Chapter 8

At what ages are associated with the emergence of these different kinds of play?

sensorimotor- infants practice play- preschool years pretense/symbolic- 9-30 months social-preschool constructive play- preschool elementary

What factors facilitate positive adjustment to divorce?

when the divorced parents relationship is harmonious.

Are children better adjusted in never-divorced families than divorced families?

yes

Girls, in a same-sex group, are more likely to engage in what kind of play?

"Collaborative discourse," in which they talk and act in a more reciprocal manner.

What are the 4 main types of child maltreatment?

1. Physical abuse 2. Child neglect 3. Sexual abuse 4. Emotional abuse

Authoritarian parenting

A restrictive, punitive style in which parents exhort the child to follow their direction and to respect their work and effort. The authoritarian parent places firm limits and controls on the child and allows little verbal exchange. Authoritarian parenting is associated with children's social incompetence.

What are 4 reasons for avoiding spanking or similar corporal punishments?

1. When adults punish a child by yelling, screaming, or spanking, they are presenting children with out of control models for handling stressful situations. Children may imitate this aggressive, out of control behavior. 2. Punishment can instill fear, rage, or avoidance. ex: spanking the child may cause the child to avoid being around the parent and to fear the parent. 3. Punishment tells children what not to do rather than what to do. Children should be given feedback, such as, "why don't you try this?" 4. Punishment can be abusive. Parents might unintentionally become so aroused when they are punishing the child that they become abusive.

Name 4 concerns about child rearing among lower-socioeconomic status parents.

1. are more concerned that their children conform to society's expectations. 2. create a home atmosphere in which it is clear that parents have authority over children. 3. use physical punishment more in disciplining their children 4. are more directive and less conversational with their children.

Name 4 concerns about childbearing among higher-socioeconomic status parents.

1. are more concerned with developing children's initiative and delay of gratification. 2. create a home atmosphere in which children are more equal participants and in which rules are discussed as opposed to being laid down in an authoritarian manner. 3. Are less likely to use physical punishment. 4. are less directive and more conversational with their children.

What factors put parents at risk for maltreating their children? And which is the most important risk factor?

A combination of factors, including culture, family, and developmental characteristics of the child. Violence in the family. 1/3 of parents who were abused as children go on to abuse their children.

Authoritative (democratice) parenting

A parenting style in which parents encourage their children to be independent but still place limits and controls on their actions. Extensive verbal give and take is allowed, and parents are warm and nurturant toward the child. Authoritative parenting is associated with children's social competence.

Indulgent (permissive) parenting

A style of parenting in which parents are highly involved with their children but place a few demands or controls on them. Indulgent parenting is associated with children's social incompetence, especially a lack of self control.

Neglectful parenting

A style of parenting in which the parent is very uninvolved in the child's life; it is associated with children's social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control.

What is social role theory?

A theory that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of men and women.

What are the typical short-term consequences of divorce for children?

Academic problems, acting out, delinquency, anxiety, depression, less socially responsible, less relationships, drop out of school, sexually active at an early age, take drugs, low self esteem, less securely attached as adults.

Sensorimotor play

Behavior engaged in by infants to derive pleasure from exercising their existing sensorimotor schemas.

What is meant by conscience?

Conscience refers to an internal regulation of standards of right and wrong that involves an integration of all three components of moral development we have described so far- moral thought, feeling and behavior.

What is moral development?

Development that involves thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions with other people.

Should parents stay together for the sake of the children?

Divorce can be advantageous if the stresses and disruptions in family relationships associated with an unhappy, conflictual marriage that erode the well being of children are reduced by the move to a divorced, single parent family.

How do emotion-coaching parents help young children regulate their emotions?

Emotion-coaching parents view their childrens emotions, view their childrens negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions.

How do emotion-dismissing parents view their role?

Emotion-dismissing parents view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions.

What is Erikson's psychosocial stage associated with early childhood?

Erikson's psychosocial stage associated with early childhood is initiative versus guilt. By now, children have become convinced that they are persons of their own; during early childhood, they begin to discover what kind of person they will become

How do Freud and Piaget understand the function of play?

Frued- play helps children master anxieties and conflicts because tensions are relieved in play. play permits children to work off excess physical energy and to release pent up tensions. Piaget- play is a childs work. play advances childrens cognitive development. At the same time, he said that children's cognitive development constrains the way they play. play permits children to practice their competencies and acquired skills in a relaxed, pleasurable way.

What is meant by gender identity, gender role and gender typing?

Gender identity- the sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by the time they are 3 years old. Gender role- a set of expectations that prescribes how females or males should thing, act and feel. Gender typing- Acquisitions of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

Describe 2 stages in the development of moral conscience identified by Piaget.

Heteronomous morality- the first stage of moral development in Piaget's theory, occurring from approximately 4 to 7 years of age. justice and rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people. Autonomous morality- Displayed by older children (10 years of age or older) The child becomes aware that rules and laws are created by people and that in judging an action one should consider the actors intentions as well as the consequences/

Self-regulation included what kinds of behavior?

