Chapter 8, Chapter 7: Memory, Psyc Chapter 8, Psychology: Chapter 8

Aditi's mother recited to her a list of things to buy at the grocery store. Once she reached the store, she could only remember the items from the end of the list. This phenomenon is called: A. the primacy effect. B. the recency effect. C. proactive interference. D. retroactive interference.

B. the recency effect.

_____ occurs when other information competes with the information we are trying to recall. A. Repression B. Interference C. Absent-mindedness D. Blocking

B. Interference

Reading, talking, and listening to someone speak involves the: A. sensory memory. B. short-term memory. C. long-term memory. D. echoic memory.

B. short-term memory.

In operant conditioning, the word "positive" (preceding the term "reinforcement" or "punishment") indicates: A. the desirability of a stimulus. B. the addition of a stimulus. C. the ineffectiveness of a stimulus. D. the effectiveness of a stimulus.

B. the addition of a stimulus.

T/F: Learning occurs when information in short-term memory remains in short-term memory and becomes permanent.

False (occurs when information in short-term memory moves to long-term memory)

T/F: Ivan Pavlov was a psychologist.

False (physiologist)

When Ivan Pavlov accidentally discovered classical conditioning, a simple association was formed between: a. the sound of the apparatus and the meat powder. b. the sight of Pavlov and salivation. c. the meat powder and salivation. d. salivation and the sound of the apparatus.

a. the sound of the apparatus and the meat powder.

In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, he presented the sound of a bell along with meat powder to his dogs. After several trials, the dogs learned to salivate to the sound of the bell in the absence of the meat powder. In this study, meat powder acted as a(n) ___________. a. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) b. unconditioned response (UCR) c. conditioned stimulus (CS) d. conditioned response (CR)

a. unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Association, which is a form of learning, can be defined as the ______. a. organized response to a repeated stimulus b. link between two events in the environment c. voluntary response that diminishes over time d. ever-changing model of behavior based on repetition

b. link between two events in the environment

Juan hears his older brother singing loudly while in the shower, and now Juan also imitates it. According to Bandura's social learning theory, this is an example of ___________. a. conditioning b. modeling c. imprinting d. habituation

b. modeling

Some people continue smoking cigarettes because it reduces stress, social isolation, and appetite. From a learning perspective, these reductions can be considered as ___________. a. conditioned stimuli b. negative reinforcers c. conditioned responses d. instinctive drifts

b. negative reinforcers

Albert Bandura called learning by watching the behavior of others ____________. a. latent learning b. observational learning c. integrative learning d. enactive learning

b. observational learning

Whenever Julia gets ready for school on time, she gets a chocolate from her mother. Hence, Julia always tries to get ready on time. This is an example of ______ type of learning. a. explicit conditioning b. operant conditioning c. observational conditioning d. backward conditioning

b. operant conditioning

A(n) ____________ is defined as any internal or external event that increases the frequency of a behavior. a. catalyst b. reinforcer c. converter d. unconditioned stimulus

b. reinforcer

After a response has been extinguished, it is quite common for the response to reappear spontaneously if a person ___________. a. is continuously exposed to the original stimulus b. returns to the original setting where the conditioning took place c. experiences the same unconditioned stimulus repeatedly d. is made to think about the situation and the stimulus

b. returns to the original setting where the conditioning took place

Most teens start smoking because they seek some of the rewards that appear to come with smoking: coolness, peer acceptance, and looking like an adult. All of these rewards are ____________ reinforcers. a. conditioned b. secondary c. primary d. explicit

b. secondary

Habituation refers to a: a. cognitive process that results in increased response to a stimulus. b. sensory process in which the change is a fairly short-lived one. c. sensory process in which organisms adapt to intermittent stimulation. d. cognitive process that results in decreased response to a stimulus.

b. sensory process in which the change is a fairly short-lived one.

Albert Bandura called learning by doing ____________. enactive learning integrative learning latent learning operant learning

enactive learning

When people learn from their own successes and failures and from trial and error, it is an example of ______. enactive learning observational learning operant learning latent learning

enactive learning

Dominique had a car accident while driving over a bridge and thereafter developed an intense phobia of driving over bridges. In an effort to cure Dominique's phobia, a psychologist gradually motivated him to drive over bridges. After many sessions of having nonthreatening experiences while driving over bridges, Dominique's phobia was cured. This is an example of ______. habituation stimulus generalization extinction backward conditioning

extinction

Which of the following statements is true regarding primary reinforcers? a. Primary reinforcers are learned by association. b. Primary reinforcers often satisfy psychological needs. c. Food, water, and sex are primary reinforcers. d. Money, grades, and peer approval are primary reinforcers.

c. Food, water, and sex are primary reinforcers.

Rats that live in enriched laboratory environments show growth in which of the following brain regions? a. Cerebellum b. Amygdala c. Hippocampus d. Corpus callosum

c. Hippocampus

According to the research of van Praag, Kempermann, and Gage (1999), which of the following people will most likely experience neurogenesis? a. Hank, who loves interacting with his classmates b. Velma, who is learning how to play the piano c. Jack, who takes part in running races d. Celeste, who reads books

c. Jack, who takes part in running races

Which of the following terms, coined by Albert Bandura, refers to the process of observing and imitating behaviors performed by others? a. Conditioning b. Shaping c. Modeling d. Reinforcement

c. Modeling

Imprinting and sensitivity periods in learning remind us that: a. punishment is more effective in changing behavior than negative reinforcement. b. the mind is a blank slate, able to learn anything at any time, given the right reinforcement. c. certain kinds of experiences are more or less easily learned at different periods in life. d. all forms of learning depend on rewards and reinforcement, at least to some degree.

c. certain kinds of experiences are more or less easily learned at different periods in life.

In order to discourage smoking, some public health campaigns show pictures of diseased lungs or smokers who look older than they are. This is an example of ___________. a. continuous reinforcement b. imprinting c. classical conditioning d. latent learning

c. classical conditioning

Association, which is a form of learning, can be defined as the ______. A.organized response to a repeated stimulus B. link between two events in the environment C. voluntary response that diminishes over time D. ever-changing model of behavior based on repetition

link between two events in the environment

Billy, a five-year-old boy, sees his father applying shaving cream on his face while shaving his beard in front of a mirror. Billy copies his father's facial and hand movements and later that day Billy stands in front of the mirror and pretends to shave. Billy's behavior is an example of ___________. dark adaption learning by association mimicry habituation

mimicry

Revoking a child's TV-watching privileges for repeatedly hitting a sibling is a form of ___________ if it stops the hitting. positive reinforcement positive punishment negative reinforcement negative punishment

negative punishment

Some people continue smoking cigarettes because it reduces stress, social isolation, and appetite. From a learning perspective, these reductions can be considered as ___________. conditioned stimuli negative reinforcers conditioned responses instinctive drifts

negative reinforcers

Smoking can cause the arousal of the sympathetic nervous system and mild relaxation of the muscles. From a learning perspective these are considered ___________. positive reinforcers instinctive drifts unconditioned stimuli negative punishments

positive reinforcers

After a response has been extinguished, it is quite common for the response to reappear spontaneously if a person ___________. is continuously exposed to the original stimulus returns to the original setting where the conditioning took place experiences the same unconditioned stimulus repeatedly is made to think about the situation and the stimulus

returns to the original setting where the conditioning took place

Most teens start smoking because they seek some of the rewards that appear to come with smoking: coolness, peer acceptance, and looking like an adult. All of these rewards are ____________ reinforcers. conditioned secondary primary explicit

secondary

From birth, animals are inclined toward readily learning some things and not others. Biology makes it possible for humans, but not chimpanzees, to ___________. talk listen lift run

talk

In operant conditioning, the word "negative" (preceding the term "reinforcement" or "punishment") indicates: the desirability of a stimulus. the ineffectiveness of a stimulus. the removal of a stimulus. the effectiveness of a stimulus.

the removal of a stimulus.

