal septum as seen from the left nasal cavity. (b) Right lateral nasal wall as seen from inside the nasal cavity with the nasal septum removed. (The names of the bones are in bold.)

FIGURE 7.32 Bones of the Right Wrist and Hand

(a) Posterior view. (b) Anterior view

FIGURE 7.37 Hip Bone

(a) Right hip bone, lateral view. Each hip bone is formed by fusion of the ilium, ischium, and pubis. The three bones can be seen joining near the center of the acetabulum, separated by lines of cartilage. (b) Right hip bone, medial view. (c) Right hip bone, lateral view. (The names of the three bones forming the hip bone are in bold.)

FIGURE 7.28 Right Scapula and Clavicle

(a) Right scapula, anterior view. (b) Right scapula, posterior view. (c) Right clavicle, superior view. (d) Photograph of the right scapula and the clavicle from a superior view, showing the relationship between the distal end of the clavicle and the acromion process of the scapula.

FIGURE 7.23 Lumbar Vertebrae

(a) Superior view of a lumbar vertebra. (b) Lateral view of a lumbar vertebra. (c) Articulated lumbar vertebrae from a lateral view.

FIGURE 7.22 Thoracic Vertebrae

(a) Superior view of thoracic vertebra. (b) Lateral view of thoracic vertebra. (c) Articulated thoracic vertebrae from a posterolateral view.

What is a common injury that results from whiplash?

A common injury resulting from whiplash is fracture of the spinous processes of the cervical vertebrae or a herniated disk due to an anterior tear of the annulus fibrosis. These injuries can cause posterior pressure on the spinal cord or spinal nerves and strained or torn muscles, tendons, and ligaments.

What overlies the posterior superior iliac spine?

A dimple overlies the posterior superior iliac spin just superior to the buttocks.

What is a separated rib?

A dislocation between a rib and its costal cartilage is called a separated rib.

What does the glenoid cavity articulate with?

A glenoid cavity, located in the superior lateral portion of the bone, articulates with the head of the humerus.

What forms the carpal tunnel?

A ligament stretches across the wrist from the tubercle of the trapezium to the hook of the hamate to form a tunnel on the anterior surface of the wrist called the carpal tunnel.

What is mnemonic use for the tarsal bones?

A mnemonic used for the tarsal bones is Tiger Cub Needs MILC (Talus, Calcaneus, Navicular, Medial cuneiform, Intermediate cuneiform, Lateral cuneiform, and Cuboid).

What has been developed for students to remember carpal bones?

A number of mnemonics have been developed to help students remember the carpal bones.

What separates the carotid canal from the middle ear?

A thin plate of bone separates the carotid canal form the middle ear, allowing us to hear our own pulse, usually when frightened or during exercise.

What aspects of the female pelvis facilitate delivery?

A wide, circular pelvic inlet and a pelvic outlet with widely space ischial spines can facilitate delivery of the newborn.

What attaches the pubic crest?

Abdominal muscles attach to the pubic crest, a medial ridge.

Why can abnormal tracking of the patella become a problem?

Abnormal tracking of the patella can become a problem in some teenagers, especially females. As a young woman's hips widen during puberty, the angles at the joints between the hips and the tibia may change considerably, forcing the patella to track more laterally than normal and causing pain especially in physically active women.

What are the lesser wings superior to?

Additionally, the lesser wings are the superior border of the superior orbital fissure, where cranial nerves controlling eye movement enter the orbit.

What curve develops the cervical region?

After birth, when the infant raises its head, a secondary curve, which curves anteriorly, develops in the cervical region

What are all other skull bones held together by?

All other skull bones are held together by sutures as well and are named according to the bones they connect.

What do the temporal and the parietal bones make up?

Along with the temporal bones, the parietal bones make up the majority of the lateral portion of the skull.

What are nuchal lines?

Also, visible on the posterior of the occipital one are set of small ridges that extend laterally from the external occipital protuberance, called nuchal lines. The nuchal lines are points of attachment for several neck muscles that move the head.

What is the sphenoid bone?

Although appearing to be two bones, one on eachside of the skull anterior to the temporal bone, the sphenoid bone is actually a single bone that extends completely across the skull.

What do the aveolar processes anchor?

Alveolar processes in the maxilla anchor the upper teeth of the jaw.

Where is the optic canal located?

An optic canal is located on each side of the sphenoid bone just anterior to the sella turcica.

What do anatomists use to describe the features of bones?

Anatomists use several common terms to describe the features, or surface markings, of bones. Most of these features involve the relationship between bones and associated soft tissues.

How are rounded and sharp projections, and openings in bones related to soft tissues?

Anatomists use several common terms to describe the features, or surface markings, of bones. Most of these features involve the relationship between the bones and associated soft tissues. If a bone possess a tubercle or a process, most likely a ligament or tendon was attached to the tubercle or process during life.

List the bones that make up the floor of the cranium.

Anterior cranial fossa Lesser wing of the sphenoid bone Greater wing of the sphenoid bone Foramen rotundum Foramen ovale Foramen spinosum Middle cranial fossal Internal acoustic meatus Foramen magnum Pariteal bone posterior cranial fossa Frontal sinuses Frontal bone Ethmoid bone Crista galli Cribriform plate Optic canal Sella turcica Carotid canal Temporal bone (petrous part) Jugular foramen Hypoglossal canal Occipital bone.

Pubis

Anterior inferior bone of the coxal bone.

FIGURE 7.27 Bones of the Pectoral Girdle and Right Upper Limb

Anterior view of the bones of the pectoral girdle and upper limb.

What is the coronoid fossa?

Anteriorly, on the distal end, just superior to the trochlea, is a fossa called the coronoid fossa, which accommodates a portion of the ulna.

What is the mental protuberance?

Anteriorly, the two halves of the mandible are fused, forming a pointed mental protuberance, which is commonly referred to as the chin.

FIGURE 7.35 Pelvis

Anterosuperior view of the bones of the articulated pelvis.

Pelvis

Any basin-shaped structure; cup-shaped ring of bone at the lower end of the trunk, formed from the ossa coxal bones, sacrum, and coccyx.

Glabella

Area between the supraorbital margins

Condyle

Articulation point between skull and first vertebra

What forms the zygomatic arch?

As previously discussed, the temporal process of the zygomatic bone articulates with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone to form the zygomatic arch.

What does the cranial cavity do?

As we've described, the cranial cavity houses and protects the brain within shallow depressions.

The incidence of fracture of the femoral neck increases as patients age, with a greater number of patients being women. The overall risk for injury is 86% in men and women 65 years old and older. Why is the femoral neck so commonly injured and why are elderly women most commonly affected?

As you grow older the bones become more brittle and your body becomes weaker. When walking the small neck is susceptible to injury because it cannot support the weight like it use to.

Where is the inferior orbital fissure?

At the junction of the maxilla with the greater wing of the sphenoid bone is the inferior orbital fissure. This fissure allows the passage of several nerves and blood vessels to the face.

Where is the alae?

At the superior surface of the sacrum, the lateral portions (the former transverse processes) flare out like wings and are called the alae.

Where its the acromion process?

At the tip of the shoulder, there is the large acromion process of the scapula.

What are the functions of the acromion process and the coracoid process of the scapula?

At the tip of the shoulder, there is the large acromion process of the scapula. The acromion process has three functions: (1) to form a protective cover for the shoulder joint, (2) to form the attachment site for the clavicle, and (3) to provide attachment points for some of the shoulder muscles. The smaller coracoid process provides attachments for some shoulder and arm muscles.

Coronoid process

Attachment for a muscle of mastication

Crista galli

Attachment for meninges (membranes around brain)

Styloid process

Attachment for muscles of the tongue, throat, and hyoid bone

External occipital protuberance

Attachment point for a strong ligament (nuchal ligament) in the back of the neck

Mastoid process

Attachment point for muscle moving the head and for a hyoid muscle

Greater horn

Attachment point for muscles and ligaments

Lesser horn

Attachment point for muscles and ligaments.

Lateral pterygoid plate

Attachment point for muscles of mastication (chewing)

Alae

Attachment points between the vomer and sphenoid

2. What are the two anatomical portions of the skeleton?

Axial skeleton Appendicular skeleton

List the two anatomical portions of the skeleton.

Axial skeleton = 80 bones Appendicular skeleton = 126 bones

Why does the clavicle facilitate the upper limb's mobility?

Because the clavicle holds the upper limb away from the body, it facilitates the limb's mobility.

What makes the vertebral column naturally curve?

Because the embryo and fetus are C-shaped within the uterus, the vertebral column is naturally curved from the beginning.

Why does the pelvic girdle provide more stable support but less mobility than the incomplete ring?

Because the pelvic girdle is a complete bony ring, it provides more stable support but less mobility than the incomplete ring of the pectoral girdle.

What is between the two orbits?

Between the two orbits is the glabella (smooth), a smooth region of bone.

Define the anatomical terms for bone features.

Body- Body of femur Head- Head of femur Neck- Neck of femur Margin, border- Lateral border of scapula Angle- Mandibular angle Ramus- Mandibular ramus Condyle- Lateral condyle of tibia Facet- Superior articular facet of atlas Line, linea- Intertrochanteric line of femur Crest, crista- Iliac crest Spine- Scapular spine Process- Acromion process of scapula Tubercle- Greater tubercle of humerus Tuberosity, tuber- Deltoid tuberosity of humerus Trochanter- Greater trochanter of femur Epicondyle- Lateral epicondyle of femur Lingula- Lingula of mandible Hamulus- Pterygoid hamuluds of sphenoid bone Horn- Greater horn of hyoid bone Foramen- Foramen magnum of occipital bone Canal, meatus- Hypoglossal canal of occipital bone Fissure- Superior orbital fissure of sphenoid bone Sinus, labyrinth- Ethmoid labyrinth Fossa- Coronoid boss of humerus Notch- Mandibular notch Fovea- Fovea wapitis of femur Groove, sulcus- Intertubercular groove of humerus

Opening: Ethmoidal foramina, anterior and posterior

Bone Containing the Opening: Between ethmoid and frontal Structures Passing Through Openings: Anterior and posterior ethmoidal nerves

Opening: Nasolacrimal canal

Bone Containing the Opening: Between lacrimal and maxilla Structures Passing Through Openings: Nasolacrimal (tear) duct

Opening: Incisive foramen

Bone Containing the Opening: Between maxillae Structures Passing Through Openings: Incisive nerve

Opening: Sphenopalatine foramen

Bone Containing the Opening: Between palatine and sphenoid Structures Passing Through Openings: Nasopalatine nerve and sphenopalatine blood vessels

Opening: Inferior orbital fissures

Bone Containing the Opening: Between sphenoid and maxilla Structures Passing Through Openings: Infraorbital nerve and blood vessels and zygomatic nerve

Opening: Jugular foramen

Bone Containing the Opening: Between temporal and occipital Structures Passing Through Openings: Internal jugular vein, glossopharyngeal nerve, vagus nerve, and accessory nerve

Opening: Foramen lacerum

Bone Containing the Opening: Between temporal, occipital, and sphenoid Structures Passing Through Openings: Filled with cartilage in life

Opening: Supraorbital foramen or notch

Bone Containing the Opening: Frontal Structures Passing Through Openings: Supraorbital nerve and vessels

Opening: Mandibular foramen

Bone Containing the Opening: Mandible Structures Passing Through Openings: Inferior alveolar nerve to the mandibular teeth

Opening: Mental foramen

Bone Containing the Opening: Mandible Structures Passing Through Openings: Mental Nerve

Opening: Hypoglossal canal

Bone Containing the Opening: Occipital Structures Passing Through Openings: Hypoglossal nerve

Opening: Foramen ovale

Bone Containing the Opening: Sphenoid Structures Passing Through Openings: Mandibular division of trigeminal nerve

Opening: Foramen rotundum

Bone Containing the Opening: Sphenoid Structures Passing Through Openings: Maxillary division of trigeminal nerve

Opening: Foramen spinosum

Bone Containing the Opening: Sphenoid Structures Passing Through Openings: Middle meningeal artery

Opening: Superior orbital fissures

Bone Containing the Opening: Sphenoid Structures Passing Through Openings: Oculomotor nerve, trochlear nerve, opthalmic division of trigeminal nerve, and ophthalmic veins.

Opening: Stylomastoid foramen

Bone Containing the Opening: Temporal Structures Passing Through Openings: Facial nerve

Opening: Internal acoustic meatus

Bone Containing the Opening: Temporal Structures Passing Through Openings: Facial nerve and vestibuloccochear nerve.

