Chapter 8
The sovereign
According to Hobbes, the sovereign can be an individual or an assembly and is the source of law and property right. detail of frontispiece of Leviathan The most important feature of the sovereign is the power to enforce the law. Because the sovereign itself is not part of the social contract, rebellion against government seems to amount to a return to the state of nature. Therefore, Hobbes' social contract theory seems to justify absolutism.
How does Marx explain history?
Your Answer: For Marx, history is characterized by ever-increasing class struggle, culminating in industrialized capitalism. Industrial capitalism, according to Marx, features the most pronounced class division in history.
The social contract and the role of government
According to Locke, the state is created by means of the social contract: The right to make laws for the common good is transferred to a legislature. The right to enforce these laws is transferred to an executive power. The particular form of legislature and executive power is to be made by the majority of citizens. Locke does not specify a particular form of government. A legitimate social contract could exists in form of a republic, but also between citizens and a monarchy. "...whatever form the Common-wealth is under, the Ruling Power ought to govern by declared and received laws, and not by extemporary dictates and undetermined resolutions." Locke's branches of government are themselves part of the social contract. The government is entrusted with protecting the natural rights of citizens. If the government (or any branch of government) defaults on its obligation to do so, then it can be dissolved. Thus in Locke's theory - contrary to Hobbes' - rebellion is justified. Locke's insistence that the purpose of government is to protect the natural rights to life, liberty, and property, informed, among others, Founding Father and President Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826). Declaration of Independence Jefferson, of course, is the principal author of the Declaration of Independence, outlining the 'unalienable' rights of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."
The end of capitalism
According to Marx, capitalism will necessarily self-destruct, because of the inevitable conflict between capitalist property ownership and socialized production. Marx claims that overproduction is inevitable. Diminishing profit rates require increased production. Increased production leads to increased exploitation of the worker. Marx believes that it is inevitable that workers become increasingly aware of their situation and the intrinsic unsustainability of capitalism. close-up photograph of metal chain breaking "Workers of the world, unite! You have nothing to lose, but your chains." The Communist Manifesto
The classless society and the end of history
In Marx' utopian classless society, everyone would have enough for a comfortable (or at least adequate) life. Everyone would have the opportunity to freely and completely develop all physical and intellectual faculties. The individual would not be alienated (estranged) from his/her surroundings. In Marx' vision, the individual in communist society will have free access to goods and services according to individual needs. The individual will contribute to society based on individual capability. This principle is encapsulated in the famous dictum: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs." wooden slats spray-painted with the words 'The End' For Marx, the classless society will be the end of political power, as the sole function of political power has been the suppression of one class by the other. This will be the end of the dialectic, the end of history, according to Marx.
Contemporary contractarianism
In contemporary moral philosophy, neo-Hobbesian moral philosopher David Gauthier (born 1932) sees morality as emerging from rational principles that promote long-term self-interest. Actions are morally wrong, if they violate such principles. drawing of two well-dressed gentlemen shaking hands while each is holding a baseball behind his back In Gauthier's contractarianism, moral standards result from agreement among rational individuals.
Social contract theories and moral perpective
In general, social contract theories insist that the legitimacy of government depends on the consent of the people. Social contract theories also provide arguments for the origin and nature of morality. Influential social contract theories were developed by Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. The social contract theory developed by Thomas Hobbes drives the (modern) moral theory of Contractarianism. The social contract theory developed by John Locke drives the (modern) moral theory of Natural Rights Ethics.
The state of nature
In his Leviathan (1651), Hobbes understands humans as fundamentally equal - equally self-interested and equally capable. frontispiece of Leviathan In the so-called state of nature, in the absence of government, humans would be in a constant state of war, competing for limited resources: "In such condition, there is no place for Industry, ... no Culture of the Earth; no Navigation, ... no Knowledge of the face of the Earth; no account of Time; no Arts; no Letters; no Society; and which is worst of all, continuall feare, and danger of violent death; And the life of man, solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short." While there are no laws per se in the state of nature, there are natural laws - principles of rational self-interest. For long term survival, rationality urges people to seek peace and give up unrestricted liberty, if all others do the same.
John locke
In his Second Treatise of Government (1689), John Locke develops his own social contract theory to explain the purpose and legitimacy of government and the origin and nature of morality. frontispiece of John Locke's Two Treatises of Government In Locke's theory, the state of nature seems less a state of scarcity (as for Hobbes), but more a state of abundance. In the state of nature, according to Locke, humans possess God-given natural rights - the rights to life, self-defense, freedom, and property. The purpose of government is to protect these natural rights.