When Ivan Pavlov accidentally discovered classical conditioning, a simple association was formed between: the sound of the apparatus and the meat powder. the sight of Pavlov and salivation. the meat powder and salivation. salivation and the sound of the apparatus.

the sound of the apparatus and the meat powder.

The episodic buffer holds auditory information in working memory. True False

False

The primacy effect refers to memory for important items on a list. True False

False

There are two types of explicit memory: declarative and non-declarative. True False

False

__________ is to nondeclarative memory as ___________ is to declarative memory. A. Semantic; episodic B. Implicit; explicit C. Episodic; semantic D. Explicit; semantic

B. Implicit; explicit

As per the criteria laid out by Pavlov, in which of the following instances is stimulus-response conditioning between unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and conditioned stimulus (CS) LEAST likely to occur? A) When the UCS precedes the neutral stimulus B) When the UCS and the neutral stimulus are presented at the same time C) When the UCS and the neutral stimulus are presented very close together in time D) When there are multiple pairings of UCS and neutral stimulus

A

Once we have mastered the skill of riding a bicycle, we don't have to learn to ride a bicycle every time we want to go for a spin. What is the reason behind this? A) New knowledge is stored in networks in the brain. B) Information moves from sensory to short-term memory. C) Learning and memory work separately. D) Information moves from implicit to explicit memory.

A

What effect does modeling and reward have on learned aggressive behavior? A) Kids are more likely to copy behavior that they see others being rewarded for. B) Children's aggressive behavior can be suppressed through punishment. C) Adults are less likely to demonstrate behavior that they see others being rewarded for. D) Kids can learn aggression through exposure to amicable adult models.

A

Which of the following is an example of negative punishment? A) Giving a child a "time-out" from a play session for throwing tantrums B) Giving a child a piece of candy to stop him from misbehaving at the grocery store C) Tapping a dog on his snout when he barks at the owner D) Saying "NO!" sharply to a pet when it jumps on a guest

A

Which of the following young children is most likely to experience the highest neural growth? A) Jade, whose parents constantly buy her new toys, action figures, and games B) Maria, whose parents encourage her to indulge in activities such as running C) Amanda, whose parents painted her room in the colors she likes D) Julio, whose parents hired an excellent babysitter to watch him during the day

A

Why did Skinner and Watson ignore the role of cognitive and brain processes in learning? A) Because they could not be observed B) Because they could lead to treacherous results C) Because they could not be experimented with D) Because they were not suitable for group studies

A

Which of the following is true about consolidation as a processing stage in long-term memory? A. A consolidated memory is resistant to distraction, interference, and decay. B. Consolidation is the retention of memory over time. C. Consolidation helps remember where one put that birthday gift that one had bought earlier. D. The process of consolidation happens in two ways: automatic processing and effortful processing.

A. A consolidated memory is resistant to distraction, interference, and decay.

_____ is a form of forgetfulness that involves attention as well as memory. A. Absent-mindedness B. Repression C. Interference D. Blocking

A. Absent-mindedness

Which cortex is located in the temporal lobes? A. Auditory B. Olfactory C. Somatosensory D. Visual

A. Auditory

Which of the following is a protein that switches on genes responsible for the development of new synapses? A. CREB B. Ghrelin C. Insulin D. GABA

A. CREB

______________ memories are the ones that require conscious effort for retrieval. A. Explicit B. Procedural C. Working D. Echoic

A. Explicit

Which of the following is true about explicit memory? A. Explicit memory is the conscious recall of facts and events. B. Priming is a kind of explicit memory that occurs when recall is improved by prior exposure to the same or similar stimuli. C. Explicit memory refers to knowledge one holds for almost any behavior or physical skill one learns. D. When one knows or remembers something but does not consciously remember it, one is tapping into explicit memory.

A. Explicit memory is the conscious recall of facts and events.

______________ memory is a brief visual record left on the retina of the eye. A. Iconic B. Implicit C. Echoic D. Working

A. Iconic

Which of the following is true about effortful processing? A. It is the basis of semantic memory. B. It happens with little effort or conscious attention to the task. C. Experiences stored with the help of effortful processing are less likely to be recalled later. D. Episodic memory involves effortful processing.

A. It is the basis of semantic memory.

Which of the following statements best describes the concept of classical conditioning? A. Organisms learn from the relations between stimuli. B. Organisms learn from the consequences of their behavior. C. Organisms learn by observing the behavior of others. D. Organisms learn from their voluntary responses which develop over time.

A. Organisms learn from the relations between stimuli.

____________ refers to the knowledge one holds for almost any behavior or physical skill that one learns. A. Procedural memory B. Sensory memory C. Explicit memory D. Episodic memory

A. Procedural memory

_________________ acts as a filter through which one encodes and organizes information about one's world. A. Schemas B. Networks C. Hierarchies D. Data designs

A. Schemas

______________ memory is our memory for facts and knowledge. A. Semantic B. Episodic C. Implicit D. Iconic

A. Semantic

Which of the following statements is true about transcranial direct current stimulation? A. The technique is usually considered painless and safe. B. A very high voltage is administered via four or more electrodes placed on the scalp of an individual. C. Research indicates that negatively charged stimulation increases memory in general. D. Transcranial electrical stimulation of the frontal lobe during slow wave sleep impairs recall of word pairs among people.

A. The technique is usually considered painless and safe.

Vivienne had a vivid memory of being nearly kidnapped as a child. However, this never happened. This erroneous recall is an example of a(n): A. false memory. B. repressed memory. C. autobiographical memory. D. recovered memory.

A. false memory.

Research on forgetting began in the 1880s with Herman Ebbinghaus, who found that recall shows a steady decline over time. This decline is now termed as Ebbinghaus's: A. forgetting curve. B. serial position effect. C. neurological basis for forgetting. D. connection between memory and the amygdala.

A. forgetting curve.

The most solid evidence of the effects of herbs on memory suggests that the ground-up leaves of the ______ tree can be moderately effective in delaying symptoms of mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease. A. ginkgo biloba B. portulaca oleracea C. echinacea D. St. John's wort

A. ginkgo biloba

Aaliyah remembers how to drive a car with a manual transmission, but when asked how she does it, she just says, "I don't know—it's automatic." This is an example of her: A. implicit memory. B. priming. C. semantic memory. D. episodic memory.

A. implicit memory.

In Baddeley's model of short-term memory, the _______________ assists the central executive by providing extra storage for a limited number of digits or words for up to 30 seconds at a time. A. phonological loop B. central executive C. visuospatial sketch pad D. episodic buffer

A. phonological loop

The main explanation for the ______________ effect is that the items at the beginning of a list are quickly rehearsed and transferred to long-term memory storage. A. primacy B. recency C. halo D. intermediate

A. primacy

Jacques wants to remember a phone number, so he repeats it aloud until he types and saves the number in his cell phone. He is using the process of: A. rehearsal. B. repression. C. retrieval. D. recognition.