Opening: Zygomaticofacial foramen

Bone Containing the Opening: Zygomatic Structures Passing Through Openings: Zygomaticotemporal nerve

Opening: External acoustic meatus

Bone containing the Opening: Temporal Structures Passing Through Openings: Sound waves passing to the eardrum

Sesamoid bones

Bone found within a tendon, such as the patella.

External Features: Mandibular fossa

Bone on Which Feature Is Found: Temporal Description: Depression where the mandible articulates with the skull.

Internal Features: Crista galli

Bone on Which Feature is Found: Ethmoid Description: Process in the anterior part of the cranium to which one of the connective tissue coverings of the brain (dura mater) connects.

External Features: Coronoid process

Bone on Which Feature is Found: Mandible Description: Attachment point for the temporalis muscle.

External Features: Mental protuberance

Bone on Which Feature is Found: Mandible Description: Chin

External Features: Ramus

Bone on Which Feature is Found: Mandible Description: Portion of the mandible superior to the angle.

External Features: Alveolar process

Bone on Which Feature is Found: Mandible, maxilla Description: Ridges on the mandible and maxilla containing the teeth.

Internal Features: Sella Turcica

Bone on Which Feature is Found: Sphenoid Description: Bony structure, resembling a saddle, in which the pituitary gland is located.

Internal Features: Petrous part

Bone on Which Feature is Found: Temporal Description: Thick, interior part of temporal bone containing the middle and inner ears and the auditory ossicles.

What are bones segregated into?

Bones are segregated into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.

FIGURE 7.1 Complete Skeleton

Bones of the axial skeleton are listed in the columns on each side of the figure; bones of the appendicular skeleton are listed in the center of the two skeleton views. (The skeleton is not shown in the anatomical position.)

What do the greater trochanter and lesser trochanter do?

Both trochanters are attachment sites for muscles that fasten the hip to the thigh.

Area: Sacrum

Broader in females, with the inferior part directed more posteriorly; the sacral promontory does not project as far anteriorly in females.

What makes the cervical vertebrae unique?

Cervical vertebrae are also unique in that the transverse processes posses transverse foramina through which the vertebral arteries extend toward the head.

Where are cervical vertebrae located?

Cervical vertebrae are located in the vertebral column region with the greatest range of motion.

Why is the cervical vertebrae more susceptible to dislocations and fractures?

Cervical vertebrae are located in the vertebral column region with the greatest range of motion. These vertebrae support and move the head. However, because the cervical vertebrae support only the weight of the head, they have very small bodies making dislocations and fractures in this area of the vertebral column more common than in other regions.

What vertebrae support and move the head?

Cervical vertebrae are located in the vertebral column region with the greatest range of motion. These vertebrae support and move the hed.

Feature: Spinous process

Cervical: Absent in C1, bifid in others, except C7 Thoracic: Long, angled inferiorly Lumbar: Square

Feature: Body

Cervical: Absent in C1, small in others Thoracic: Medium-sized with articular facets for ribs Lumbar: Large

Feature: Articular facets

Cervical: Face superior/inferior Thoracic: Face obliquely Lumbar: Face medial/lateral.

Feature: Transverse process

Cervical: Transverse foramen Thoracic: Articular facets for ribs, except T11 and T12 Lumbar: Square

Zygomatic process

Connection to the zygomatic bone; helps form the interior margin of the orbit.

What are the paranasal sinuses?

Considered together, the sinuses found in the frontal bone, the ethmoid bone, the sphenoid bone, and the maxilla are called the paranasal sinuses.

What is a sinus? What are the functions of sinuses? Give the locations of the paranasal sinuses.

Considered together, the sinuses found in the frontal bone, the ethmoid bone, the sphenoid bone, and the maxilla are called the paranasal sinuses. The paranasal sinuses are openings within particular bones that open into the nasal cavity. The sinuses have two major functions: (1) they decrease the weight of the skull and (2) they act as a resonating chamber when speaking. Compare the sound of your voice during a head cold to its sound normally.

What are the special features of the temporal bone?

Contains middle and inner ear and the mastoid air cells Place where the mandible articulates with the rest of the skull

Cribriform plate

Contains numerous olfactory foramina through which branches of the olfactory nerve (cranial nerve I) enter the cranial cavity from the nasal cavity

What are the special features of the sphenoid bone?

Contains the spenoidal sinus

Body

Disk-shaped; usually the largest part with flat surfaces directed superiorly and inferiorly; forms the anterior wall of the vertebral foramen; intervertebral disks are located between the bodies.

What is each hip bone formed from?

Each hip bone is formed from three separate bones fused into a large bony plate: (1) the ilium, (2) the ischium, and (3) the pubis.

How are the intervertebral foramen formed?

Each intervertebral foramen is formed by intervertebral notches in the pedicles of adjacent vertebrae.

What are the maxillae?

Each maxilla is anterior and inferior to the zygomatic bones and the two maxillae are fused medially.

Where is each maxilla located?

Each maxilla is anterior and inferior to the zygomatic bones and the two maxillae are fused medially.

What does the five regions of the vertebral column contribute to?

Each of the five regions of the vertebral column has uniquely shaped vertebrae that contribute to the particular function of each region of the vertebral column. As one region gives way to another region, the characteristics between regional vertebrae become less distinct.

What do the maxillary bones have?

Each of the two maxillary bones has a palatine process.

What bones form the hard palate, and what is the function of the hard palate?

Each of the two maxillary bones has a palatine process. These join medially to form the anterior two-thirds of the hard palate, or the roof of the mouth. Hard palate- Floor of the nasal cavity that separates the nasal cavity from the oral cavity; composed of the palatine processes of the maxillary bones and the horizontal plates of the palatine bones; also called bony palate.

What are the two bones of the pectoral girdle composed of?

Each pair is composed of a scapula, commonly known as the shoulder blade, and a clavicle, commonly known as the collarbone.

Describe the structures that are common to most vertebrae?

Each vertebra consist of (1) a body, (2) a vertebral arch, and (3) various processes. Two specific portions of the vertebrae help support the body's weight and protect the spinal cord. The vertebral body, the solid bony disk of each vertebra, supports the body's weight. The vertebral arch, along with the body, protects the spinal cord. The vertebral arch projects posteriorly from the body. Together, the vertebral arch and the body form a complete bony circle enclosing the vertebral foramen, which is occupied by the spinal cord in a living person. The vertebral foramina of adjacent vertebrae combine to form the vertebral canal, which contains the entire spinal cord and caudal equina.

What does each vertebra consists of?

Each vertebra consists of (1) a body, (2) a vertebral arch, and (3) various processes.

What do each vertebra have?

Each vertebra has two superior and two inferior articular processes, with the superior processes of one vertebra articulating with the inferior processes of the next superior vertebra.

What is the perpendicular plate?

Extending inferiorly from ethmoid bone is a central, thin bony plate called the perpendicular plate.

What is the line aspera?

Extending inferiorly from the gluteal tuberosity is the linea aspera, a site of attachment of many thigh muscles.

What is the mastoid process?

Externally, the mastoid process is a large, bony inferior projection that can been seen and felt just posterior to the external ear.

Axial Skeleton

Facial bones Paired Maxilla 2 Zygomatic 2 Palatine 2 Lacrimal 2 Nasal 2 Inferior nasal concha 2 Unpaired Mandible 1 Vomer 1 Total skull bones 22

Annulus fibrosus

Fibrous material forming the outer portion of an intervertebral disk.

What does the head of the rib articulate with?

First, the head of the rib articulates with the bodies and intervertebral disks of two adjacent vertebrae.

What bones form the hand? How many phalanges are in each finger and in the thumb?

Five metacarpal bones are attached to the carpal bones and makes up the central portion of the hand. They are numbered one to five, starting with the most lateral metacarpal bone, at the base of the thumb. The metacarpal bones form a curve so that, in the resting position, the palm of the hand is concave. The distal end of the metacarpal bones help form the knuckles of the hand. The spaces between the metacarpal bone are occupied by soft tissue. The five digits of each hand include one thumb (pollex) and four fingers. Each digit consists of small long bones called phalanges. The thumb has two phalanges, called proximal and distal. Each finger has three phalanges, designated proximal, middle, and distal.

Pedicle

Foot of the arch with one on each side; forms the lateral walls of the vertebral foramen.

What is each vertebrae identified by?

For convenience, each of the five regions is identified by a letter, and the vertebrae within each region are numbered: C1-C7, T1-T12, L1-L5, S, and Co.

Stylomastoid foramen

Foramen through which the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) exits the skull

Forms on side of jugular foramen

Foramen through which the internal jugular vein exits the cranial cavity

What muscles attach to the humerus?

Forearm muscles attach to the humerus just superior to the capitulum and trochlea.

Intervertebral notches

Form intervertebral foramina between two adjacent vertebrae through which spinal nerves exit the vertebral canal.

What are the special features of the lacrimal bone?

Forms a small portion of the orbital wall Forms part of the nasolacrimal canal

What are the special features of the parietal bone?

Forms lateral wall of skull.

What are the special features of the vomer?

Forms most of the posterior and inferior portions of the nasal septum

Anterior nasal spine

Forms part of the nasal septum

What are the special features of the Ethmoid bone?

Forms part of the nasal septum and part of the lateral walls and roof of the nasal cavity. Contains the ethmoidal labyrinth, or ethmoidal sinuses; the labyrinth is divided into anterior, middle, and posterior ethmoidal cells.

Palatine process

Forms the anterior two-thirds of the hard palate

What are the special features of the occipital bone?

Forms the base of the skull

Greater wing

Forms the floor of the middle cranial fossa; several foramina pass through this wing

What are the special features of the frontal bone?

Forms the forehead and roof of the orbit Contains the frontal sinus

Vertebral arch

Forms the lateral and posterior walls of the vertebral foramen; possesses several processes and articular surfaces

Horizontal plate

Forms the posterior one-third of the hard palate

What are the special features of the zygomatic bone?

Forms the prominence of the cheek Forms the anterolateral wall of the orbit.

Frontal process

Forms the sides of the nasal bridge

List the seven bones that form the orbit of the eye.

Frontal Sphenoid Zygomatic Maxilla Lacrimal Ethmoid Palatine

Area: Pelvic inlet

Heart-shaped in males; oval in females.

What are the special features of the Palatine bone?

Helps form part of the hard palate and a small part of the wall of the orbit.

Zygomatic process

Helps form the bony bridge extending from the cheek to just anterior to the ear; attachment for a muscle that moves the mandible

Temporal process

Helps form the bony ridge from the cheek to just anterior to the ear

Mandibular condyle

Helps form the temporomandibular joint (the point of articulation between the mandible and the rest of the skull)

Vertebral foramen

Hole in each vertebra through which the spinal cord passes; adjacent vertebral foramina form the vertebral canal

Identify the bones of the upper limb, and describe the arrangement.

Humerus Ulna Radius Carpal bones Metacarpal bones Phalanges The arm, the part of the upper limb from the shoulder to the elbow, contains only one bone, the humerus. The forearm has two bones: (1) the ulna and (2) the radius. The ulna is medial, the same side as the little finger, and the radius is lateral, the same side as the thumb. The ulna and radius articulate with the humerus at the elbow joint. There are several unique features of these two bones at the site of attachment to the humerus. The wrist is a relatively short region between he forearm and the hand; it is composed of eight carpal bones arranged into two rows of four each. Five metacarpal bones are attached to the carpal bones and make up the central portion of the hand. The metacarpal bones form a curve so that, in the resting position, the palm of the hand is concave. The five digits of each hand include one thumb and four fingers. Each digit consists of small long bones called phalanges. The thumb has two phalanges, called proximal and distal. Each finger has three phalanges, designated proximal, middle, and distal.

What happens if the patella is severely fractured?

If the patella is severely fractured, the tendon from the quadriceps femurs muscle group may be torn, severely reducing muscle function.

Why do surgeons perform cesarean section?

If the pelvic outlet is too small form normal delivery, the physician may perform a cesarean section, which is the surgical removal of the fetus through the abdominal wall.

Explain why the "fingers" appear much longer in a dried, articulated skeleton than in a hand with the soft tissue intact.

In a dried skeleton, the joints between bones are now visible and all the long bones of the hand are obvious. In a live hand, the "knuckles" are actually where the phalanges arise. With the soft tissue intact, it appears that the metacarpals extend from the most proximal phalanx to the carpals. But if we look at figure 7.27, we see that the proximal phalanx is not tremendously shorter than the metacarpal bones, especially the third metacarpal and proximal phalanx. It is a common misconception that the metacarpals of the palm are part of the fingers.

Describe the structure and function of the intervertebral disks.