Capitalism
In industrialized capitalist societies, Marx claims, class division is more pronounced than in any other time in history, because of the nature of industrial production. In industrial production, a large number of workers cooperate to produce a product. As the means of production (factories, machinery, etc.) are not owned by the workers, the product they produce isn't either. The capitalist owns the means of production, the product, and (by extension) the workers themselves. For Marx, capitalism is characterized by the fundamental, inevitable conflict that arises because production is socialized, but ownership is not. For Marx, this has three necessary consequences: Exploitation of the workers. The capitalist sells products at a profit, and this means that the workers produce more value than the wages they receive. Concentration of wealth in fewer and fewer people. Increasing polarization between the bourgeoisie (capitalist middle class) and the proletariat (working class). Alienation of the workers. The workers become commodities themselves, as not only the products they produce are owned by the capitalists, but also their labor itself. Work becomes a mere means of survival and not a source of personal identity or personal fulfillment.
Human Needs
In order to satisfy their physical, social, and emotional needs, humans take the necessary steps to do so. For instance, they cultivate the land to produce crops, build houses, form family relationships and communities, relax during leisure time, etc. photograph of cultivated land with rows of crops stretching out to the horizon Marx now analyses the process of satisfying human needs. In order to satisfy a need, society needs to develop the means to do so. These means include natural resources (e.g. land) and technology (tools, machinery, etc.). Marx calls these the means of production. The development of new technology (in the broadest sense), however, leads to new needs and requires the development of new technologies, in order to satisfy these new needs.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a German philosopher, economic historian, and revolutionary socialist, who developed a materialist interpretation of history in collaboration with Friedrich Engels. Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) was a German industrialist and philosopher who observed first-hand the conditions of the working class in England and collaborated with Marx on The Communist Manifesto. Engels' financial support allowed Marx to write Das Kapital, his most comprehensive work, which Engels finished editing after Marx' death. photograph of handwritten original of famous dictum by Karl Marx This is a photograph of the handwritten original of a famous dictum by Karl Marx, saying (in German): "Philosophers have hitherto only interpreted the world in various ways; the point is to change it."
The ideal society
Marx describes humans as social creatures with certain needs that we strive to satisfy. These needs include physical needs (food, shelter, clothing, etc.). According to Marx, human needs also include emotional and social needs (social relationships, meaningful work, personal fulfillment, etc.). drawing of stick figures in circles that are all connected In an ideal society, therefore, humans would be able to fulfill all of these needs, according to Marx. For Marx, the ideal society, in which humans can fulfill their physical, social, and emotional needs, has no class division, no exploitation, no wages, no money, and no private property. Marx claims that this ideal society will arise out of necessity from the historical process.
Marxism
Marxism is a socio-political philosophy that provides a materialist interpretation of history and a dialectic explanation of social change. Marxism has inspired international socialist movements aimed at improving the quality of life for the working class, but has also been used to justify large-scale human rights violations and atrocities at the hands of totalitarian regimes.
Natural rights ethics
Shifting the focus on John Locke's moral theory, it is important to note the emphasis Locke places on God-given natural rights. The moral theory that is based on the assumption of natural rights is called Natural Rights Ethics. The basic assumption of Natural Rights Ethics are: There are certain rights that all people have by nature, regardless of background, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, etc. These rights are inseparable from what it is to be a person. These natural rights (or human rights) form the basis for morality. Actions that violate natural rights (human rights) are always morally wrong, regardless of the circumstances. UDHR logo celebrating 70 years of Universal Declaration of Human Rights, with the hashtag #standup4humanrights Article 1 of the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that "[a]ll human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights." vintage drawing showing prisoner of war behind barbed wire fence The Geneva Conventions encompass a number of treaties that establish international law for the humanitarian treatment of the victims of war.
social instutions
The social and emotional needs of human beings are fulfilled in social relationships with family and friends, neighbors, bosses and co-workers, etc. photograph of happy family with everyone smiling For Marx, these relationships are reflected in a society's social customs, ethical norms, religious values, and legal and political systems.
Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1678) developed a social contract theory that legitimized absolutism, but also features some fundamental ideas of liberalism: individual rights, equality, and the legitimization of government through consent of the people.