A. rehearsal.

According to Baddeley's model of short-term memory, the central executive will have trouble _____________ in people who have sustained damage to their frontal lobes. A. screening out irrelevant information from the environment B. remembering new experiences C. processing and recalling language communicated to them D. recalling information about previous injuries

A. screening out irrelevant information from the environment

In the context of word-recall studies, ______ is the deepest level of processing. A. semantic processing B. automatic processing C. structural processing D. phonemic processing

A. semantic processing

Participants in studies of __________________ are asked to think about the meaning of the words. A. semantic processing B. automatic processing C. effortful processing D. phonemic processing

A. semantic processing

Memories for behaviors and skills are implicit and are mostly processed in the: A. subcortex. B. neocortex. C. parietal lobe. D. temporal lobe.

A. subcortex.

From birth, animals are inclined toward readily learning some things and not others. Biology makes it possible for humans, but not chimpanzees, to ___________. A. talk B. listen C. lift D. run

A. talk

Electrical stimulation of the brain is technically called ______. A. transcranial direct current stimulation B. cortical stimulation C. transcranial magnetic stimulation D. peripheral nerve and field stimulation

A. transcranial direct current stimulation

Catalina ate a candy bar and then went on a fast-moving ride in an amusement park. She was sick to her stomach after the ride and now, Catalina cannot eat candy bars, because they make her nauseous. In this learned association, the candy bar serves as a(n) ___________ to Catalina. A) conditioned response B) conditioned stimulus C) unconditioned response D) unconditioned stimulus

B

Drake teaches his three-year-old daughter, Sarah, how to sharpen a pencil. The next day, Sarah successfully sharpens her pencils. This scenario is an example of ______. A) dark adaption B) mimicry C) learning by association D) habituation

B

Juan hears his older brother singing loudly while in the shower, and now Juan also imitates it. According to Bandura's social learning theory, this is an example of ___________. A) conditioning B) modeling C) imprinting D) habituation

B

Which of the following is an example of positive reinforcement? A) Thomas is tired; he drinks coffee to stay awake. B) Ravi is given a candy by his mother for cleaning his shoes. C) Greta gets caught while speeding and the police officer gives her a ticket. D) Cindy loses her credit points because she submits her homework late.

B

Which of the following situations is most likely to occur according to the law of effect? A) A person who does not receive a desired message is more likely to check e-mails more often. B) A person who receives a reply that is more interesting than an ongoing lecture is more likely to keep on texting. C) A person who feels less energetic after drinking coffee one morning is more likely to have coffee every morning. D) A person who injures his knee while exercising a few times is more likely to exercise more often.

B

To remember the four bases found in DNA—thymine, guanine, adenine, and cytosine—Luke makes up a sentence using the first letter from each base as the first letters for his words, repeating to himself, "The Girl Ate Cookies." Which of the following did Luke use in this scenario? A. The method of loci B. A mnemonic device C. Chunking D. Rhyming

B. A mnemonic device

_________________ processing happens with little effort or conscious attention to the task. A. Effortful B. Automatic C. Structural D. Phonological

B. Automatic

______ can be defined as the inability to retrieve some information that one once stored—say, a person's name or an old phone number. A. Suggestibility B. Blocking C. Absent-mindedness D. Interference

B. Blocking

____________ are networks of nerve cells that persist even after stimulation has stopped. A. Feature detectors B. Cell assemblies C. Olfactory neurons D. Glial cells

B. Cell assemblies

______________ memory is short-term retention of sounds. A. Procedural B. Echoic C. Explicit D. Working

B. Echoic

________________, as a stage in long-term memory, is the means by which one attends to, takes in, and processes new information. A. Consolidation B. Encoding C. Storage D. Retrieval

B. Encoding

_____________ is a well-known model of memory storage that integrates associative and neural networks. A. Cybernetics B. Parallel distributed processing C. Dynamic systems processing D. Brainstorming

B. Parallel distributed processing

___________ is a kind of implicit memory that occurs when recall is improved by prior exposure to the same or similar stimuli. A. Encoding B. Priming C. Effortful processing D. Retrieving

B. Priming

____________ decrease the frequency of behavior. A. Reinforcers B. Punishers C. Stimulators D. Converters

B. Punishers

Jiao is trying to remember where she kept the receipt of the birthday gift she bought her mother. In which stage of long-term memory processing is Jiao engaged? A. Storage B. Retrieval C. Encoding D. Consolidation

B. Retrieval

___________ is made up of the brief traces of a sensation left by the firing of neurons in the brain. A. Short-term memory B. Sensory memory C. False memory D. Long-term memory

B. Sensory memory

_____ occurs when memories are implanted in our minds based on leading questions, comments, or suggestions from someone else or some other source. A. Implanting B. Suggestibility C. Absent-mindedness D. Anterograde amnesia

B. Suggestibility

Which of the following senses lack their own processing regions? A. Sound B. Taste C. Vision D. Touch

B. Taste

Which of the following enables one to repeat the information to oneself as long as one needs to retain it? A. The serial position effect B. The rehearsal system C. Priming D. Effortful processing

B. The rehearsal system

While training his dog, Mark first says the word "sit" and once the dog sits, he gives her a treat. Immediately after this, he says, "Good dog!" He repeats the same process many times, and each time his dog sits after listening to his command. In this example, which of the following is the primary reinforcer? A. The words "good dog" B. The treat C. The word "sit" D. Mark

B. The treat

Which of the following can be described as a serial position effect? A. When learning a list of items, people are able to recall all the items in serial order. B. When learning a list of items, people are better able to recall items at the beginning and end of the list; they tend to forget the items in the middle. C. Older adults have the tendency to have increased recollection for events that occurred during their adolescence and early adulthood. D. The side of a printed media presented first will have greater effectiveness than the side presented subsequently.

B. When learning a list of items, people are better able to recall items at the beginning and end of the list; they tend to forget the items in the middle.

Aricept and Reminyl are two medications that are approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease because they: A. facilitate in reconstructing the hippocampus. B. boost levels of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. C. thicken the cortex of the frontal lobes. D. prevent deterioration of the temporal lobes.

B. boost levels of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

In Alan Baddeley's model of short-term memory, the _______________ decides where to focus attention and selectively hones in on specific aspects of a stimulus. A. phonological loop B. central executive C. visuospatial sketch pad D. episodic buffer

B. central executive

The second stage of long-term memory formation is: A. storage. B. consolidation. C. retrieval. D. encoding.

B. consolidation.

Researcher Eric Kandel's work with sea slugs showed that: A. repetition of experiences can actually lead to synaptic death. B. conversion from short-term to long-term memory storage requires spaced repetition. C. the neuronal basis for memory in lower animals is extremely different than that of humans. D. repeated experience does not strengthen long-term potentiation.