In a living person, vertebra are separated by intervertebral disks. Intervertebral disks are composed of fibrocartilage, and are located between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae. The intervertebral disks provide support and cushion to the vertebral bodies. The intervertebral disks consist of an external annulus fibrous and an internal, gelatinous nucleus pulpous. As a person ages, the disk becomes more compressed, which decreases distance between vertebrae. the reduction in thickness of the intervertebral disks actually decreases the height of a person. So, we really can shrink as we age! In addition, the annulus fibrous becomes weaker with age and thus more susceptible to herniation.

What separates vertebrae in a living person?

In a living person, vertebrae are separated by intervertebral disks.

What happens to the annulus fibrosus as we age?

In addition, the annulus fibrosus becomes weaker with age and thus more susceptible to herniation.

What is the least moveable region of the five regions?

In contrast to the large degree of motion of the cervical region, the thoracic region is the lest moveable of the five regions due to the articulation of the thoracic vertebrae with the ribs.

What is sometimes done to repair the tendon behind the patella?

In extreme cases, it may be necessary to remove the patella to repair the tendon, which reduces the amount of the power the quadriceps femurs muscle can generate.

Area: General

In females, somewhat lighter in weight and wider laterally but shorter superiorly to inferiorly and less funnel-shaped; less obvious muscle attachment points in females.

What does the sella turcica do?

In life, the sella turcica surrounds and protects the pituitary gland.

Where are the hypoglossal canals?

In the anteromedial region of each occipital condyle are the hypoglossal canals where the nerve innervating the tongue exits the skull.

What is the fovea wapitis?

In the head of the femur is a small indentation called the fovea wapitis, where a ligament helps secure the femur to the acetabulum.

Sarah fell of the trampoline in her backyard. She was crying and holding her right shoulder, so her mother took her to the emergency room. Dr. Smart diagnosed a broken collarbone (clavicle), based on the position of Sarah's right upper limb. Explain.

In this scenario, Dr. Smart is able to diagnose a broken clavicle without x-rays. To determine how this is possible, we first need to know the normal position of the arm and the clavicle's role in attaining this. The text explains that the clavicle's job is to hold the upper limb away from the body. In addition, if we look at figure 7.22, it shows that the clavicle supports the scapula anteriorly. Therefore, when Sarah arrived at the emergency room, Dr. Smart probably saw that her shoulder was more inferior and anterior than normal and that her arm was resting against the side of her body and not being held away from the body, as it normally is.

How are individual bones classified ?

Individual bones are classified to shape: long, flat, short, or irregular (figure 7.2)

Where is the infraorbital foramen?

Inferior to the orbits, within each maxilla is an infraorbital foramen for passage of a facial nerve and artery.

What does the sacrum articulate with?

It articulates with each hip bone by way of the auricular surfaces, forming the sacroiliac joint.

What does the clavicle articulate with?

It articulates with the scapula and the sternum.

Where is the mandible located?

It is inferior to the maxillae and attaches posteriorly to the temporal bone via the mandibular fossae.

Where is the crista galli located?

It is located in the center of the anterior cranial fossa and helps to anchor the brain in the cranial cavity.

What determines the uniqueness of each individual's face?

It is the bones of the face and their soft tissues that determine the uniqueness of each individual's facial appearance.

What is the coccyx?

It is the terminal portion of the vertebral column.

What is the sacral promontory used for?

It is used as a clinical landmark for separation of the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity.

What is the most prominent feature of the occipital bone?

Its most prominent feature is the foramen magnum, the opening where the brainstem connects to the spinal cord. This region also forms the posterior cranial fossae that supports the cerebellum of the brain.

Where is the tibial tuberosity felt?

Just distal to the condyles of the tibia, on its anterior surface, is the easily felt tibial tuberosity.

What is the function of the radial tuberosity? The styloid processes? Name the part of the ulna commonly referred to as the elbow.

Just inferior to the radial head on the medial side is the radial tuberosity, the site of attachment for the biceps brachia muscle of the arm. The distal end of the radius has a styloid process. The styloid process of the radius is lateral and also serves as an attachment location for wrist ligaments. The olecranon fossa

What is located superior to the medial and lateral condyles?

Just superior to the medial and lateral condyles are two large ligament attachment sites. These are (1) the medial epicondyle and (2) the lateral epicondyle.

What articulates with the radius?

Lateral, the humerus articulates with the radius. This location is called the capitulum.

Where is pubic tubercle?

Laterally, where the pubic crest ends, is the pubic tubercle, the attachment site of the inguinal ligament.

How many bones does the leg consist of?

Like the forearm, it consists of two bones: (1) the medial tibia, or shinbone, and (2) the lateral fibula.

Where are the cribriform plates?

Located on each side of the crista galli are the cribriform plates, each of which houses one of the two olfactory bulbs that transmit signals for the sense of smell from the nasal cavity to the brain.

What are long bones?

Long are longer than they are wide. Most of the bones of the upper and lower limbs are long bones.

Tubercle

Lump on a bone.

Body

Major, horizontal portion of the bone

What articulates with the ulna?

Medially, the humerus articulates with the ulna. This location is called the trochlea.

Area: Ilium

More shallow and flared laterally in females

What do most cervical vertebrae have?

Most cervical vertebrae have bifid spinous processes.

Describe the articulation of the ribs with thoracic vertebrae.

Most ribs attach to the thoracic vertebrae in two locations. First, the head of the rib articulate with the bodies and intervertebral disks of two adjacent vertebrae. These sites of articulation are called the inferior articular facet on the superior vertebra and the superior articular facet on the inferior vertebra. Second, the tubercle of the rib articulates with the transverse process of the inferior vertebra. The neck of the rib is between the head and tubercle, and the body is the main part of the rib. The angle of the rib is located just lateral to the tubercle and is the point of greatest curvature. The angle is the weakest part of the rib and can be fractured in a crushing injury, as may occur in an automobile accident. Sometimes the transverse processes of the seventh cervical vertebra form separate bones called cervical ribs. These ribs may be tiny pieces of bone or may be long enough to reach the sternum. In addition, the first lumbar vertebra my develop lumbar ribs.

What is made possible by the vertebral processes?

Movement and additional support of the vertebral column are made possible by the vertebral processes.

What is accomplished by the contraction of the skeletal muscles?

Much vertebral movement is accomplished by the contraction of the skeletal muscles attached to the transverse and spinous processes.

FIGURE 7.9 Bones of the Right Orbit

Multiple bones converge to form the orbits of the eyes. (The names of the bones are in bold.)

What is the mental foramen?

On each anterolateral surface of the body is the mental foramen for passage of nerves and blood vessels to the chin.

What remains visible on the anterior surface?

On the anterior surface, transverse lines remain visible where the individual vertebrae fused.

Where is the styloid process?

On the distal end of the ulna, on the lateral side, there is a small process called the styloid process.

Where is the head of the ulna?

On the distal end of the ulna, on the medial side, is the head of the ulna.

What end of the clavicle articulates with the acromion process?

On the lateral end it articulates with the acromion process.

What end of the clavicle articulate with the manubrium of the sternum?

On the medial end it articulates with the manubrium of the sternum.

Where is the radial notch?

On the medial side of the proximal end of the ulna is the radial notch where the head of the radius rotates.

What is the adductor tubercle?

On the medial side superior to the medial epicondyle is the adductor tubercle, a muscle attachment site.

Where is the gluteal tuberosity?

On the posterior surface of the femur, the gluteal tuberosity is visible inferior to the lesser trochanter.

Tarsal bone

One of seven ankle bones.

FIGURE 7.3 Superior View of the Skull

Only four skull bones are visible from a superior view; the frontal bone, the two parietal bones, and a small portion of the occipital bone. (The names of the bones are in bold.)

Mental foramen

Opening through which a nerve and vessels exit the mandible to the skin of the chin

Infraorbital foramen

Opening through which a nerve and vessels exit the orbit to the face

Zygomaticofacial

Opening through which a nerve and vessels exit the orbit to the face

Name the foramina that allow the passage of the following nerves and blood vessel; optic nerve, olfactory nerve, vestibulocochlear nerve, incisive nerve, facial nerve, carotid artery, and internal jugular vein.

Optic canal allows the optic nerve and ophthalmic artery to pass Olfactory foramina allows the olfactory nerves to pass through Internal acoustic meatus allows for the facial nerve and vstibulocochlear nerve to pass Incisive foramen allows for the incisive nerve to pass through. The stylomastoid foramen allows the facial nerve to pass through. The carotid canal allows for the carotid artery and carotid sympathetic nerve plexus to pass through. The jugular foramen allows for the internal jugular vein, glossopharyngeal nerve, vagus nerve, and accessory nerve to pass through.

What increases the rigidity of the vertebral column?

Overlap of the two superior and two inferior articular processes increases the rigidity of the vertebral column.

Bone: Ethmoid

Part of Nasal Cavity: Roof, septum, lateral wall

Bone: Maxilla

Part of Nasal Cavity: Floor

Bone: Palatine

Part of Nasal Cavity: Floor and lateral wall

Bone: Inferior nasal concha

Part of Nasal Cavity: Lateral wall

Bone: Lacrimal

Part of Nasal Cavity: Lateral wall

Bone: Frontal

Part of Nasal Cavity: Roof

Bone: Nasal

Part of Nasal Cavity: Roof

Bone: Vomer

Part of Nasal Cavity: Septum

Bone: Maxilla

Part of Orbit: Floor

Bone: Zygomatic

Part of Orbit: Lateral wall

Bone: Ethmoid

Part of Orbit: Medial wall

Bone: Lacrimal

Part of Orbit: Medial wall

Bone: Palatine

Part of Orbit: Medial wall

Bone: Frontal

Part of Orbit: Roof

Bone: Sphenoid

Part of Orbit: Roof and posterolateral wall

Manubrium

Part of a bone representing the handle, such as the manubrium of the sternum representing the handle of a sword.

Appendicular Skeleton

Pectoral Girdle Scapula 2 Clavicle 2 Upper limb Humerus 2 Ulna 2 Radius 2 Carpal bones 16 Metacarpal bones 10 Phalanges 28 Total girdle and upper limb bones 64

What is a great demonstration of mobility?

Picture a baseball pitcher winding up to throw a fastball and you have a great demonstration of the mobility of your upper limb.

What attaches to the ischial tuberosity?

Posterior thigh muscles attach to the ischial tuberosity and its the portion of the pelvis on which a person sits.

What is the olecranon fossa?

Posteriorly, on the distal end, is another large fossa called the olecranon fossa, which accommodates a portion of the ulna that is easily felt as the point of the elbow.

Transverse process

Process projecting laterally from the junction of the lamina and pedicle; a site of muscle attachment

Spinous process

Process projecting posteriorly at the point where the two laminae join; a site of muscle attachment; strengthens the vertebral column and allows for movement.

What is the intercondylar eminence?

Projecting superiorly between the condyles is the intercondylar eminence, which separates the intercondylar area in to anterior and posterior regions.

Where are the superior and middle nasal conchae found?

Protruding medially from the ethmoid bone are two scroll-shaped bones called the superior and middle nasal conchae.

What ribs are false ribs?

Ribs 8-12 are called false ribs because they do not attach directly to the sternum. The false ribs consist of two groups.

Alveolar process

Ridge containing the teeth

Middle nasal concha

Ridge extending into the nasal cavity; increases surface area, helps warm and moisten air in the cavity

What is more common in the lumbar vertebrae?

Ruptured intervertebral disks are more common in this area than in other regions of the vertebral column.

What are sesamoid bones?

Sesamoid bones are small bone located within some tendons that increase the mechanical advantage of tendons where they cross joints.

What occurs when the atlas rotates on the axis?

Shaking your head "no" occurs when the atlas rotates on the axis. This rotation occurs around the highly modified superior process of the axis, called the dens, or odontoid process.

What are short bones?

Short bones are round or nearly cube-shaped, as exemplified by the bones of the wrist (carpal bones) and ankle (tarsal bones).

What forms separate bones called cervical ribs?

Sometimes the transverse processes of the seventh cervical vertebra form separate bones called cervical ribs.

Where does spinal nerves exit?

Spinal nerves exit the sacral canal through the sacral foramina, both posteriorly and anteriorly.

Pedicle

Stalk or base of a structure, such as the pedicle of the vertebral arch.

Trochlea

Structure shaped like or serving as a pulley or spool.

What do superior and inferior orbital fissures provide?

Superior and inferior orbital fissures in the posterior of the orbits provide openings through which nerves and blood vessels communicate with structures in the orbit or pass into the face.

Ischium

Superior bone of the coxal bone.

Lesser wing

Superior border of the superior orbital fissure

Nasal spine

Superior part of the nasal bridge

FIGURE 7.43 Lower Limb

Surface anatomy of the bones in the lower limb.