It includes the abilities to inhibit first responses, to resist interference from irrelevant stimulation, and to persist on relevant tasks even when we don't enjoy them

What is the difference between a true moral rule and a social-conventional rule?

Morale rule- is the differentiation of intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are "good" (or right) and those that are "bad" (or wrong) Social conventional rule- is a set of agreed, stipulated, or generally accepted standards, norms, social norms, or criteria, often taking the form of a custom. Certain types of rules or customs may become law and regulatory legislation may be introduced to formalize or enforce the convention (for example, laws that define on which side of the road vehicles must be driven). In a social context, a convention may retain the character of an "unwritten law" of custom (for example, the manner in which people greet each other, such as by shaking each other's hands).

What is the difference between Mother's and Father's socialization strategies?

Mothers' socialization strategies- in many cultures, mothers socialize their daughters to be more obedient and responsible than their sons. They also place more restrictions on daughters' autonomy. Fathers' socialization strategies- Fathers show more attention to their sons than daughters, engage in more activities with sons, and put forth more effort to promote sons' intellectual development.

Pretense/ symbolic play

Play in which the child transforms the physical environment into a symbol.

The difference between psychoanalytic and social cognitive theories of gender.

Psychoanalytical theory of gender: Freud's view that the preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite sex parent, by approximately 5 or 6 years of age renounces this attraction because of anxious feelings, and subsequently identifies with the same-sex parent, unconsciously adopting the same sex parent's characteristics. Social cognitive theory of gender: Emphasizes that children's gender development occurs through the observation and imitation of gender behavior and through the rewards and punishments children experience for gender-appropriate and gender-innaporopriate behavior.

Boys, in a same sex group, are more likely to engage in what kind of play?

Rough and tumble play, competition, conflict, ego displays, risk taking, and seeking dominance.

What factors influence an individual child's vulnerability to suffering negative consequences as a result of living in a divorced family?

The child's adjustment prior to the divorce, as well as the child's personality and temperament, gender, and custody situation.

What is meant by self-understanding in early childhood?

The childs cognitive represesntation of self, the substance and content of the child's self conceptions.

A young child typically believes in immanent justice. What is it?

The concept that if a rule is broken punishment will be meted out immediately.

According to behaviorism, what explains the development of moral behavior?

The process of reinforcement, punishment, and imitation explain the development of moral behavior.

What is gender schema theory, and how does it relate to gender typing?

The theory that gender- typing emerges as children develop gender schemas of their culture's gender appropriate and gender inappropriate behavior.

What factors influence the development of self-regulation in early childhood?

There is evidence that self-regulation has roots in our biological makeup. Maturation of certain areas of the brain, especially the frontal lobes, enables children to resist interference and inhibit responses. he frontal lobes undergo two periods of rapid growth, one during infancy and another from about 4 to 7 years—and these periods are consistent with the developmental trends in self-regulation we've described. Along with brain maturation, another important factor is temperament. Temperament appears to have a significant genetic component. Researchers have linked aspects of temperament (such as behavioral inhibition, effortful control, and fearfulness) to several self-regulatory behaviors in preschool and early school-age children (such as emotional regulation, cheating, compliance with adults' requests, and following rules) In fact, most psychologists believe that self-regulation, though influenced by biological factors, begins with external control by others and gradually becomes internalized. For example, children learn specific strategies for regulating behavior and emotions by modeling—the process of imitating, practicing, and internalizing others' behavior (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997). And children often use private speech, or speech they direct toward themselves, to guide their problem-solving efforts and to regulate behavior, cognitive strategies, or emotions.

Social cognitive theory emphasizes that the ability to resist temptation is related to what aspects of control and gratification?

To achieve this self control, children must learn to delay gratification.

Emotion regulation plays a key role in childrens ability to do what?

To manage the demands and conflicts they face in interacting with others.

According to Frued what is the moral element of personality and what does it do?

To reduce anxiety, avoid punishment, and maintain parental affect, children identity with parents, internalizing their standards of right and wrong, the superego is the moral element of personality.

The children of emotion-coaching parents are better at what?

at soothing themselves when they get upset, more effective in regulating their negative affect, focus their attention better, and have fewer behavior problems.

What areas of development does play promote?

cognitive and socioemotional development.

Which psychological theories are related to each aspect of moral development?

five psychosexual stages : Oral stage- pleasure centers on mouth anal stage- pleasure on anus phallic stage- pleasure on genitals latency stage- represses sexual interest (social skills) genital stage- sexual reawakening

Constructive play

play that combines sensorimotor and repetitive activity with symbolic representation of ideas. Constructive play occurs when children engage in self regulating creation of construction of a product or solution.

Practice play

play that involves repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery are coordination of skills are required for games or sports.

Social Play

play that involves social interactions with peers.

What does new research show regarding the effects of child maltreatment?

poor emotion regulation, attachment problems, problems in peer regulations, difficulty in adapting to school, depression, delinquency.

What 4 aspects are most important with regard to the relationship between parents and children which contribute to childrens moral development?

relational quality, parental discipline, proactive strategies, and conversational dialogue.