B. conversion from short-term to long-term memory storage requires spaced repetition.

Advancing age tends to lessen recall for events and experiences that require ____________ processing but not ______________ processing. A. structural; effortful B. effortful; automatic C. automatic; phonological D. phonological; structural

B. effortful; automatic

Neil is participating in an experiment where numbers are flashed on a computer screen for a few milliseconds, and then it goes blank. He is subsequently asked to recall the numbers. Neil is participating in a study that is most likely examining his ______________ memory. A. tactile B. iconic C. echoic D. olfactory

B. iconic

The learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement and is not demonstrated until later when reinforcement occurs, is called ____________. A. conditioned learning B. latent learning C. implicit learning D. operant learning

B. latent learning

To study _______________, researchers ask questions to focus participants' attention on the sound of the word. A. structural processing B. midlevel processing C. semantic processing D. effortful processing

B. midlevel processing

Each concept or association in a network is referred to as a: A. schema. B. node. C. rod. D. cone.

B. node.

Whenever Julia gets ready for school on time, she gets a chocolate from her mother. Hence, Julia always tries to get ready on time. This is an example of ______ type of learning. A. explicit conditioning B. operant conditioning C. observational conditioning D. backward conditioning

B. operant conditioning

Oscar is trying to remember the names of people he meets at his new job. He says he will remember the name of his co-worker Trish, because she always has a dish of candy on her desk, and "Trish" rhymes with "dish." This is an example of ______ processing. A. semantic B. phonemic C. automatic D. structural

B. phonemic

Of the following, _____ occurs mostly in the cortex. A. encoding B. priming C. retrieving D. rehearsing

B. priming

Chelsea is trying to learn Spanish. However, she is finding it difficult to learn Spanish because of her tendency to apply English grammar to the Spanish language. This is an example of: A. decay. B. proactive interference. C. the forgetting curve. D. retroactive interference.

B. proactive interference.

A memory from a real event, which was encoded and stored and not retrieved for a long period of time, but then is retrieved after some later event brings it suddenly to consciousness, is termed as a _____ memory. A. false B. recovered C. blocked D. repressed

B. recovered

A(n) ____________ is defined as any internal or external event that increases the frequency of a behavior. A. catalyst B. reinforcer C. converter D. unconditioned stimulus

B. reinforcer

After a response has been extinguished, it is quite common for the response to reappear spontaneously if a person ___________. A. is continuously exposed to the original stimulus B. returns to the original setting where the conditioning took place C. experiences the same unconditioned stimulus repeatedly D. is made to think about the situation and the stimulus

B. returns to the original setting where the conditioning took place

Local phone numbers in the United States are seven digits long because: A. most people can transfer seven digits into long-term memory instantly, bypassing short-term memory. B. the short-term memory capacity of most people is between five and nine units of digits. C. sensory memory for numbers is very expansive and can handle such large quantities of digits. D. when polled, early phone customers requested this many digits in their phone numbers.

B. the short-term memory capacity of most people is between five and nine units of digits.

Diah says, "I know his name! He's married to that famous actress, and he was in all those action movies! His name begins with an A!...I just cannot remember it!" Diah is experiencing: A. divided attention. B. the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. C. proactive interference. D. repression.

B. the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.

The _____ cortex is located in the occipital lobes. A. auditory B. visual C. somatosensory D. olfactory

B. visual

Why did Skinner and Watson ignore the role of cognitive and brain processes in learning? Because they could not be observed Because they could lead to treacherous results Because they could not be experimented with Because they were not suitable for group studies

Because they could not be observed

According to the research of van Praag, Kempermann, and Gage (1999), which of the following people will most likely experience neurogenesis? A) Hank, who loves interacting with his classmates B) Velma, who is learning how to play the piano C) Jack, who takes part in running races D) Celeste, who reads books

C

Bandura's famous studies incorporating a Bobo doll were powerful in that they demonstrated which of the following? A) Adults can learn aggression through both reinforcement and punishment. B) Adults can teach aggression to children by reinforcing children's aggressive behavior. C) Children can learn aggression through exposure to aggressive adult models. D) Children's aggressive behavior can be suppressed through punishment.

C

Billy, a five-year-old boy, sees his father applying shaving cream on his face while shaving his beard in front of a mirror. Billy copies his father's facial and hand movements and later that day Billy stands in front of the mirror and pretends to shave. Billy's behavior is an example of ___________. A) dark adaption B) learning by association C) mimicry D) habituation

C

Darren had eaten a cheeseburger right before he felt extremely nauseous from the flu. Now, every time Darren smells a cheeseburger he feels nauseous. In this scenario, what is Darren experiencing? A) Extinction B) Habituation C) Conditioned taste aversion D) Instinctual drift

C

Dominique had a car accident while driving over a bridge and thereafter developed an intense phobia of driving over bridges. In an effort to cure Dominique's phobia, a psychologist gradually motivated him to drive over bridges. After many sessions of having nonthreatening experiences while driving over bridges, Dominique's phobia was cured. This is an example of ______. A) habituation B) stimulus generalization C) extinction D) backward conditioning

C

Five-year old Hannah learns how to operate the TV remote by watching her mother use it. This is an example of ___________. A) classical conditioning B) operant conditioning C) observational learning D) latent learning

C

Imprinting and sensitivity periods in learning remind us that: A) punishment is more effective in changing behavior than negative reinforcement. B) the mind is a blank slate, able to learn anything at any time, given the right reinforcement. C) certain kinds of experiences are more or less easily learned at different periods in life. D) all forms of learning depend on rewards and reinforcement, at least to some degree.

C

In order to discourage smoking, some public health campaigns show pictures of diseased lungs or smokers who look older than they are. This is an example of ___________. A) continuous reinforcement B) imprinting C) classical conditioning D) latent learning

C

Jiao, who is 13 years old, watches videos of several teen music idols smoking cigarettes and thinks that all 'cool' people smoke. Therefore, she begins to smoke. This is an example of ___________. A) reinforcement B) habituation C) modeling D) enactive learning

C

What is the distinction between classical conditioning and operant conditioning? A) Classical conditioning involves instant learning whereas operant conditioning involves learning over time. B) Classical conditioning involves learning over time whereas operant conditioning involves instant learning. C) Classical conditioning involves learning based on associations between stimuli whereas operant conditioning involves learning based on behavioral consequences. D) Classical conditioning involves learning based on behavioral consequences whereas operant conditioning involves learning based on associations between stimuli.

C

Which of the following statements is true regarding association? A) An association is formed between two events only when they are accompanied by rewards. B) For an association to occur between two events, the two events should have a logical connection. C) When two events are associated, the occurrence of one event may come to suggest that the other will occur. D) Forming an association between two events is the most difficult and complex form of learning.

C

Which of the following statements is true regarding primary reinforcers? A) Primary reinforcers are learned by association. B) Primary reinforcers often satisfy psychological needs. C) Food, water, and sex are primary reinforcers. D) Money, grades, and peer approval are primary reinforcers.

C

Which of these statements is most likely to be made by psychologist B. F. Skinner? A) People always avoid situations that do not provide enough rewards. B) Backward conditioning is the most effective tool of behavior modification. C) People are more likely to repeat a behavior that has been rewarded. D) Observation is used as a tool to effectively modify behaviors of people.