FIGURE 7.26 Upper Thorax

Surface anatomy of the upper thorax.

xiphoid

Sword-shaped, with special reference to the sword tip; the inferior part of the sternum.

What passes through the carpal tunnel to enter the hand?

Tendons, nerves, and blood vessels pass through this tunnel o enter the hand.

What do the facial bones of the skull include?

The 14 facial bones of the skull include (1) the 2 zygomatic bones, (2) the 2 maxilla bones, (3) the 2 palatine bones, (4) the 2 lacrimal bones, (5) the 2 nasal bones, (6) the mandible, (7) the vomer bone, and (8) the 2 inferior nasal conchae.

Name the bones of the cranium and face. What are the functions accomplished by each group?

The 14 facial bones of the skull include (1) the 2 zygomatic bones, (2) the 2 maxilla bones, (3) the 2 palatine bones, (4) the 2 lacrimal bones, (5) the 2 nasal bones, (6) the mandible, (7) the vomer one, and (8) the 2 inferior nasal conchae. These bones, in addition to two cranial bones (the frontal and ethmoid bones), form the structure of the face in the anterior of the skull. The facial bones protect the major sensory organs located in the face: the eyes, nose, and tongue. These bones also provide attachment point for muscles controlling mastication, facial expressions associated with our emotions, and eye movement. The jaws (mandible and maxillae) possess alveolar processes with sockets for tooth attachment. it is the bones of the face and their soft tissues that determine the uniqueness of each individual's face appearance.

Name the four major curvatures of the adult vertebral column, and explain what causes them. Describe scoliosis, kyphosis, and lordosis.

The adult vertebral column has four major curvatures. The cervical region curves anteriorly, the thoracic region curves posteriorly, the lumbar region curves anteriorly, and the sacral and coccygeal regions together curve posteriorly. The curves forms bring embryonic development. Because the embryo and fetus are C-shaped within the uterus, the vertebral column is naturally curved from the beginning. After birth, when the infant raises its head, a secondary curve, which curves anteriorly, develops in the cervical region. Later, when the infant learns to sit and then walk, the lumbar portion of the column also becomes curved anteriorly. These spinal curvatures help accommodate our upright posture by aligning our body weight with our pelvis and lower limbs. Lordosis is an exaggeration of the convex curve of the lumbar region. Kyphosis is an exaggeration of the concave curve of the thoracic region. Scoliosis is an abnormal lateral and rotational curvature of the vertebral column.

What do the alveolar processes of the mandible contain?

The alveolar processes of the mandible contain the lower teeth.

Is the anatomical neck existent?

The anatomical neck, immediately distal to the head, is almost nonexistent; thus, a surgical neck has been designated.

What does the ankle consist of?

The ankle consist of the distal ends of the tibia and fibula forming a partial socket that articulates with a bone of the foot.

What carpal bones are accentuated by the tubercle of the trapezium?

The anterior concavity of the carpal bones is accentuated by the tubercle of the trapezium at the base of the thumb and the hook of the hamate at the base of the little finer.

What ligament attach in the anterior and posterior intercondylar regions?

The anterior cruciate ligament and the posterior cruciate ligament attach in the anterior and posterior intercondylar regions.

Why is the anterior superior iliac spin an important anatomical landmark?

The anterior superior iliac spin is an important anatomical landmark used, for example, to find the correct location for giving gluteal injections into the hip.

What is coronoid process?

The anterior surface of the proximal end of the ulna has a process called the coronoid process. The coronoid process inserts into the coronoid fossa of the humerus when the elbow is bent.

What does the appendicular skeleton allow?

The appendicular skeleton allows movement of our appendages and supports our weigh in an upright position.

What does the appendicular skeleton consist of?

The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the upper limbs, the lower limbs, and the two girdles.

What are the arches similar too?

The arches function similarly to the spring of a car, allowing the foot to give and sprain back.

What do the arches serve as?

The arches serve as an adjustable lever to assist in the two main functions of the foot: (1) to support the body in its upright position both while standing and in forward movement during walking and (2) to push the body forward during walking and to absorb shock when the foot contacts the ground.

What does the articular surface of the acetabulum occupy?

The articular surface of the acetabulum is crescent-shaped and occupies only superior and lateral aspects of the fossa.

What do the atlas and axis support?

The atlas and axis are heftier than the other five cervical vertebrae since they directly support the weight of the head and control its movements.

Where does the atlas derive its name?

The atlas derive its name from he Greek mythology character, Atlas, who held the world (the head) on his shoulders.

Does the atlas have a body or a spinous process?

The atlas does not have a body or a spinous process.

What is the superior articular facets?

The atlas does not have a body or a spinous process. However, it has large, flattened areas on its superior surface called the superior articular facets where the occipital condyles of the skull rest.

What are the attachment sites of the forearm muscles to the humerus just superior to the capitulum and trochlea?

The attachment sites are the medial epicondyle and the lateral epicondyle.

What forms the sacroiliac joint?

The auricular surface of the ilium joins the sacrum to form the scaroiliac joint.

What are the parts and general functions of the axial skeleton?

The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body. It protects the brain, the spinal cord, and the vital organs housed within the thorax.

Why is the axis named the axis?

The axis is so named because the joint between the atlas and the axis allows for a significant amount of head rotation.

Where do the carotid arteries enter?

The carotid arteries enter the brain at the inferior opening one each carotid canal and then pass through each carotid canal, which run atneromedially through the petrous part.

What is the carotid canals?

The carotid canals are the major entry point for blood delivery to the brain.

What attaches to the sternum?

The cartilage of the second rib attaches to the sternum at the sternal angle.

What does the nasal cavity have?

The cavity has a rounded opening anteriorly and is separated into right and left halves by the nasal septum.

Where does the cervical region curve to?

The cervical region curves anteriorly.

What are the only bone connections between the pectoral girdle and the axial skeleton?

The clavicle articulates with the scapula and the sternum. On the lateral end it articulates with the acromion process. On the medial end it articulates with the manubrium of the sternum. These are the only bone connections between the pectoral girdle and the axial skeleton.

Describe how the upper and lower limbs are attached to the axial skeleton.

The clavicle is a long bone with a slight sigmoid (S-shaped) curve. It is easily seen and felt in the living human (see figure 7.26). It articulates with the scapula and the sternum. On the lateral end it articulates with the acromion process. On the medial end it articulates with the manubrium of the sternum. These are the only bony connections between the pectoral girdle and the axial sekeleton. Because the clavicle holds the upper limb away from the body, it facilitates the limb's mobility. The articular surface of the acetabulum is crescent-shaped and occupies only the superior and lateral aspects of the fossa. The pelvic girdle serves as the place of attachment for the lower limbs, supports the weight of the body, and protects internal organs. Because the pelvic girdle is a complete bony ring, it provides more stable support but less mobility than the incomplete ring of the pectoral girdle. In addition, the pelvis in a woman protects a developing fetus and forms a passageway through which the fetus passes during delivery.

What is the clavicle?

The clavicle is a long bone with a slight sigmoid (S-shaped) curve. It is easily seen and felt in the living human.

What characteristic of the coastal cartilage permit the thoracic cage to expand during respiration?

The coastal cartilages are flexible and permit the thoracic cage to expand during respiration.

What is the size of the coccygeal vertebrae?

The coccygeal vertebrae are much smaller than the outer vertebrae and have neither vertebral foramina nor well-developed processes.

How is the coccyx easily broken?

The coccyx is easily broken when a person falls by sitting down hard on a solid surface.

clavicle

The collarbone, between the sternum and scapula.

FIGURE 7.14 Vertebral Column

The complete vertebral column is viewed from the left side.

What are the rounded condyles of the femur called?

The condyles are called the medial condyle and the lateral condyle

What allows you to nod your head "yes"?

The connection between the occipital condyles and the superior articular facets forms a joint that allows you to nod your head "yes"

Can the iliac crest be seen?

The crest and anterior spine can be felt and even seen in thin individuals.

Where does the iliac crest end?

The crest ends anteriorly as the anterior superior iliac spine and posteriorly as the posterior superior iliac spine.

What is the crista galli?

The crest galli is a prominent superior ridge of the ethmoid bone. The crest galli is an attachment site for the meninges of the brain.

What do the cribriform plates contain?

The cribriform plates contain numerous foramina, called olfactory foramina, which allow olfactory nerves to enter the nasal cavity.

When do the curves of the vertebral column form?

The curves form during embryonic development.

What constitutes the sub scapular fossa?

The deep, anterior surface of the scapula constitutes the sub scapular fossa.

What is the deltoid tuberosity?

The deltoid tuberosity is the site of attachment of the deltoid muscle.

How many vertebrae does the developing embryo have?

The developing embryo has about 33 or 34 vertebrae, but by adult hood the 5 sacral vertebrae have fused to form 1 bone, and the 4 or 5 coccygeal bones usually have fuse to form 1 bone.

What does the diaphysis of the humerus have?

The diaphysis of the humerus has a noticeable lateral landmark.

What does the distal end of the humerus have?

The distal end of the humerus has several unique features where it articulates with the two forearm bones at the elbow.

What does distal end of the radius have?

The distal end of the radius also has a styloid process.

What do the distal ends of the metacarpal bones help form?

The distal ends of the metacarpal bones help form the nucleus of the hand.

What does the distal row of carpal bones, from medial to lateral include?

The distal row of carpal bones, from medial to lateral, includes (1) the hamate, which has a hooked process on its palmar side, called the hook of the hamate; (2) the head-shaped capitate; (3) the trapezoid, which is named for its resemblance to a four-sided geometric form with two parallel sides; and (4) the trapezium, which is named after a four-sided geometric form with no two sides parallel.

Whats the difference between the nasal cavity in a dried skull versus the opening in a living person?

The entrances of the nasal cavity in a dried skull are much larger than the openings in a living person. This is because the external nose is formed mostly of hyaline cartilage and will be absent from a dried skull.

What is the ethmoid bone?

The ethmoid bone is appropriately named because it is a very pores, fragile bone.

What is the external occipital protuberance attachment for?

The external occipital protuberance is the site of attachment of the ligaments nuchal, an elastic ligament that extends down the neck and helps keep the head erect by pulling on the occipital bone.

What do the facial bones do?

The facial bones protect the major sensory organs located in the face: the eyes, nose, and tongue.

What is the false pelvis formed by?

The false pelvis is formed by muscle overlying bone of the true pelvis.

Describe the female pelvis.

The female pelvis is broader and has a larger, more rounded pelvic inlet and outlet, consistent with the need to allow the fetus to pass through these opening in the female pelvis during childbirth.

What does the femur have?

The femur has a prominent, rounded head, where it articulates with the acetabulum. The femur also has. a well-defined neck.

What vertebrae fused into the sacrum?

The fifth lumbar vertebra or first coccygeal vertebra may become fused into the sacrum. Conversely, the first sacral vertebra may fail to fuse with the rest of the sacrum, resulting in six lumbar vertebrae.

What develops lumbar ribs?

The first lumbar vertebra may develop lumbar ribs.

What articulates with the manubrium?

The first rib and the clavicle articulate with the manubrium.

What bulges into the pelvic cavity?

The first sacral vertebra bulges anteriorly into the pelvic cavity. This bulge is called the sacral promontory.

What do the first two cervical vertebrae include?

The first two cervical vertebrae include (1) the atlas (C1) and (2) the axis.

What do the five digits include?

The five digits of each hand include one thumb (pollex) and four fingers.

What mnemonic has been developed to help students remember the carpal bones?

The following one represents them in order form lateral to medial for the proximal row (top) and from medial to lateral (by the thumb) for the distal row: Straight Line To Pinky, Here Comes The Thumb-that is, Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetrum, Pisiform, Hamate, Capitate, Trapezoid, and Trapezium.

What is the foramen laceum?

The foramen laceum is an easily noticeable opening in a dried skull at the border of the petrous part and the sphenoid bone. However, this foramen is only an artifact of the dried skull; in life, this opening is closed off by cartilage.

What do the foramen rotundum and foramen ovale provide?

The foramen rotundum and foramen oval are passageways for blood vessels and nerves that supply structures of the face.

How many bones does the forearm have?

The forearm has two bones: (1) the ulna and (2) the radius.

What is the median sacral crest?

The former spinous processes, now partially fused, form a ridge along the posteriomedial surface called the median sacral crest.

What else does the frontal bone contain?

The frontal bone also contains the frontal sinus, one of the paranasal sinuses.

What is the frontal bone connected to?

The frontal bone is connected to the two parietal bones by the coronal suture.

What is the frontal bone most well known as?

The frontal bone is most well known at the "forehead."