Evaluating natural rights ethics
When evaluating Natural Rights Ethics, one possible issue centers around the question of how to identify natural rights (human rights) and how to differentiate natural rights from other kinds of rights. In order to differentiate natural rights from other kinds of rights, it may help to introduce a distinction between so-called welfare rights, and so-called liberty rights. So-called welfare rights are rights to goods or services, for example, the right to financial aid for qualified students. Valencia College FAFSA Frenzy Flyer Because welfare rights are rights given by society, they do NOT qualify as natural rights. So-called liberty rights (also called privacy rights) are rights to non-interference, rights 'not to be messed with' in pursuit of your interests. photograph of cute little girl holding small chalkboard with the words 'right to education' For instance, the right to education is the right not to be excluded from the pursuit of education, due to race, gender, age, etc. ONLY LIBERTY RIGHTS can qualify as natural rights. Another possible issue with Natural Rights Ethics is the idea that natural rights (human rights) apply only to humans (persons). Natural Rights Ethics, therefore, does not help with making moral decision about non-human matters. PETA logo Natural Rights Ethics is limited in scope and cannot help with moral decisions regarding the ethical treatment of animals or regarding the protection of the environment (environmental ethics), unless it can be shown that e.g. animal abuse or pollution is a direct violation of a person's natural rights.
Analysis and revolution
Whereas political history examines the track record of communist regimes (looking at measures of individual freedom, standards of living, economic growth, social justice, etc.), a philosophical analysis and evaluation of Marxism as socio-political philosophy evaluates the plausibility of the theory's underlying assumptions and the validity of inferences made. A historical analysis points out the large-scale human rights violations and outright atrocities committed by communist regimes (the Soviet Union's' 'Great Purge' in the 1930s alone is estimated to have resulted in the deaths of 2-3 million people), but the careful philosophical analysis of the theory is still very important to counter any claims that such atrocities could only result from incorrect understanding or implementation of the theory. When examining the underlying presuppositions of Marxism and the inferences drawn from such assumptions, major areas of scrutiny emerge: the role of property ownership in determining social institutions. the supposed unsustainability of capitalism. the unacknowledged relationship between individual self-interest and economic flourishing. Marx claims that a given society's political system, laws, culture, religion (what he calls the 'social institutions') are determined exclusively by the economic interests of the property-owning class. But no further argument is given for why no other factors should have shaped society. The claim that literature, art, philosophy, morality, religion and law are solely determined by economy might not seem plausible. Marx claims that capitalism is inherently unsustainable, because of the supposedly necessary relationship between overproduction, market saturation, and ever-increasing exploitation of the workers. But no specific argument is given for why a reversal of exploitation would necessarily result in economic failure. The historical record furthermore shows that the working conditions of industrial workers *did* gradually improve, along with increasing standards of living, without the large-scale failure of capitalist economies that Marx predicted. Marx' vision of a society in which economic abundance (in the absence of private property) will allow for a free distribution of goods and services according to individual needs might seem not only simplistic, but also does not take into account the idea that it is individual self-interest that drives economic flourishing. In the absence of a direct relationship between individual effort and desired reward, there is no incentive for innovation, hard work, or economic risk-taking, which - so the argument - hampers economic growth. In addition to these considerations, there are numerous other considerations that can emerge from a direct comparison of capitalist and communist economies (including the detailed examination of relevant data) and inform the evaluation of the plausibility of Marxism.
How would you describe the social contract according to John Locke?
Your Answer: According to Locke, the state is created by means of the social contract: The right to make laws for the common good is transferred to a legislature. The right to enforce these laws is transferred to an executive power. The particular form of legislature and executive power is to be made by the majority of citizens.
Why is revolution inevitable, according to Marx?
Your Answer: According to Marx, capitalism will necessarily self-destruct, because of the inevitable conflict between capitalist property ownership and socialized production. Marx claims that overproduction is inevitable. Diminishing profit rates require increased production. Increased production leads to increased exploitation of the worker. Marx believes that it is inevitable that workers become increasingly aware of their situation and the intrinsic unsustainability of capitalism. For Marx, the end of capitalism will be accomplished by a revolution of the proletariat, the working class. The ensuing so-called dictatorship of the proletariat will abolish private property. Only once the means of production have been socialized, class struggle will end, according to Marx.
What are the limitations of Natural Rights Ethics?
Your Answer: Central to Natural Rights Ethics is the idea that natural rights (human rights) apply only to humans (persons). Natural Rights Ethics, therefore, does not help with making moral decision about non-human matters. Natural Rights Ethics is limited in scope and cannot help with moral decisions regarding the ethical treatment of animals or regarding the protection of the environment (environmental ethics), unless it can be shown that e.g. animal abuse or pollution is a direct violation of a person's natural rights.
What is problematic with the notion of private property, according to Marx?
Your Answer: Ever since the advent of private property, ever since the means of production were owned, society has been divided into those who own property and those who don't. Private property inevitably leads to class division in society and hostility between the classes, according to Marx.