C

Monita, a three-year-old, is afraid of going to the park because she had had an accident there. Which part of Monita's brain is most involved in this case? A. Inferior colliculus B. Nucleus accumbens C. Amygdala D. Cerebellum

C. Amygdala

Which of the following statements is true regarding continuous reinforcement? A. Compared to intermittent reinforcement, continuous reinforcement produces a stronger response in terms of the rate of responding. B. In continuous reinforcement, reinforcement follows a set number of responses. C. Continuous reinforcement means rewarding a behavior every time it occurs. D. Compared to intermittent reinforcement, continuous reinforcement produces responses that are more resistant to extinction.

C. Continuous reinforcement means rewarding a behavior every time it occurs.

_______________ memory is one's memory for the experiences one has had. A. Echoic B. Semantic C. Episodic D. Implicit

C. Episodic

________________ memory is the conscious recall of facts and events. A. Procedural B. Implicit C. Explicit D. Echoic

C. Explicit

_____ memories are memories for events that never happened, but were suggested by someone or something. A. Semantic B. Recovered C. False D. Working

C. False

Which of the following statements is true regarding primary reinforcers? A. Primary reinforcers are learned by association. B. Primary reinforcers often satisfy psychological needs. C. Food, water, and sex are primary reinforcers. D. Money, grades, and peer approval are primary reinforcers.

C. Food, water, and sex are primary reinforcers.

Which of the following statements is true about the effects of prescription and nonprescription stimulants on memory? A. The negative effects of prescription drugs such as Adderall or Ritalin happen only in low doses. B. Caffeine in general and over-the-counter energy drinks have no effects in their capacity to enhance memory. C. Higher doses of prescription stimulants can actually interfere with and block memory formation. D. There is nonclinical trial evidence that long-term, foods and drinks rich in flavonoids reduce memory and impair cognitive function.

C. Higher doses of prescription stimulants can actually interfere with and block memory formation.

________________ memories are retrieved without conscious effort. A. Semantic B. Iconic C. Implicit D. Echoic

C. Implicit

Which of the following is true about automatic processing? A. It involves rehearsal of the information. B. It is the basis of semantic memory. C. It happens with little effort or conscious attention to the task. D. It goes from short-term to long-term memory.

C. It happens with little effort or conscious attention to the task.

Which of the following is true about short-term memory? A. It is made up of the brief traces of a sensation left by the firing of neurons in the brain. B. Iconic memory is a kind of short-term memory. C. It is a place to temporarily store information when one needs while working on a problem. D. It is what most people think of when they think of memory.

C. It is a place to temporarily store information when one needs while working on a problem.

Which of the following is true about encoding as a processing stage in long-term memory? A. It is the retention of memory over time. B. It is the process of establishing, stabilizing, or solidifying a memory. C. It is driven by attention. D. It is the recovery of information stored in memory.

C. It is driven by attention.

Which of the following is true about retrieval as a processing stage in long-term memory? A. It refers to the knowledge one holds for almost any behavior or physical skill one learns. B. Psychologists describe two kinds of retrieval process: automatic processing and effortful processing. C. It is the recovery of information stored in memory. D. It is the third stage of long-term memory formation.

C. It is the recovery of information stored in memory.

Which of the following is true about sensory memory? A. Knowledge of how to ride a bike is stored in sensory memory. B. It is the part of memory required to attend to and solve a problem at hand. C. It usually holds information in its original sensory form for a very brief period of time. D. It can be transferred to long-term memory if it is practiced.

C. It usually holds information in its original sensory form for a very brief period of time.

Which is the most complex form of memory that has two distinct types and four distinct stages of processing? A. Sensory memory B. Primary memory C. Long-term memory D. Short-term memory

C. Long-term memory

______________ are computer models that imitate the way neurons talk to each other. A. Data warehouses B. Associative networks C. Neural networks D. Expert systems

C. Neural networks

_____ interference occurs when previously learned information interferes with the learning of new information. A. Output B. Long-term C. Proactive D. Retroactive

C. Proactive

Which of the following is the last process in Alan Baddeley's model of the working memory? A. Attending to a stimulus B. Retrieving information from memory C. Rehearsing the stored process D. Storing information about a stimulus

C. Rehearsing the stored process

______, in which retrieval of memories that have been encoded and stored is actively inhibited, is the unconscious act of keeping threatening thoughts, feelings, or impulses out of consciousness. A. Absent-mindedness B. Interference C. Repression D. Suggestibility

C. Repression

During a quiz, Nick is asked to state the capital city of Idaho. Which of the following memory types is most likely to aid him in retrieving the answer? A. Episodic memory B. Procedural memory C. Semantic memory D. Sensory memory

C. Semantic memory

____________, the retention of memory over time, is the third stage of long-term memory formation. A. Consolidation B. Encoding C. Storage D. Retrieval

C. Storage

____________ processing occurs when one carefully attends and puts conscious effort into remembering information. A. Automatic B. Structural C. Phonological D. Effortful

D. Effortful

"ROY G. BIV" is an example of a(n) _____________ that helps one remember the colors of the rainbow—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. A. antonym B. alliteration C. acronym D. synonym

C. acronym

Repression is an example of: A. interference. B. absent-mindedness. C. blocking. D. suggestibility.

C. blocking.

The string of digits 17749991941 is difficult for most people to remember, but breaking them up into 177, 999,1941 in a process called ____________ makes it easier. A. method of loci B. deep processing C. chunking D. rehearsing

C. chunking

Of the following, ____________ is the first processing stage in long-term memory. A. storage B. retrieval C. encoding D. consolidation

C. encoding

According to Baddeley's model of short-term memory, the _______________ is a temporary store for information that will become long-term memories of specific events. A. phonological loop B. central executive C. episodic buffer D. visuospatial sketch pad

C. episodic buffer

Roxanne knows she will remember her wedding day forever. First, however, her wedding memories have to process in her working memory and temporarily store in: A. implicit memory. B. procedural memory. C. episodic buffer. D. automatic processing.

C. episodic buffer.

Research shows that flies bred to have an excess of CREB exhibited: A. olfactory deficits. B. an inability to remember their offspring. C. excellent memories. D. aggression toward unfamiliar flies.

C. excellent memories.

In a ____________, reinforcement always follows the first response after a set amount of time. A. variable-interval schedule B. variable-ratio schedule C. fixed-interval schedule D. fixed-ratio schedule

C. fixed-interval schedule

Memory consolidation takes place in the: A. amygdala. B. prefrontal cortex. C. hippocampus. D. pons.

C. hippocampus.

Abdul looks around in his house for his wallet but cannot find it. He realizes that the last time he saw his wallet was at the grocery store. He looks in the freezer and finds his wallet next to the ice cream he bought at the store. Abdul's forgetfulness most likely occurred because: A. the memory of his wallet was transient. B. the memory of the ice cream had persistence. C. his attention was divided. D. he experienced proactive interference.

C. his attention was divided.

When one knows or remembers something but does not consciously know that one remembers it, then one is said to be tapping into: A. semantic memory. B. explicit memory. C. implicit memory. D. episodic memory.

C. implicit memory.

Memories of one's first pet and how to read reside in: A. short-term memory. B. sensory memory. C. long-term memory. D. primary memory.

C. long-term memory.

Billy, a five-year-old boy, sees his father applying shaving cream on his face while shaving his beard in front of a mirror. Billy copies his father's facial and hand movements and later that day Billy stands in front of the mirror and pretends to shave. Billy's behavior is an example of ___________. A. dark adaption B. learning by association C. mimicry D. habituation

C. mimicry

Hebb's law states that: A. neurons release the same set of transmitters at all of their synapses. B. the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. C. neurons that fire together wire together. D. when the synapse of one neuron repeatedly fires and excites another neuron, there is a temporary change in the receiving neuron.