What helps form a portion of the bridge of the nose?

The frontal processes of the maxilla help form a portion of the bridge of the nose.

What is the general pattern of the lower limb?

The general pattern of the lower limb is very similar to that of the upper limb, except that the pelvic girdle is attached much more firmly to the body than the pectoral girdle is and the bones in general are thicker, heavier, and longer than those of the upper limb. These structures reflect the function of the lower limb in supporting and moving the body.

What is the gluteal tuberosity?

The gluteal tuberosity is the location of attachment of the buttock muscle, the gluteus Maximus.

Where is the greater sciatic notch?

The greater sciatic notch is on the posterior side of the ilium, just inferior to the posterior inferior iliac spine.

What do the greater trochanter and its attached muscles form?

The greater trochanter and its attached muscles form a bulge that can be seen as the widest part of the hips.

Where is the greater trochanter?

The greater trochanter lateral to the neck

Where do the hip bones join each other?

The hip bones join each other anteriorly and connect with the sacrum posteriorly forming a complete circle of bone.

What articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula?

The humeral head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula.

What makes the hyoid bone unique

The hyoid bone has the unique distinction of being the only bone in the body not directly attached to another bone. It has no direct bony attachment to the skull.

What is the hyoid bone?

The hyoid bone is important for speech and swallowing.

Where is the hyoid bone located? Why is it a unique bone? What are its functions?

The hyoid bone is important for speech and swallowing. Some tongue muscles as well as neck muscles that elevate the larynx attach to the hyoid. The hyoid bone is unpaired, and is often listed as part of the facial bones. However, it is not part of the adult skull. The hyoid bone has the unique distinction of being the only bone in the body not directly attached to another bone. It has no direct bony attachment to the skull. Instead, muscles and ligaments attach it to the skull, so the hyoid is embedded in soft tissue in the neck just below the mandible.

What are the intervertebral foramina?

The intervertebral are the locations where two vertebrae meet.

What do intervertebral disk provide?

The intervertebral disk provide support and cushion to the vertebral bodies.

What do the intervertebral disk consist of?

The intervertebral disks consist of an external annulus fibrosis and an internal, gelatinous nucleus pulpous.

What does the ischium also have?

The ischium also has a a posterior ischial spine, a site of ligament attachment.

What do the jaws posses?

The jaws (mandible and maxillae) posses alveolar processes with sockets for tooth attachment.

What do the lesser wings of the sphenoid bone form?

The lesser wings of the sphenoid bone form a ridge on each side of the optic canals. This ridge separates the anterior cranial fossa from the middle cranial fossa.

Distinguish between the lower limb and the leg.

The lower limb is the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal bones, metatarsal bones, and phalanges. The leg is just the tibia and the fibula.

What do the lower limbs articulate with?

The lower limbs articulate with the pelvic girdle in the acetabulum.

What do the lower limbs do for the body?

The lower limbs support the body and are essential for normal standing, walking, and running.

Why are the lumbar vertebrae more massive than the cervical vertebrae? Describe some expected differences between the vertebrae of a person who engages in regular vigorous physical exercise and those of a person who never exercises.

The lumbar vertebrae is more massive than the cervical vertebrae because of its location and what it supports. Vertebrae of people who exercise vigorously may have a spine that is more susceptible to sever injury versus those who do not will have a healthier spine.

FIGURE 7.7 Anterior View of the Skull

The major structures seen from the anterior view are the frontal bone, the zygomatic bones, the maxilla, and the mandible. (The names of the bones are in bold.)

Describe the difference between a male and a female pelvis.

The male pelvis is usually more massive than the female pelvis as a result of the greater weight and size of the male body. The female pelvis is broader and has a larger, more rounded pelvic inlet and outlet, consistent with the need to allow the fetus to pass through these openings in the female pelvis during childbirth.

What is the mandible?

The mandible (lower jaw) is the only skull bone that is freely movable relative to the other skull bones.

What are the two main parts of the mandible?

The mandible has two main parts: (1) the body and (2) the ramus (branch).

What do the maxillae form?

The maxillae are two of the three jaw bones, and form (1) the upper jaw, (2) the majority of the roof of the mouth, and (3) the center portion of the face.

FIGURE 7.44 Bones of the Right Foot

The medial longitudinal arch is formed by the calcaneus, the talus, the navicular, the cuneiforms, and three medial metatarsal bones. The lateral longitudinal arch is formed by the calcaneus, the cuboid, and two lateral metatarsal bones. The transverse arch is formed but he cuboid and the cuneiforms.

What does the medial side of the ilium consist of?

The medial side of the ilium consists of a large depression called the iliac fossa.

How are the metatarsal bones and phalanges of the foot arranged?

The metatarsal bones and phalanges of the foot are arranged in a manner very similar to that of the metacarpal bones and phalanges of the hand, with the great toe (hallux) comparable to the thumb.

Describe the bones of the foot. How many phalanges are in each toe?

The metatarsal bones and phalanges of the foot are arranged in a manner very similar to that of the metacarpal bones and phalanges of the hand, with the great toe (hallux) comparable to the thumb. Small sesamoid bones often form in the tendons of muscle attached to the great toe. The ball of the foot is the junction between the metatarsal bones and the phalanges. Three phalanges in each toe and 2 phalanges in the big toe.

What is the vertebral prominent?

The most prominent spinous process in this area is called the vertebral prominens. This is usually the spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebra, but it may be that of the six cervical vertebra or even the first thoracic.

A direct blow to the nose may result in a "broken nose." List at least three bones that may be broken.

The nasal bone, the lacrimal bone and the frontal process of the maxilla

What bones form the bridge of the nose?

The nasal bones, along with the frontal processes of the maxillae, form the bride of the nose.

Name the bones and cartilage that compose the nasal septum.

The nasal cavity has a rounded opening anteriorly and is separated into right and left halves by the nasal septum. The posterior part of the nasal septum consists primarily of the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone as discussed earlier and the vomer bone to be discussed with the facial bones. Hyaline cartilage forms the anterior part of the nasal septum. The entrances to the nasal cavity in a dried skull are much larger than the openings in a living person. This is because the external nose is formed mostly of hyaline cartilage and will be absent from a dried skull. The only visible portions of the external nose in a dried. skull are (1) the two nasal bones and (2) the maxilla.

Where does the nasolacrimal duct pass through?

The nasolacrimal duct passes from the orbit into the nasal cavity through the nasolacrimal canal, carrying tears from the eyes to the nasal cavity, which is why you often need to blow your nose when you cry.

Where is the neck of the rib?

The neck of the rib is between the head and tubercle.

What does the occipital bone make up?

The occipital bone makes up the majority of the skull's posterior wall and base.

What structured allows the brainstem to connect to the spinal cord?

The occipital bone makes up the majority of the skull's posterior wall and base. Its most prominent feature is the foramen magnum (large hole), the opening where the brainstem connects to the spinal cord. This region also forms the posterior cranial fossae that support the cerebellum of the brain.

What are the occipital condyles?

The occipital condyles are the points of articulation between the skull and the first cervical vertebra.

What are the special features of the hyoid bone?

The only bone in the body that does not articulate with another bone. Attached to the skull by muscles and ligaments.

What are the special features of the mandible?

The only bone in the skull that is freely movable relative to the rest of the skull bones Holds the lower teeth

What are the visible portions of the external nose in a dried skull?

The only visible portions of the external nose in a dried skull are (1) the two nasal bones and (2) the maxilla.

What is the optic canal?

The optic canal is the passageway for the optic nerve to enter the brain from the eyes.

Where does the optic nerve pass from?

The optic nerve for vision passes from the eye through the optic canal and enters the cranial cavity.

What do the paired parietal bones form?

The paired parietal bones form nearly half of the superior portion of the skull.

What do the palatine bones have?

The palatine bones have horizontal plates that fuse medially to form the posterior portion of the hard palate as describe earlier with the maxillae.

FIGURE 7.4 Posterior View of the Skull

The parietal and occipital bones are the major structures visible in the posterior view of the skull. (The names of the bones are in bold.)

FIGURE 7.5 Right Lateral View of the Skull

The parietal bone and the squamous part of the temporal bone form a major portion of the side of the head. (The names of the bones are in bold.)

Describe the function of the patella.

The patella articulates with the patellar groove of the femur to create a smooth articular surface over the anterior distal end of the femur. The patella holds the tendon away from the distal end of the femur.

What does the patella articulate with?

The patella articulates with the patellar groove of the femur to create a smooth articulate surface over the anterior distal end of the femur.

What does the patella hold?

The patella holds the tendon away from the distal end of the femur.

What is the patella?

The patella, or kneecap, is a large sesamoid bone located within he tendon of the quadriceps femurs muscle group, which is the major muscle group of the anterior thigh.

Name the bones that make up the pectoral girdle. Describe their functions.

The pectoral girdle consists of two pairs of bones that attach each of the upper limbs to the body: Each pair is composed of a scapula, commonly known as the shoulder blade, and a clavicle, commonly known as the collarbone. The scapula is flat, triangular bone that can easily be seen and felt in a living person. The base of the triangle, the superior border, faces superiorly; the apex, the inferior angle, is directed inferiorly. At the tip of the shoulder, there is the large acromion process of the scapula. The acromion process has three functions: (1) to form a protective cover for the shoulder joint, (2) to form the attachment site for the clavicle, and (3) to provide attachment points for some of the shoulders muscles. The scapular spine extends from the acromion process across the posterior surface of the scapula. The scapular spine divides the posterior of the scapula into (1) a small supraspinous fossa superior to the spine and (2) a larger infraspinous fossa inferior to the spine. The deep, anterior surface of the scapula consitutes the subscapular fossa. The smaller coracoid (crow's beak) process provides attachments for some shoulder and arm muscles. A glenoid cavity, located in the superior lateral portion of the bone, articulates with the head of the humerus. Th clavicle is a long bone with a slight sigmoid (S-shaped) curve. It is easily seen and felt in the living human. It articulates with the scapula and the sternum. On the lateral end it articulates with the acromion process. On the medial end it articulates with the manubrium of the sternum. These are the only bony connections between the pectoral girdle and the axial skeleton. Because the clavicle holds the upper limb away from the body, it facilitates the limb's mobility.

Describe the structure of the hip bone. What articulations does the hip bone make?

The pelvic girdle is formed by the two hip bones (coal bones) and the sacrum. The hip bones join each other anteriorly and connect with the sacrum posteriorly forming a complete circle of bone. The pelvis includes the pelvic girdle and the coccyx. Each hip bone is formed from three separate bones fused into a large bony plate: (1) the ilium, (2) the ischium, and (3) the pubis. The three individual bone converge near the center of the hip socket, called the acetabulum. The lower limbs articulate with the pelvic grind in the acetabulum.

What forms the pelvic girdle?

The pelvic girdle is formed by the two hip bones (coxal bones) and the sacrum.

What does the pelvic girdle serve as?

The pelvic girdle serves as the place of attachment for the lower limbs, supports the weight of the body, and protects internal organs.

What does the pelvis in a woman protect?

The pelvis in a woman protects a developing fetus and forms a passageway through which the fetus passes during delivery.

What does the pelvis include?

The pelvis includes the pelvic girdle and the coccyx.

What is the pelvis subdivided into?

The pelvis is subdivided into a true pelvis and a false pelvis.

What odes the perpendicular plate form?

The perpendicular plate forms the superior portion of the nasal septum, which divides the nasal cavity into right and left halves.

Describe the petrous part of the temporal bone?

The petrous part of the temporal bone extends posterolaterally form the center of the sphenoid bone. The petrous part, together with the sphenoid bone make up the middle cranial fossa, which contains the temporal lobes of the brain. The petrous part is a thick, bony ridge, is hollow, and houses the middle and inner ears. The internal acoustic meatus is located on the posteromedial surface of the petrous part and is the opening for a nerve controlling hearing and balance.

What does the portion of the radius articulate with?

The portion of the radius that articulates with the humerus is the head.

Name the important sites of muscle attachment on the humerus.

The proximal end of the humerus has two prominent landmarks, both sites of muscle attachment: (1) Laterally, it is the greater tubercle. (2) Anteriorly, it is the lesser tubercle. Between the greater and lesser tubercle isa groove called the intertubercular (bicipital) groove. The inter tubercular groove contains one of the two biceps brachia tendons. The diaphysis of the humerus has a noticeable lateral landmark. The deltoid tuberosity is the site of attachment of the deltoid muscle. The distal end of the humerus has several unique features where it articulates with the two forearm bones at the elbow. Laterally, the humerus articulates with the radius. This location is called the capitulum. Medially, the humerus articulates with the ulna. This location is called the trochlea. Forearm muscles attach to the humerus just superior to the capitulum and trochlea. The attachment sites are the medial epicondyle and the lateral epicondyle.