According to Marx, what is the relationship between means of production and social institutions?
Your Answer: For Marx, there is a very specific relationship between the evolution of the means of production and the development of social institutions and practices. The evolution of the means of production causes social and political change. History itself is the result of the complex interaction between means of production and social institutions, according to Marx. The dialectic is supposed to explain not only all political, social, and economic situations, but also moral norms and values, religion, art, and philosophy.
According to Hobbes, what is the nature of human beings, and what characterizes life in the 'state of nature?'
Your Answer: Hobbes understands humans as fundamentally equal - equally self-interested and equally capable. In the so-called state of nature, in the absence of government, humans would be in a constant state of war, competing for limited resources.
According to Hobbes, how do principles of rational self-interest result in the social contract that establishes morality and legitimizes government?
Your Answer: Hobbes' notion of the social contract establishes both the legitimacy of government and the origin and justification of morality. The natural right is transferred to a central power (the sovereign) with the resources to enforce the principles of rational self-interest. This contract is the origin and justification of government, according to Hobbes. It is important to note that this contract is between me (or you) and everyone else, NOT between the people and the 'government'. It is a contract TO establish a sovereign (government), NOT a contract WITH the sovereign (government). In other words, contrary to John Locke's social contract theory, the government is NOT part of the social contract.
According to Hobbesian-type contractarianism, what is the basis for morality?
Your Answer: Hobbessian-type contractarianism understands morality as emerging from rational principles that promote long-term self-interest. Actions are morally wrong, if they violate such principles. In other words, morality is agreement among rational creatures to establish rules conducive to long-term flourishing.
How does capitalism work? Why is it problematic and non-sustainable, according to Marx?
Your Answer: I n industrial production, a large number of workers cooperate to produce a product. As the means of production (factories, machinery, etc.) are not owned by the workers, the product they produce isn't either. The capitalist owns the means of production, the product, and (by extension) the workers themselves. For Marx, capitalism is characterized by the fundamental, inevitable conflict that arises because production is socialized, but ownership is not. For Marx, this has three necessary consequences: Exploitation of the workers. The capitalist sells products at a profit, and this means that the workers produce more value than the wages they receive. Concentration of wealth in fewer and fewer people. Increasing polarization between the bourgeoisie (capitalist middle class) and the proletariat (working class). Alienation of the workers. The workers become commodities themselves, as not only the products they produce are owned by the capitalists, but also their labor itself. Work becomes a mere means of survival and not a source of personal identity or personal fulfillment.
According to John Locke, what is the nature of human beings, and what characterizes life in the 'state of nature?'
Your Answer: In Locke's theory, the state of nature seems less a state of scarcity (as for Hobbes), but more a state of abundance. In the state of nature, according to Locke, humans possess God-given natural rights - the rights to life, self-defense, freedom, and property. The purpose of government is to protect these natural rights.
What is communism, according to Marx? How does Marx describe the ideal society?
Your Answer: In Marx' utopian classless society, everyone would have enough for a comfortable (or at least adequate) life. Everyone would have the opportunity to freely and completely develop all physical and intellectual faculties. The individual would not be alienated (estranged) from his/her surroundings. In Marx' vision, the individual in communist society will have free access to goods and services according to individual needs. The individual will contribute to society based on individual capability. This principle is encapsulated in the famous dictum: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs." For Marx, the classless society will be the end of political power, as the sole function of political power has been the suppression of one class by the other. This will be the end of the dialectic, the end of history, according to Marx.
What is the basic idea behind social contract theories?
Your Answer: In general, social contract theories insist that the legitimacy of government depends on the consent of the people. Social contract theories also provide arguments for the origin and nature of morality.
What kind of of rights are natural rights? How would you explain the distinction between welfare rights and liberty rights?
Your Answer: In order to differentiate natural rights from other kinds of rights, it may help to introduce a distinction between so-called welfare rights, and so-called liberty rights. So-called welfare rights are rights to goods or services, for example, the right to financial aid for qualified students. Because welfare rights are rights given by society, they do NOT qualify as natural rights. So-called liberty rights (also called privacy rights) are rights to non-interference, rights 'not to be messed with' in pursuit of your interests. For instance, the right to education is the right not to be excluded from the pursuit of education, due to race, gender, age, etc. ONLY LIBERTY RIGHTS can qualify as natural rights.
What does Marx refer to by 'means of production'? Can you provide concrete examples (of your own)?