C. neurons that fire together wire together.

Storing and recalling a shopping list is an everyday example of the function of the: A. visuospatial sketch pad. B. central executive. C. phonological loop. D. episodic buffer.

C. phonological loop.

Recall for items at the end of a list is known as the: A. continuity effect. B. intermediate effect. C. recency effect. D. primacy effect.

C. recency effect.

Denji, a 44-year-old man, almost gets hit by a car while crossing a road. He suddenly remembers being in a terrible car accident as a small child. His father confirms that it did, indeed, happen, but they never discussed it with Denji. Psychologists would call this a(n): A. false memory. B. autobiographical memory. C. recovered memory. D. repressed memory.

C. recovered memory.

T/F: An unconditioned response is caused by either a conditioned stimulus or an unconditioned stimulus.

False

Someone who has posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) will: A. experience a shift from one personality to another when under extreme stress. B. alternate between feelings of extreme hopelessness and extreme elation. C. relive an extremely traumatic event over and over. D. experience neurological symptoms such as blindness and paralysis with no organic cause.

C. relive an extremely traumatic event over and over.

The inability to remember the name of a person only minutes after meeting her, even if he repeats her name immediately after hearing it, is a common __________ problem. A. structural B. morphological C. retrieval D. positioning

C. retrieval

Keith first studied for his sociology exam and then for his psychology exam in the same evening. When it was time for him to take his sociology exam, all he could remember was psychology material. Keith's forgetting is an example of: A. retrograde amnesia. B. proactive interference. C. retroactive interference. D. anterograde amnesia.

C. retroactive interference

Hovan remembers the names of the presidents of the United States of America in the order in which they held office. Some would say that he has a pretty good ____________ memory. A. priming B. working C. semantic D. implicit

C. semantic

The reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior is called ___________. A. stimulus generalization B. habituation C. shaping D. backward conditioning

C. shaping

The ______ cortex is located in the parietal lobes. A. visual B. auditory C. somatosensory D. olfactory

C. somatosensory

While studying ______________ processing, researchers ask questions such as "Is the word in capital letters?" A. phonemic B. effortful C. structural D. semantic

C. structural

From the list that Jill made for a shopping trip to the grocery store, she could recall only the items in the beginning and in the end of a list. This is called: A. a Type I error. B. a heuristic. C. the serial position effect. D. retrograde amnesia.

C. the serial position effect.

In the late 19th century, Mary Whiton Calkins observed an interesting phenomenon if short-term memory called: A. the law of primacy. B. the reminiscence bump. C. the serial position effect. D. free recall.

C. the serial position effect.

Bandura's famous studies incorporating a Bobo doll were powerful in that they demonstrated which of the following? Adults can learn aggression through both reinforcement and punishment. Adults can teach aggression to children by reinforcing children's aggressive behavior. Children can learn aggression through exposure to aggressive adult models. Children's aggressive behavior can be suppressed through punishment.

Children can learn aggression through exposure to aggressive adult models.

Which of the following statements is true regarding continuous reinforcement? Compared to intermittent reinforcement, continuous reinforcement produces a stronger response in terms of the rate of responding. In continuous reinforcement, reinforcement follows a set number of responses. Continuous reinforcement means rewarding a behavior every time it occurs. Compared to intermittent reinforcement, continuous reinforcement produces responses that are more resistant to extinction.

Continuous reinforcement means rewarding a behavior every time it occurs.

Can negative reinforcers be punishers? A) No, because punishments are always positive. B) Yes, because punishments are always negative. C) Yes, because negative reinforcers decrease desired behaviors. D) No, because negative reinforcers increase desired behaviors.

D

Classical conditioning occurs when an organism ___________. A) modifies its behavior as a result of experiencing the consequences of its actions over a period of time B) increases the likelihood of a behavior for a reward such as money or peer approval C) extends the association between a conditioned response and a consequence D) associates a previously neutral stimulus with a stimulus to which it has an automatic, inborn response

D

There is always a distinct scent of olive oil and serrano chilies whenever Salma enters her aunt's home. She no longer notices the smells after staying a little while inside the house. This scenario is an example of ______. A) dark adaptation B) learning by association C) mimicry D) habituation

D

Which of the following facts regarding reinforcement was noted by Albert Bandura? A) Negative reinforcement is more effective in shaping behavior than positive reinforcement. B) Positive reinforcement can be effective only after an unconditioned stimulus is associated with a conditioned stimulus. C) Punishment is more effective in shaping behavior than negative reinforcement. D) Reinforcement matters not only for the person carrying out the behavior, but also for those who watch.

D

Which of the following statements is true regarding the impact of an animal's instincts, or natural predispositions, on their ability to learn? A) Learning is about nurture and not nature, so instincts are not a factor in learning. B) An animal's instinctive drift and biological constraints overrule the limits nature places on nurture. C) Scientists have not yet developed any models of the relationship between learning and instinct. D) Biological constraints will make some behaviors more or less likely to be learned.

D

Which of these techniques would work best to change a behavior? A) Lori's parents sent her to her room after she threw mashed potatoes at her brother. B) Raj's mother slapped him on the hand for taking a cookie from the cookie jar. C) Li's parents yelled at her for getting poor grades in her final exam. D) Jose's parents bought him a new toy truck for being nicer to his little sister.

D

Which of the following is the first process in researcher Alan Baddeley's model of the working memory? A. Retrieving information from memory B. Rehearsing the stored process C. Storing information about a stimulus D. Attending to a stimulus

D. Attending to a stimulus

For which state of long-term memory formation is sleep vital? A. Encoding B. Storage C. Retrieval D. Consolidation

D. Consolidation

Miguel is having a dinner party, but from the smell coming from his kitchen it is evident he burned whatever he was cooking. What is the order of the processing stages this burnt smell will go through to become a long-term memory for Miguel? A. Consolidation, storage, recognition, recall B. Storage, consolidation, encoding, recognition C. Storage, visuospatial loop, encoding, recall D. Encoding, consolidation, storage, retrieval

D. Encoding, consolidation, storage, retrieval

Which of the following is true about implicit memory? A. It is the memory for the experiences one has had. B. It refers to memories that can be deliberately accessed or declared. C. It is the conscious recalling of facts and events. D. It cannot be directly recalled.

D. It cannot be directly recalled.

Which of the following best describes the function of the visuospatial sketch pad? A. It permanently stores important distance and travel information, like one's route home. B. It serves as a mental canvas on which thinkers can mentally perform spatial rotation tasks. C. It provides long-term storage for three-dimensional memories. D. It provides brief storage for images, scenes, and photos.

D. It provides brief storage for images, scenes, and photos.

Which of the following is true about storage as a processing stage in long-term memory? A. The process of storing is driven by attention. B. Storage refers to processes like remembering where one put a birthday gift one had bought earlier. C. A stored memory is resistant to distraction, interference, and decay. D. Memories are stored in at least three ways: hierarchies, schemas, and networks.