What does the proximal row of carpal bones, lateral to medial include?

The proximal row of carpal bones, lateral to medial, includes (1) the scaphoid, which is boat-shaped; (2) the lunate, which is moon shaped; (3) the three-cornered triquetrum; and (4) the pea-shaped pisiform, which is located on the palmar surface of the triquetrum.

List the eight carpal bones. What is the carpal tunnel?

The proximal row of carpal bones, lateral to medial, includes (1) the schaphoid, which is boat-shaped; (2) the lunate, which is moon-shaped; (3) the three-cornered triquetrum; and (4) the pea-shaped pisiform, which is located on the palmar surface of the triquetrum. The distal row of carpal bones, from medial to lateral, includes (1) the hamate, which has a hooked process on its palmar side, called the hook of the hamate; (2) the head-shaped capitate; (3) the trapezoid, which is named for its resemblance to a four-sided geometric form with two parallel sides; and (4) the trapezium, which is name after a four-sided geometric form with no two sides parallel.

What are the two projections of the proximal shaft?

The proximal shaft exhibits two projections: a greater trochanter lateral to the neck and a smaller, lesser trochanter inferior and posterior to the neck.

What is the function of the greater trochanter? The lesser trochanter?

The proximal shaft exhibits two projections: a greater trochanter lateral to the neck and a smaller, lesser trochanter inferior and posterior to the neck. Both trochanters are attachment sites for muscles that fasten the hip to the thigh. The greater trochanter and its attached muscles form a bulge that can be seen as the widest part of the hips.

What does the pubis form?

The pubis forms the anterior portion of the pelvic girdle.

Name the important sites of muscle attachment on the pelvis.

The pubis forms the anterior portion of the pelvic girdle. The two pubic bones are joined by the pubic symphysis, a thick pad of fibrocartilage. Abdominal muscles attach to the pubic crest, a medial ridge. Laterally, where the pubic crest ends, is the pubic tubercle, the attachment site of the inguinal ligament. At the point of fusion with the ischium, the two bone surround the noticeable obturator foramen. However, in a living person, only a few nerves and blood vessels pass through; it is otherwise closed by a ligament. The pelvis is subdivided into a true pelvis and a false pelvis. The opening to the true pelvis is the pelvic inlet, and the inferior opening of the true pelvis is the pelvic outlet. The false pelvis is formed by muscle overlying bone of the true pelvis.

What does the radial head rotate against?

The radial head rotates against the radial notch of the ulna when the forearm supinates (turn the hand "palm up") and pronates (turn the hand "palm down").

Where is the radius?

The radius is lateral, the same side as the thumb.

Where is the ramus?

The ramus branches from the body at the mandibular angle and projects superiorly toward the temporal bone.

What does the ramus join?

The ramus joins the temporal bone by way of the articulation of the mandibular condyle with the mandibular fossa.

What does the reduction in thickness of the intervertebral disk decrease?

The reduction in thickness of the intervertebral disks actually decreases the height of a person. So we really can shrink as we age!

What creates a smooth articular facet?

The region of overlap and articulation between the superior and inferior articular processes creates a smooth articular facet on each articular process.

What is the sacrum located between?

The sacrum is located between the two hip bones.

What is the sacrum apart of?

The sacrum is part of the pelvic girdle, which provides stable support for our lower limbs. The pelvic girdle's will be described more fully with the appendicular skeleton.

What is the scapula?

The scapula is a flat, triangular bone that can easily be seen and felt in a living person.

What does the scapular spine divide?

The scapular spine divides the posterior of the scapula into (1) small suprasinous fossa superior to the spine and (2) a larger infraspinous fossa inferior to the spine.

Where does the scapular spine extend from?

The scapular spine extends from the acromion process across the posterior surface of the scapula.

Where does the sciatic nerve pass through?

The sciatic nerve passes through the greater sciatic notch.

What does the shape of the sphenoid bone resemble?

The shape of this prominence resembles a saddle, called the sella turcica.

What are the major functions of the sinuses?

The sinuses have two major functions: (1) they decrease the weight of the skull and (2) they act as a resonating chamber when speaking. Compare the sound of your voice during a head cold to its sound normally.

What does the skull consist of?

The skull consists of 8 cranial bones and 14 facial bones, a total of 22 bones.

What does the smaller coracoid process provide?

The smaller coracoid process provides attachments for some shoulder and arm muscles.

What are the spaces between the metacarpal bones occupied by?

The spaces between the metacarpal bones are occupied by soft tissue.

Can the spinous process be seen?

The spinous process can be seen and felt as a series of rounded projections down the midline of the back.

What makes the spinous process distinguishable?

The spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebra, which is not bifid, is quite pronounced and often can be seen and felt as a rounded projection between the shoulders.

Describe the squamous part of the temporal bone?

The squamous part of each temporal bone meets the parietal bone superiorly. The zygomatic process extends from the squamous part anteriorly toward the zygomatic bone of the face. It joins with the temporal process of the zygomatic bone to form the zygomatic arch, a bridge across the side of the skull. Note that bone processes are named for the bones to which they extend. The zygomatic process has an oval-shaped fossa on the inferior side, called the mandibular fossa. The mandibular fossa is the articulation site of the mandible. When chewing, the. zygomatic arch is quite evident to the touch. Occasionally, a person will experience intense pain in the jaw while eating and may have trouble fully opening and closing their mouth. This can be due to temporomanduibular joint disorder (TMJ), inflammation to the joint at the mandibular fossa.

What are the parts of the sternum? Name the structures that attach to the sternum.

The sternum, or breast bone, has been described as sword-shaped and has three parts: (1) The manubrium is the "sword handle"; (2) the body, or gladiolus (sword), is the "blade"; and (3) the xiphoid process is the "sword tip." The superior margin of the manubrium has a jugular notch in the midline, which can be easily felt at the anterior base of the neck. The first rib and the clavicle articulate with the manubrium. The point at which the manubrium joins the body of the sternum can be felt as a prominence on the anterior thorax called the sternal angle. The cartilage of the second rib attaches to the sternum at the sternal angle, the third through seventh ribs attach to the body of the sternum, and no ribs attach to the xiphoid process.

What is the sternum described as?

The sternum, or breastbone, has been described as sword-shaped and has three parts.

What does the styloid process of the radius serve as?

The styloid process of the radius is lateral and also serves as an attachment location for wrist ligaments.

Where do the superior articular facets of the lumbar vertebrae face?

The superior articular facets face medially.

Where do the superior articular facets face?

The superior articular facets face superiorly.

What does the superior border of each of the orbits contain?

The superior border of each of the orbits contains a supraorbital foramen, or notch, which allows passage of a blood vessel and nerve for the eyelids and eye.

What does the superior margin of the manubrium have?

The superior margin of the manubrium has a jugular notch in the midline, which can be easily felt at the anterior base of the neck.

Why is the surgical neck named what it is?

The surgical neck is so name because it is a common fracture site that often require surgical repair.

What do the tarsal bones include?

The tarsal bones include: (1) the talus, (2) the calcaneus, (3) the navicular, (4-6) the medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiforms and (7) the cuboid.

What are the three main regions that the temporal bone is subdivided into?

The temporal bone is subdivided into three main regions: (1) the squamous part, (2) the tympanic part, and (3) the petrous part.

What is the function of the thoracic cage? Distinguish among true, false, and floating ribs, and give the number of each type.

The thoracic cage, commonly called the rib cage, protects the heart and lungs within the thorax. It forms a semirigid chamber, which can increase and decrease in volume during respiration. It consist of (1) the thoracic vertebrae, (2) the ribs with their associated costal (rib) cartilages, and (3) the sterunum. There are 12 pairs of ribs. Ribs are classified as either true ribs or false ribs. Ribs 1-7 are called true ribs. True ribs attach directly through costal cartilage to the sternum. Ribs 8-12 are called false ribs because they do not attach directly to the sternum. the false ribs consist of two groups. Ribs 8-10 are joined by a common cartilage to the costal cartilage of rib 7, which in turn is attached to the sternum. Two of the false ribs, ribs 11 and 12, are also called floating ribs because they do not attach to the sternum. The costal cartilages are flexible and permit the thoracic cage to expand during respiration. A dislocation between a rib and its costal cartilage is called a separated rib. A separated rib is very painful because it can move, and overlap adjacent ribs. Separation of rib 10 is the most common.

Which bone is larger in the leg?

The tibia is the larger of the two and is the major weight-bearing bone of the leg.

What is the function of the tibial tuberosity?

The tibial tuberosity is the point of attachment for the quadriceps femoris muscle group.

What is the tibial tuberosity?

The tibial tuberosity is the point of attachment for the quadriceps femoris muscle group.

Explain why modern ski boots designs with high tops the extend partway up the leg.

The top of modern ski boots is placed high up the leg to make the weakest point of the fibula less susceptible to great strain during a fall. Modern ski boots are also designed to reduce ankle mobility, which increases comfort and performance.

What does the tubercle of the rib articulate with?

The tubercle of the rib articulates with the transverse process of the inferior vertebra.

What joins the two parietal bones?

The two parietal bones are joined medially by the sagittal suture and are connected to the occipital bone by the lambdoid suture.

What structures allows sound waves to reach the eardrum?

The tympanic part of the temporal bone has the prominent external acoustic meatus (external auditory canal), which transmits sound waves toward the eardrum, or tympanic membrane. The external ear surrounds the external acoustic meatus.

Where do the ulna and radius articulate?

The ulna and radius articulate with the humerus at the elbow joint.

What is the upper limb capable of?

The upper limb is capable of a wide range of movements, including throwing, lifting, grasping, pulling, and touching.

What is the vertebral arch?

The vertebral arch, along with the body, protects the spinal cord.

What is the vertebral body?

The vertebral body, the solid bony disk of each vertebra, supports the body's weight.

What is the sacral canal?

The vertebral canal is called the sacral canal through the sacrum.

What are the functions of the vertebral column?

The vertebral column performs five major functions: (1) It supports the weight of the head and trunk, (2) it protects the spinal cord, (3) it allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord, (4) it provides a site for muscle attachment, and (5) it permits movement of the head and trunk.

What are the functions of the vertebral column?

The vertebral column performs five major functions: (1) It supports the weight of the head and trunk, (2) it protects the spinal cord, (3) it allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord, (4) it provides a site for muscle attachment, and (5) it permits movement of the head and trunk. The vertebral column usually consist of 26 bones, called vertebrae, which can be divided into five regions: 7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae , 5 lumbar vertebrae, 1 sacral bone, and 1 coccygeal bone. For convenience, each of the five regions is identified by a letter, and the vertebrae within each region are numbered: C1-C7, T1-T12, L1-L5, S, and CO. You can remember the number of vertebrae in the nonfused regions of the vertebral column by remembering mealtimes: 7, 12, and 5. The developing embryo has about 33 or 34 vertebrae, but by adulthood the 5 sacral vertebrae have fused to form 1 bone, and the 4 or 5 coccygeal bones usually have fused to form 1 bone.

What does the vertebral column usually consist of?

The vertebral column usually consists of 26 bones, called vertebrae, which can be divided in to five region.

Name and give the number of vertebrae in each of the five regions of the vertebral column. Describe the characteristics that distinguish the different regions of vertebrae.

The vertebral column usually consists of 26 bones, called vertebrae, which can be divided into five regions: 7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar vertebrae, 1 sacral bone, and 1 coccygeal bone. For convenience, each of the five regions is identified by a letter, and the vertebrae within each region are numbered: C1-C7, T1-T12, L1-L5, S, and CO. You can remember the number of vertebrae in the confused regions of the vertebral column by remembering mealtimes: 7, 12, and 5. The developing embryo has about 33 or 34 vertebrae, but by adulthood the 5 sacral vertebrae have fused to form 1 bone, and the 4 or 5 coccygeal bones usually have fused to form 1 bone.

What are the five regions of the vertebrae?

The vertebral column usually consists of 26 bones, called vertebrae, which can be divided into five regions; 7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar, 1 sacral bone, and 1 coccygeal bone.

What combines to form the vertebral canal?

The vertebral foramina of adjacent vertebrae combine to form the vertebral canal, which contains the entire spinal cord and caudal equina.

Where are the vertical plates?

The vertical plates project superiorly to form a small portion of the orbit and nasal cavity.

What does the vomer form?

The vomer forms most of the posterior portion of the nasal septum and can be seen between the medial pterygoid plates of the sphenoid bone in the center of the nasal cavity.

Parietal eminence

The widest part of the head is from one parietal eminence to the other.