Your Answer: In order to satisfy their physical, social, and emotional needs, humans take the necessary steps to do so. For instance, they cultivate the land to produce crops, build houses, form family relationships and communities, relax during leisure time, etc. Marx now analyses the process of satisfying human needs. In order to satisfy a need, society needs to develop the means to do so. These means include natural resources (e.g. land) and technology (tools, machinery, etc.). Marx calls these the means of production.
How does Natural Right Ethics establish the basis for morality?
Your Answer: The basic assumption of Natural Rights Ethics are: There are certain rights that all people have by nature, regardless of background, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, etc. These rights are inseparable from what it is to be a person. These natural rights (or human rights) form the basis for morality. Actions that violate natural rights (human rights) are always morally wrong, regardless of the circumstances.
What does Marx refer to by 'social institutions'? Can you provide concrete examples (of your own)?
Your Answer: The social and emotional needs of human beings are fulfilled in social relationships with family and friends, neighbors, bosses and co-workers, etc. For Marx, these relationships are reflected in a society's social customs, ethical norms, religious values, and legal and political systems. This is what he calls the 'social institutions.'
Property
For Locke, God's plan for the world includes a system of private property. photograph of private property sign In the state of nature, accumulation of property, however, is limited. The property accumulated cannot spoil, there must be enough for others, and accumulation of property cannot be harmful to others. "The great and chief end of men uniting into commonwealths, and putting themselves under governments, is the preservation of their property."
Revolution
For Marx, the end of capitalism will be accomplished by a revolution of the proletariat, the working class. The ensuing so-called dictatorship of the proletariat will abolish private property. Only once the means of production have been socialized, class struggle will end, according to Marx.
Private property and class division
For Marx, the interplay of means of production and social relationships is most pronounced when it comes to social relationships involving property. Class Struggle board game Ever since the advent of private property, ever since the means of production were owned, society has been divided into those who own property and those who don't. Private property inevitably leads to class division in society and hostility between the classes, according to Marx. vintage photograph of teenage boys wearing very formal attire, watched by poor children in shabby clothes "The history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggle." - The Communist Manifesto detail of Greek vase painting showing slaves doing hard labor Marx sees class division in the citizens and slaves in Greek antiquity. painting by John William Waterhouse, showing rich Roman patrician and poor plebejans bowing before him ... the patricians and plebeians of ancient Rome. medeival illustration of serfs harvesting wheat ... the lords and serfs in the Middle Ages. Turn-of-the-century illustration suggesting that consumers were the victim of conflicts between labor and management. ... the capitalists and workers in the industrial age. For Marx, social customs, cultural norms, moral values, and religious practices result from the dialectic process. Especially morality and law are determined by the property-owning, dominant class, claims Marx. This allows for morality and law to serve as instruments of oppression, according to Marx.
The dialectic
For Marx, there is a very specific relationship between the evolution of the means of production and the development of social institutions and practices. The evolution of the means of production causes social and political change. In the later Middle Ages, for example, the need for an infrastructure to support trade with the Far East led to the establishment of towns and cities and a new middle class of merchants. These social changes undermined the existing social order and led to the demise of feudalism. In Marx' interpretation of history, this new social order will endure until it will be destroyed by a new evolutionary stage in the development of means of production. For Marx, this dialectical process repeats itself over and over again through history. It can be witnessed by tracing economic, social, and political changes through history. History itself is the result of the complex interaction between means of production and social institutions. The dialectic is supposed to explain not only all political, social, and economic situations, but also moral norms and values, religion, art, and philosophy.
Needs and means
For example, in very early agricultural societies, the increasing division of labor within society leads to a need to more efficiently cultivate the land, in order to produce more crops. wood carving of ox pulling primitive wooden plow This need leads to the development of new technologies, where iron tools replace wooden tools for plowing the fields. Iron tools in this example are the means of production. But the advent of iron tools creates a need for iron and consequently a need for technology to efficiently produce iron. photograph of early iron plow Each new level in the development of resource usage and technology creates new needs and therefore leads to the next level of resource usage and technology. In Marx' terminology: The realization of one set of means of production leads to new needs and consequently to new means of production. According to Marx, the history of economics is the evolution of the means of production.
The social contract
Hobbes' notion of the social contract establishes both the legitimacy of government and the origin and justification of morality. The natural right is transferred to a central power (the sovereign) with the resources to enforce the principles of rational self-interest. drawing of a handshake This contract is the origin and justification of government, according to Hobbes. It is important to note that this contract is between me (or you) and everyone else, NOT between the people and the 'government'. It is a contract TO establish a sovereign (government), NOT a contract WITH the sovereign (government). In other words, contrary to John Locke's social contract theory, the government is NOT part of the social contract.