D. Memories are stored in at least three ways: hierarchies, schemas, and networks.

____________ is the ability to store and use information. A. Amnesia B. Retrieval C. Schema D. Memory

D. Memory

_____ interference occurs when new experiences or information causes people to forget previously learned experiences or information. A. Long-term B. Output C. Proactive D. Retroactive

D. Retroactive

________________ can be defined as mental frameworks that develop from one's experiences with particular objects or events. A. Networks B. Data designs C. Hierarchies D. Schemas

D. Schemas

_____________ is the first step toward the creation of a long-term memory. A. Adaptation B. Transduction C. Perception D. Sensation

D. Sensation

_____________ memory is also called working memory, because it is the part of memory required to attend to and solve a problem at hand. A. Episodic B. Meta C. Sensory D. Short-term

D. Short-term

What part of memory stores limited information long enough to remember a phone number before one dials it? A. Sensory memory B. Implicit memory C. Long-term memory D. Short-term memory

D. Short-term memory

The ______ is involved in assigning emotional significance to events and is crucial in encoding information relevant to emotional experiences. A. thalamus B. fornix C. hippocampus D. amygdala

D. amygdala

The psychological process that binds concepts together is termed as: A. consolidation. B. encoding. C. retrieval. D. association.

D. association.

Parallel distributed processing (PDP) models of memory storage propose that: A. an individual attempting to encode new information must repeatedly rehearse that information. B. the spread of activation ensures all memories have equal chances of getting stored. C. the neural circuitry involved in long-term retention simultaneously evolved in humans and nonhuman primates. D. associations involve the simultaneous activity of many nodes.

D. associations involve the simultaneous activity of many nodes.

A(n) _____________ is a chain of linkages between related concepts. A. parallel distributed processing B. tensor product network C. neural network D. associative network

D. associative network

Meg easily recalls which route she took this morning to the salon that is three blocks away. This kind of recalling involves _______________ processing. A. structural B. phonological C. effortful D. automatic

D. automatic

T/F: The term "positive," in the context of learning, means favorable.

False

Diane was not paying attention to her boyfriend talking when all of a sudden something he said caught her attention. She said, "Wait a minute! Did you say something about marriage?" His mention of marriage left a trace in Diane's _____________ memory, and she subsequently paid attention to this information. A. iconic B. semantic C. implicit D. echoic

D. echoic

Demir is paying careful attention to his class notes and textbook, trying to master the material for an upcoming exam. Demir is engaging in: A. consolidation. B. automatic processing. C. retrieval. D. effortful processing.

D. effortful processing.

How well one remembers the material one studies for one's exam begins with one's effective: A. retrieval. B. recognition. C. storage. D. encoding.

D. encoding.

Julia vividly remembers the first time she met her boyfriend. This is an example of _____________ memory. A. sensory B. semantic C. implicit D. episodic

D. episodic

There is always a distinct scent of olive oil and serrano chilies whenever Salma enters her aunt's home. She no longer notices the smells after staying a little while inside the house. This scenario is an example of ______. A. dark adaptation B. learning by association C. mimicry D. habituation

D. habituation

Explicit memory refers to: A. something people know or remember but do not consciously know that they remember it. B. knowledge people hold for almost any behavior or physical skill they learn. C. knowledge that can be improved by prior exposure to the same or similar stimuli. D. memories that can be deliberately accessed or declared.

D. memories that can be deliberately accessed or declared.

Revoking a child's TV-watching privileges for repeatedly hitting a sibling is a form of ___________ if it stops the hitting. A. positive reinforcement B. positive punishment C. negative reinforcement D. negative punishment

D. negative punishment

Forward conditioning occurs when the ___________. A. conditioned response occurs before the neutral stimulus is presented B. unconditioned stimulus is presented before the neutral stimulus C. unconditioned stimulus is presented at the same time as the neutral stimulus D. neutral stimulus is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus

D. neutral stimulus is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus

The _____________ is a region of the brain that plays an important part in attention, appropriate social behavior, impulse control, and working memory. A. renal cortex B. adrenal cortex C. cell cortex D. prefrontal cortex

D. prefrontal cortex

The tendency to preferentially recall items at the beginning of a list is known as the: A. continuity effect. B. intermediate effect. C. recency effect. D. primacy effect.

D. primacy effect.

Pavlov defined ______ as fixed stimulus-response patterns. A. behaviors B. habits C. stimuli D. reflexes

D. reflexes

False memories are an example of: A. interference. B. blocking. C. repression. D. suggestibility.

D. suggestibility.

After the removal of his hippocampus, Henry Molaison was ______. A. unable to improve on any standard learning task B. unable to recall any events prior to the surgery C. able to intentionally bringing into awareness much of what he remembered D. unable to form new memories

D. unable to form new memories

____________ is the scientific study of animal behavior. Etiology Enology Ethology Entomology

Ethology

People displaying which of the following personality traits are more likely to start smoking and less likely to quit successfully? Conscientiousness Agreeableness Extraversion Intuitiveness

Extraversion

An unconditioned response is caused by either a conditioned stimulus or an unconditioned stimulus. True False

False

Consolidation is storing new memories for access when needed. True False

False

Explicit memory refers to memory information that should be ignored. True False

False

Ivan Pavlov was a psychologist. True False

False

Learning occurs when information in short-term memory remains in short-term memory and becomes permanent. True False

False

Which of the following is most likely to be essential for moving an experience from short-term to long-term memory? Connecting an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus Having experiences repeated over a short period of time Converting a change in response into habituation Connecting a conditioned response to an unconditioned stimulus

Having experiences repeated over a short period of time

Rats that live in enriched laboratory environments show growth in which of the following brain regions? Cerebellum Amygdala Hippocampus Corpus callosum

Hippocampus

____________ is defined as the rapid and innate learning of the characteristics of a caregiver within a very short period of time after birth. Imprinting Habituation Association Shaping

Imprinting

____________ provides clear evidence of a sensitivity period in learning. Stimulus discrimination Spontaneous recovery Association Imprinting

Imprinting

_____ challenges the behaviorist conviction that learning always results either from associating an event with an unconditioned stimulus or from shaping by reinforcement or punishment. Instinctive drift Conditioned response Stimulus generalization Backward conditioning

Instinctive drift

Which of the following is true with respect to Albert Bandura's social learning theory? It shows that most animals learn through classical and not operant conditioning. It claims that animals are primed from birth to readily learn some things but not others. It describes how a previously neutral stimulus can suddenly stimulate a response. It noted that observation and modeling are major components of learning.

It noted that observation and modeling are major components of learning.

According to the research of van Praag, Kempermann, and Gage (1999), which of the following people will most likely experience neurogenesis? Hank, who loves interacting with his classmates Velma, who is learning how to play the piano Jack, who takes part in running races Celeste, who reads books

Jack, who takes part in running races

Which of the following young children is most likely to experience the highest neural growth? Jade, whose parents constantly buy her new toys, action figures, and games Maria, whose parents encourage her to indulge in activities such as running Amanda, whose parents painted her room in the colors she likes Julio, whose parents hired an excellent babysitter to watch him during the day

Jade, whose parents constantly buy her new toys, action figures, and games

What effect does modeling and reward have on learned aggressive behavior? Kids are more likely to copy behavior that they see others being rewarded for. Children's aggressive behavior can be suppressed through punishment. Adults are less likely to demonstrate behavior that they see others being rewarded for. Kids can learn aggression through exposure to amicable adult models.