What is the wrist?

The wrist is a relatively short region between the forearm and the hand; it is composed of eight carpal bones arrange into two rows of four each.

What are the zygomatic bones?

The zygomatic bones, commonly known as the cheekbones, are anterior to the sphenoid bone.

FIGURE 7.2 Bone Shapes

There are four main bone shapes: long, short, flat and irregular.

Name the four major sutures of the skull and the bones they connect.

There are four principal sutures: (1) coronal, (2) sagittal, (3) lambdoid, and (4) squamous. The frontal bone is connected to the two parietal bones by the coronal suture. The two parietal bones are joined medially by the sagittal suture and are connected to the occipital bone by the lambdoid suture. The temporal bones are connected to the skull by the squamous sutures.

Name the seven tarsal bones. Which bones form the ankle joint? What bone forms the heel?

There are seven tarsal bones. The tarsal bones include: (1) the talus, (2) the calcaneus, (3) the navicular, (4-6) the medial, intermediate, and the lateral cuneiforms, and (7) the cuboid. The ankle consists of the distal ends of the tibia and fibula forming a partial socket that articulates with a bone of the foot (the talus). A prominence can be seen on each side of the ankle. These are the medial malleolus of the distal tibia and the lateral malleolus of the distal fibula. The calcaneus forms the heel.

What are unique features of these two bones?

There are several unique features of these two bones at the site of attachment to the humerus.

How many foramina are on the inferior side of the petrous part?

There are three additional important foramina on the inferior side of the petrous part.

What are the three fossae that are formed?

There are three fossae that are formed as the developing cranium conforms to the shape of the brain. The three fossae include: 1. The anterior cranial fossa, which is formed by regions of the frontal bone, the ethmoid bone, and the lesser wings of the sphenoid bone. The anterior cranial fossae house the frontal lobes of the brain. 2. The middle cranial fossa encompasses the area from the posterior portion of the lesser wings of the sphenoid bone to the petrous part of the temporal bone. It is bordered laterally by the parietal bones. The temporal lobes of the brain rest in this fossa. 3. The posterior cranial fossa is bordered anteriorly by the posterior portion of the petrous part of the temporal bone, posteriorly by the occipital bone, and laterally by the parietal bone. The cerebellum and a portion of the brainstem are located in this fossa.

How many rounded projections are there that rotate on the superior surface of the tibia?

There are two smooth rounded projections that rotate not the superior surface of the tibia when we bend our knee.

What do the zygomatic bones form?

There they form part of the inferiolateral border of the orbits.

What do the facial bone provide?

These bones also provide attachment point for muscles controlling mastication, facial expression associated with our emotions, and eye movements.

What do the 14 facial bones form?

These bones, in addition to two cranial bones (the frontal and ethmoid bones), form the structure of the face in the anterior of the skull.

What exits the invertebrate foramen?

These foramina are where spinal nerves exit the spinal cord.

What do the maxillary bone join to form?

These join medially to form the anterior two-thirds of the hard palate, or the roof of the mouth.

What do the superior temporal line and the inferior temporal line serve as?

These lines serve as attachment sites for the temporals muscle, a major mastication (chewing) muscle.

Describe the length of cervical ribs.

These ribs may be tiny pieces of bone or may be long enough to reach the sternum.

What are the sites that articulate the head of a rib with the bodies and intervertebral disks?

These sites of articulation are called the inferior articular facet on the superior vertebra and the superior articular fact on the inferior vertebra.

Why are these spinal curvatures important?

These spinal curvatures help accommodate our upright posture by aligning our body weight with our pelvis and lower limbs.

What are the two rounded projections that rotate on the superior surface of the tibia?

These two rounded projections are (1) the medial condyle and (2) the lateral condyle.

What does the thoracic vertebrae have?

These vertebrae have the longest spinous processes, which project inferiorly. In addition, their transverse processes are longer than others and the first 10 posses articular facets for the tubercles of the ribs.

Why are they called orbits?

They are called the orbits because the eyes rotate within the fossae.

What are the metacarpal bones numbered?

They are numbered one to five, starting with the most lateral metacarpal bone, at the base of the thumb.

Body

Thickest part of the bone; articulates with the occipital bone

Lamina

Thin plate--for example, the inner portion of the vertebral arch.

What do the occipital condyles that are the points of articulation between the skull and the first cervical vertebra allow?

This articulation partly allows for nodding "yes."

When does whiplash occur?

This commonly occurs in "rear-end" automobile accidents and athletic injuries, in which the body is quickly forced forward while the head remains stationary.

What makes the mobility of throwing a fast ball possible?

This mobility is possible because the muscles attach the upper limb and its girdle rather loosely to the rest of the body.

Is the mastoid process solid bone?

This process is not solid bone, but is filled with cavities called mastoid air cells, which are connected to the middle ear and can sometimes become infected, causing mastoiditis.

What are the three paired foramina that are located on either side of the sella turcica?

Three additional paired foramina are located on either side of the sella turcica: (1) the foramen rotundum, (2) the foramen oval, and (3) the foramen spinosum.

What do the nasal conchae do?

Together, the three nasal conchae increase the surface area in the nasal cavity, thereby facilitating moistening of and removal of particles from air in the nasal cavity, and warming of the air inhaled through the nose.

What do the vertebral arch and body form?

Together, the vertebral arch and the body form a complete bony circle enclosing the vertebral foramen, which is occupied by the spinal cord in a living person.

What are the arches of the foot?

Two longitudinal arches extend from the heel to the ball of the foot, and a transverse arch extends across the foot.

State the bone features where the following muscles attach to the skull: neck muscles, throat muscles, muscles of mastication, muscles of facial expression, and muscles that moves the eyeballs.

Two sets of muscle attachment sites, the superior temporal line and the inferior temporal line, arch across the lateral surface of the parietal bone. These lines serve as attachment sites of for the temporals muscle, a major mastication (chewing) muscle. Externally, the mastoid process is a large, bony inferior projection that can be seen and felt just posterior to the external ear. This process is not solid bone, but is filled with cavities called mastoid air cells, which are connected to the middle ear and can sometimes become infected, causing mastoiditis. Neck muscles that rotate the head attach to the mastoid process. The stylomastoid foramen is located between the styloid process and mastoid process and allows for passage of a nerve controlling facial muscles. The lesser wings are the superior border of the superior orbital fissure, where cranial nerves controlling eye movement enter the orbit. The hyoid bone is important for speech and swallowing. Some tongue muscles as well as neck muscles that elevate the larynx attach to the hyoid.

What portions of the vertebrae help support the body's weight and protects the spinal cord?

Two specific portions of the vertebrae help support the body's weight and protect the spinal cord. The vertebral body, the solid bony disk of each vertebra, supports the body's weigh. The vertebral arch, along with the body, protects the spinal cord.

Where do the spinal nerves exit the vertebral column?

Two specific portions of the vertebrae help support the body's weight and protect the spinal cord. The vertebral body, the solid bony disk of each vertebra, supports the body's weight. The vertebral arch, along with the body, protects the spinal cord. The vertebral arch and the body form a complete bony circle enclosing the vertebral foramen, which is occupied by the spinal cord in a living person. The vertebral foramina of adjacent vertebrae combine to form the vertebral canal, which contains the entire spinal cord and cauda equina.

FIGURE 7.6 Lateral View of the Face

View of bony landmarks on the lateral surface of the face.

What adds strength to the inferior portion of the vertebral column and limits rotation of the lumbar vertebrae?

When the superior articular surface of one lumbar vertebra joins the inferior articulating surface of another lumbar vertebra, the resulting arrangement adds strength to the inferior portion of the vertebral column and limits rotation of the lumbar vertebrae.

What are the four distinct parts of the sphenoid bone?

When viewed as a whole, the sphenoid bone somewhat resembles a butterfly with four distinct parts: (1) a central body, (2) a pair of processes called greater wings, (3) a pair of processes called the lesser wings, and (4) inferior processes called pterygoid processes.

What is whiplash?

Whiplash is a traumatic hyperextension of the cervical vertebrae.

zygomatic

Yoking or joining; bony arch created by the junction of the zygomatic and temporal bones.

How can you remember the number of vertebrae?

You can remember the number of vertebrae in the confused regions of the vertebral column by remembering mealtimes, 7, 12, and 5.

Scoliosis

is an abnormal lateral and rotational curvature of the vertebral column.

Lordosis

is an exaggerating of the convex curve of the lumbar region.

Kyphosis

is an exaggeration of the concave curve of the thoracic region.

carpal

Bone of the wrist.

Area: Pelvic outlet

Broader and more shallow in females

Mastoid

Resembling a breast.

Bone: Sphenoid

Part of Nasal Cavity: Roof

Lamina

Posterior part of the arch; forms the posterior wall of the vertebral foramen

What is the nasal septum?

A large portion of the nasal cavity, as well as the medial wall of the orbits.

Vertical plate

Forms part of the nasal septum

Openings: Foramen

Description: Hole Example: Foramen magnum of occipital bone

What forms the orbits?

Portions of multiple bones converge to form the orbits.

What are the three parts of the sternum?

(1) The manubrium is the "sword handle"; (2) the body, or gladiolus (sword), is the "blade"; and (3) the xiphoid process is the "sword tip."

Sternum

Breastbone

Angle

Description: Bend Example: Mandibular angle

Orbital surface

Forms the floor of the orbit

scapula

Bone forming the shoulder blade.

What are the special features of the nasal bone?

Forms the ridge of the nose

Margin, border

Description: Edge Example: Lateral border of scapula

What is the main part of the rib?

The body is the main part of the rib.

acromion

Bone comprising the tip of the shoulder.

Squamous part

Flat, lateral portion of the temporal bone

Process

Projection on a bone.

Orbital plate

Roof of the orbit

Mandibular fossa

Articulation point between the mandible and skull

Oblique line

Ridge from the anterior edge of the ramus onto the body of the mandible

Maxillary tuberoisty

Rounded projection posterior to the last maxillary molar tooth

Frontal process

Connection to the frontal bone; helps form the lateral margin of the orbit

What happens to the intervertebral disk as a person ages?

As a person ages, the disk becomes more compressed, which decreases distance between vertebrae.

Zygomatic process

Connects to the zygomatic bone; helps form the lateral margin of the orbit.

Depressions: Fossa

Description: General term for a depression Example: Cranial fossa of humerus

What is the sacral hiatus?

At the inferior surface of the sacrum, there is an opening, called the sacral hiatus, which is the termination of the vertebral canal.

Projections: Hamulus

Description: Hook-shaped process Example: Pterygoid hamulus of sphenoid bone

Projections: Horns

Description: Horn-shaped process Example: Greater horn of hyoid bone

Depressions: Fovea

Description: Little pit Example: Fovea capitis of femur

What is a consequence of the lumbar vertebrae?

Consequently, they have the massive bodies and heavy, rectangular transverse and spinous processes.

FIGURE 7.18 Intervertebral Disk

(a) Lateral view

Explain how the superior and inferior articular processes help support and allow movement of the vertebral column.

.Movement and additional support of the vertebral column are made possible by the vertebral processes. Each vertebra has two superior and two inferior articular processes, with the superior processes of one vertebra articulating with he inferior processes of the next superior vertebra. Overlap of these processes increases the rigidity of the vertebral column. The region of overlap and articulation between the superior and inferior articular processes creates a smooth articular facet on each articular process.

Condyle

Description: Smooth, rounded articular surface Example: Lateral condyle of tibia

Projections: Trochanter

Description: Tuberosity on the proximal femur Example: Greater trochanter of femur

FIGURE 7.17 Surface View of the Back

A posterior view of the back showing the scapula and vertebral spinous processes.

What are the medial malleolus and the lateral malleolus?

A prominent can be seen on each side of the ankle. These are the medial malleolus of the distal tibia and the lateral malleolus of the distal fibula.

Why is a separated rib very painful?

A separated rib is very painful because it can move, and overlap adjacent ribs.

Why is the pelvic inlet and outlet routinely measured during prenatal pelvic examinations?

A smaller pelvic outlet can cause problems during delivery; thus the size of the pelvic inlet and outlet is routinely measured during prenatal pelvic examinations.

What does a transverse process extend to?

A transverse process extends laterally from each side of the arch between the lamina and the pedicle, and a single spinous process lies at the junction between the two laminae.

Phalanges

Bone of a finger or toe.

External Features: Nuchal lines

Bones on Which Feature is Found: Occipital Description: Attachment points for several posterior neck muscles.

External Features: Occipital condyle

Bones on Which Feature is Found: Occipital Description: Point of articulation between the skull and the vertebral column.

What does the exterior and the interior of the skull have?

Both the exterior and the interior of the skull have visible ridges and lines. Most of these are locations where head and neck muscles attach to the cranium.

Where is the neck and head of the femur located?

Both the head and neck of the femur are located at an oblique angle to its shaft.

What are the special features of the maxilla (right)?

Contains the maxillary sinus and maxillary teeth Forms part of nasolacrimal canal

Where are occipital condyles?

Externally, two rounded projection on either side of the foramen magnum are the occipital condyles.

Perpendicular plate

Forms the superior portion of the nasal septum

Vertical plate

Forms part of the lateral nasal wall

What forms the anterior part of the nasal septum?

Hyaline cartilage forms the anterior part of the nasal septum.

Optic canal

Opening through which the optic nerve (cranial nerve II) passes from the orbit to the cranial cavity

Internal auditory canal

Opening through which the facial (cranial nerve VII) and vestibulocochlear (cranial nerve VIII) nerves enter the petrous part of the temporal bone

Internally, what does the frontal bone form?

Internally, the frontal bone forms the anterior cranial fossa, which supports the frontal lobes of the brain.

Where do most ribs attach to?

Most ribs attach to the thoracic vertebrae in two locations.

What attaches to the xiphoid process?

No ribs attach to the xiphoid process.

Superior nasal concha

Ridge extending into the nasal cavity; increases surface area, helps warm and moisten air in the cavity.

Supraorbital margin

Ridge forming the anterior superior border of the orbit

Infraorbital margin

Ridge forming the inferior border of the orbit

What is the jugular foramina?

The jugular foramina allow the jugular veins to carry the majority of the blood away from the brain.

Pelvic girdle

Site of attachment of the lower limb to the trunk; ring of bone formed by the sacrum and the coxal bones.

What do some skull bones contain?

Some skull bones contain mucous membrane-lined air spaces called sinuses

What elevates the larynx and attach to the hyoid?

Some tongue muscles as well as neck muscles that elevate the larynx attach to the hyoid.

What is performed to relieve pain from a compressed spinal nerve root?

Sometimes a laminectomy is performed to relieve pain from a compressed spinal nerve root due to a herniated invertebrate disk or other vertebral injuries. A surgeon removes the lamina from the injured vertebra.

What do the bones of the cranium include?

The 8 bones of the cranium include: (1) the frontal bone, (2) the 2 parietal bones, (3) the 2 temporal bones, (4) the occipital bone, (5) the sphenoid bone, and (6) the ethmoid bone.

What are the functions of the acromion process?

The acromion process has three functions: (1) to form a protective cover of the shoulder joint, (2) to form the attachment site for the clavicle, and (3) to provide attachment points for some of the shoulder muscles.

How many curvatures does the adult vertebral column have?

The adult vertebral column has four major curvatures.

List the three arches of the foot, and describe their function.

The are three primary arches in the foot formed by the positions of the tarsal bones and metatarsal bones and held in place by ligaments. Two longitudinal arches extend from the heel to the ball of the foot, and a transverse arch extends across the foot. The transverse arch is located at the connection between the five metatarsal, the three cuneiforms, and the cuboid. The arches serve as an adjustable lever to assist in the two main functions of the foot: (1) to support the body in its upright position while standing in forward movement during walking and (2) to push the body forward during walking and to absorb shock when the foot contacts the ground. The arches function similarly to the springs of a car, allowing the foot to give and spring back.

How many bones does the arm contain?

The arm, the part of the upper limb from the shoulder to the elbow, contains only one bone, the humerus.

What does the femur articulate with?

The femur articulates with the tibia to form the knee.

What do the greater wings of the sphenoid bone form?

The greater wings of the sphenoid bone (1) form the floor of the middle cranial fossa, (2) are a part of the lateral skull wall, and (3) form the posterior wall of the orbits.

What do the hard and soft palates separate?

The hard and soft palates separate the nasal cavity from the mouth, enabling humans to chew and breathe at the same time.

How does whiplash occur?

The head is a heavy object at the end of a flexible column, and it may become hyperextended when the head "snaps back" as a result of sudden acceleration of the body.

What is head formed into?

The head is concave and is formed into a smooth cylinder of bone.

What do the heads of most ribs articulate with?

The head of most ribs articulates with the inferior articular facet of one vertebra and with the superior articular facet for the rib head on the next vertebra down.

Where does the head of the radius rotate over?

The head of the radius rotates over the capitulum of the humerus when bending the elbow.

What does the head of the ulna articulate with?

The head of the ulna articulates with both the radius and the wrist bones.

What are the lacrimal bones?

The lacrimal bones are the smallest of the skull bones and house the depression through which the nasolacrimal duct enters the nasolacrimal canal, joining the orbits and nasal cavity.

What is the largest of the three hip bones?

The larges of the three hip bones is the ilium.

What is the leg?

The leg is the part of the lower limb between the knee and the ankle.

What bones form the pelvic girdle? Explain why the pelvic girdle is more stable than the pectoral girdle? How does this stability affect movement?

The pelvic girdle is formed by the two hip bone (coxal bones) and the sacrum. The hip bones join each other anteriorly and connect with the sacrum posteriorly forming a complete circle of bone. The pelvis includes the pelvic girdle and the coccyx. The pelvic girdle serves as the place for attachment for the lower limbs, supports the weight of the body, and protects internal organs. Because the pelvic girdle is a complete bony ring, it provides more stable support but less mobility than the incomplete ring of the pectoral girdle.

FIGURE 7.21 Cervical Vertebrae

The posterior portion lies at the top of each superior view illustration. (a) Atlas (first cervical vertebra), superior and lateral view. (b) Axis (second cervical vertebra), superior and lateral view. (c) Atlas and axis articulated, superior view. (d) Fifth cervical vertebra, superior view. (e) Fifth cervical vertebra, lateral view. (f) Cervical vertebrae together from an anterolateral view.

What is the olecranon process?

The posterior surface of the proximal end of the ulna has a much larger process called the olecranon process. The olecranon process inserts into the olecranon fossa of the humerus when the elbow is straightened.

What muscle attaches to the coronoid process?

The powerful muscle of mastication, the temporalis muscle, attaches to the coronoid process.

What are the pterygoid processes?

The pterygoid processes, which extend inferiorly, are attachment sites for muscles of mastication.

Where do the rounded condyles of the femur rest?

The rounded condyles of the femur rest on flat condyles on the proximal end of the tibia.

Where do the sacral and coccygeal regions curve?

The sacral and coccygeal regions together curve posteriorly.

What is a common anesthesia injection site?

The sacral hiatus is a common anesthesia injection site.

What forms the sacrum?

The sacrum is formed from five separate sacral vertebrae that begin to fuse during adolescence resulting in a solid bony plate by the mid-20s.

What does the term girdle stand for?

The term girdle, which means "belt" or "zone," refers to the two zones where the limbs are attached to the body.

What does temporal mean?

The term temporal means "related to time"; the temporal bone's name is derived from the observation that the hair on the temples turns gray as a person ages.

What makes fractures of the lumbar vertebrae less common?

The thickness of the bodies makes fractures of the lumbar vertebrae less common.

What attaches to the body of the sternum?

The third through seventh ribs attach to the body of the sternum.

What is the thoracic cage commonly called?

The thoracic cage, commonly called the rib cage, protects the heart and lungs within the thorax.

What does the thoracic vertebrae support?

The thoracic vertebrae support the thoracic cage, which houses and protects the heart and lungs.

What do the ilium, the ischium, and the pubis converge near?

The three individual bones converge near the center of the hip socket, called the acetabulum.

What are the three most common spinal curvatures?

The three most common spinal curvatures are lordosis, kyphosis, and scoliosis.

How many phalanges does the thumb have?

The thumb has two phalanges, called proximal and distal.

Describe the tympanic part of the temporal bone.

The tympanic part of the temporal bone has the prominent external acoustic meatus (external auditory canal), which transmits sound waves toward the eardrum, or tympanic membrane. The external ear surrounds the external acoustic meatus.

How many arches are in the foot are formed by the positions of the tarsal bones?

There are three primary arches in the foot formed by the positions of the tarsal bones and metatarsal bones and held in place by ligaments.

Where is the coronoid process?

the coronoid process is anterior to the mandibular condyle on the ramus.

What do the foramen spinousum allow?

the foramen spinousum allows passage of a meningeal artery.

Ramus

Major, nearly vertical portion of the bone

Superior nuchal line

Attachment point for neck muscles

Superior and inferior temporal lines

Attachment point for temporalis muscle.

Mylohyoid line

Attachment point of the mylohyoid muscle

External Features: Mandibular Condyle

Bone on Which Feature is Found: Mandible Description: Region where the mandible articulates with the skull

External Features: Palatine process

Bone on Which Feature is Found: Maxilla Description: Anterior two-thirds of the hard palate.

External Features: Horizontal plate

Bone on Which Feature is Found: Palatine Description: Posterior third of the hard palate.

External Features: Pterygoid plates (medial and lateral)

Bone on Which Feature is Found: Sphenoid Description: Bony plates on the inferior aspect of the sphenoid bone; the lateral pteryogid plate is the site of attachment for two muscles of mastication.

External Features: Pterygoid hamulus

Bone on Which Feature is Found: Sphenoid Description: Hooked process on the inferior end of the medial pterygoid plate, around which the tendon of one palatine muscle passes an important dental landmark.

External Features: Styloid process

Bone on Which Feature is Found: Temporal Description: Attachment site for three muscles (to the tongue, pharynx, and hyoid bone) and some ligaments.

Axial Skeleton

Bones Associated with the Skull Auditory ossicles Malleus 2 Incus 2 Stapes 2 Hyoid 1 Total associated bones 7

What if a bone has a smooth, articular surface?

If a bone has a smooth, articular surface, that surface was part of a joint and was covered with articular cartilage.

What if a bone posses a tubercle or a process?

If a bone possesses a tubercle or a process, most likely a ligament or tendon was attached to that tubercle or process during life.

What if a bone had a foramen?

If the bone has a foramen in it, that foramen was the opening through which a nerve or blood vessel passed.

Name the specific parts the skeletal system and the tissue layers of the bone that the surgeon cut. Also, explain Dave's back, discomfort and why he could not resume swimming sooner.

In this question we are asked to address four different topics; two are identification of anatomy, and two relate to the function of the skeletal system. The description of the surgery provided useful information for addressing these topics. The anatomy questions ask us to identify (1) the specific parts of the skeletal system and (2) the layers of bone tissue the surgeon cut. We are told exactly where the surgeon made the cut: a longitudinal midline incision through the sternum. We learned in this chapter that the sternum is composed of the manubrium, the body, and the xiphoid process. All three of these parts would have to be cut to allow the surgeon to spread the sternum halves apart to expose the heart. We learned in chapter 6 that a bone, such as the sternum, is surrounded by a periosteum and is composed of an outer layer of compact bone and internal spongy bone. Thus, the layers of bone tissue cut during the surgery were the periosteum, compact bone, and spongy bone. Next we must explain why Dave experienced back discomfort following the surgery, and why he needed to wait 2 months before resuming his normal swimming routine. Chapter 6explained that movements between bones occur at joints, and this chapter outlined the relationships among the sternum, the ribs, and the vertebrae. We can assume that, when the two halves of the sternum were spread apart, stress was applied to other structures of the thoracic cavity. Therefore, we can attribute Dave's discomfort in his back to stress on the joints between the ribs and the vertebrae when the two halves of the sternum were separated. The last question we need to address is why Dave needed to wait 2 months before resuming his normal swimming routine. Chapter 6stated that the skeletal system plays a major role in body movement, specifically as attachment sites for skeletal muscles. Movement occurs when muscles contract and pull on the bone. Just like the repair of a bone fracture, healing of the sternum requires time. Contraction of the muscles involved in swimming would apply undue stress to the sternum; therefore, Dave had to delay swimming until the sternum had healed properly.

What are irregular bones?

Irregular bones, such as the vertabrae and facial bones, have shapes that do not readily fit into the other three categories.

What does the axial skeleton protect?

It protects the brain, the spinal cord, and the vital organs housed within the thorax.

Appendicular skeleton

Pelvic Girdle Hip bone 2 Lower Limb Femur 2 Tibia 2 Fibula 2 Patella 2 Tarsal bones 14 Metatarsal bones 10 Phalanges 28 Total girdle and lower limb 62 Total appendicular skeleton bones 126 Total axial skeleton bones 80 Total appendicular skeleton bones 126 Total bones 206

Axial skeleton

Skull (cranium) Cranial bones Paired (left and right) Parietal 2 Temporal 2 Unpaired (single) Frontal 1 Sphenoid 1 Occipital 1 Ethmoid 1