Kids are more likely to copy behavior that they see others being rewarded for.

Once we have mastered the skill of riding a bicycle, we don't have to learn to ride a bicycle every time we want to go for a spin. What is the reason behind this? A. New knowledge is stored in networks in the brain. B. Information moves from sensory to short-term memory. C. Learning and memory work separately. D. Information moves from implicit to explicit memory.

New knowledge is stored in networks in the brain.

Once we have mastered the skill of riding a bicycle, we don't have to learn to ride a bicycle every time we want to go for a spin. What is the reason behind this? New knowledge is stored in networks in the brain. Information moves from sensory to short-term memory. Learning and memory work separately. Information moves from implicit to explicit memory.

New knowledge is stored in networks in the brain.

Which of the following is most likely to be useful to help people kick the smoking habit? Imprinting Habituation Stimulus generalization Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning

Which of the following statements best describes the concept of operant conditioning? Organisms learn from the relations between stimuli. Organisms learn from the consequences of their behavior. Organisms learn by observing the behavior of others. Organisms learn from their involuntary responses which develop over time.

Organisms learn from the consequences of their behavior.

____________ decrease the frequency of behavior. Reinforcers Punishers Stimulators Converters

Punishers

Which of the following is an example of positive reinforcement? A. Thomas is tired; he drinks coffee to stay awake. B. Ravi is given a candy by his mother for cleaning his shoes. C. Greta gets caught while speeding and the police officer gives her a ticket. D. Cindy loses her credit points because she submits her homework late.

Ravi is given a candy by his mother for cleaning his shoes.

Which of the following facts regarding reinforcement was noted by Albert Bandura? Negative reinforcement is more effective in shaping behavior than positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement can be effective only after an unconditioned stimulus is associated with a conditioned stimulus. Punishment is more effective in shaping behavior than negative reinforcement. Reinforcement matters not only for the person carrying out the behavior, but also for those who watch.

Reinforcement matters not only for the person carrying out the behavior, but also for those who watch.

Newborn Kayla smiles when she sees her father smile. This is most likely a result of which of the following physiological processes? The firing of mirror neurons The presence of reinforcement The activation of the parasympathetic nervous system The activation of conditioned stimulus

The firing of mirror neurons

While training his dog, Mark first says the word "sit" and once the dog sits, he gives her a treat. Immediately after this, he says, "Good dog!" He repeats the same process many times, and each time his dog sits after listening to his command. In this example, which of the following is the primary reinforcer? The words "good dog" The treat The word "sit" Mark

The treat

Which is the true statement regarding mirror neuron system (MNS)? They are existent in only adult beings. They are involved in imitation and social learning. They are responsible for stimulus discrimination. They are found only in human beings.

They are involved in imitation and social learning.

"Association" is the process by which two pieces of information become connected together in our minds. True False

True

A memory is a biological representation in our brain. True False

True

A neutral stimulus is a thing or event that evokes no particular response. True False

True

A response is a behavior. True False

True

A stimulus is a thing or event. True False

True

Automatic encoding is a primary source of episodic memories. True False

True

Classical conditioning is a type of learning. True False

True

Episodic memories are personal and autobiographical. True False

True

Implicit memory is memory we are not aware of. True False

True

Like people, dogs salivate when preparing to eat. True False

True

Long-term potentiation occurs when synaptic connections between neurons strengthen. True False

True

Rehearsal is a control process that prevents information in working memory from being lost. True False

True

Sleep plays an important role during consolidation. True False

True

T/F: "Association" is the process by which two pieces of information become connected together in our minds.

True

T/F: "Positive punishment" means I have added an undesirable consequence to an organism's world.

True

T/F: A neutral stimulus is a thing or event that evokes no particular response.

True

T/F: A primary reinforcer is a consequence that satisfies a biological need.

True

T/F: A response is a behavior.

True

T/F: A secondary reinforcer is a consequence that satisfies a second biological need.

True

T/F: A stimulus is a thing or event.

True

T/F: Adding a bowl of water to my hamster's cage is a positive event.

True

T/F: Classical conditioning is a type of learning.

True

T/F: Like people, dogs salivate when preparing to eat.

True

T/F: Modeling refers to observing and imitating behavior.

True

T/F: Operant conditioning is the process of modifying an organism's behavior by manipulating the consequences of that behavior.

True

T/F: Reinforcers are consequences that increase the likelihood of a behavior occuring again.

True

T/F: Removing a bowl of water from my hamster's cage is a negative event.

True

T/F: The term "operant," is derived from the term "operate."

True

T/F: To become a conditioned stimulus, a neutral stimulus must be presented right before the unconditioned stimulus.

True

The Serial Position Curve refers to the results of a memory task for learning a list of items. True False

True

The recency effect occurs because of items still in short term memory. True False

True

The visuospatial sketchpad holds visual information in working memory. True False

True

To become a conditioned stimulus, a neutral stimulus must be presented right before the unconditioned stimulus. True False

True

Why did Skinner and Watson ignore the role of cognitive and brain processes in learning? a. Because they could not be observed b. Because they could lead to treacherous results c. Because they could not be experimented with d. Because they were not suitable for group studies

a. Because they could not be observed

____________ is defined as the rapid and innate learning of the characteristics of a caregiver within a very short period of time after birth. a. Imprinting b. Habituation c. Association d. Shaping

a. Imprinting

_____ challenges the behaviorist conviction that learning always results either from associating an event with an unconditioned stimulus or from shaping by reinforcement or punishment. a. Instinctive drift b. Conditioned response c. Stimulus generalization d. Backward conditioning

a. Instinctive drift

Which of the following young children is most likely to experience the highest neural growth? a. Jade, whose parents constantly buy her new toys, action figures, and games b. Maria, whose parents encourage her to indulge in activities such as running c. Amanda, whose parents painted her room in the colors she likes d. Julio, whose parents hired an excellent babysitter to watch him during the day

a. Jade, whose parents constantly buy her new toys, action figures, and games

What effect does modeling and reward have on learned aggressive behavior? a. Kids are more likely to copy behavior that they see others being rewarded for. b. Children's aggressive behavior can be suppressed through punishment. c. Adults are less likely to demonstrate behavior that they see others being rewarded for. d. Kids can learn aggression through exposure to amicable adult models.

a. Kids are more likely to copy behavior that they see others being rewarded for.

Once we have mastered the skill of riding a bicycle, we don't have to learn to ride a bicycle every time we want to go for a spin. What is the reason behind this? a. New knowledge is stored in networks in the brain. b. Information moves from sensory to short-term memory. c. Learning and memory work separately. d. Information moves from implicit to explicit memory.

a. New knowledge is stored in networks in the brain.

Which of the following statements best describes the concept of classical conditioning? a. Organisms learn from the relations between stimuli. b. Organisms learn from the consequences of their behavior. c. Organisms learn by observing the behavior of others. d. Organisms learn from their voluntary responses which develop over time.

a. Organisms learn from the relations between stimuli.

Newborn Kayla smiles when she sees her father smile. This is most likely a result of which of the following physiological processes? a. The firing of mirror neurons b. The presence of reinforcement c. The activation of the parasympathetic nervous system d. The activation of conditioned stimulus

a. The firing of mirror neurons

Albert Bandura called learning by doing ____________. a. enactive learning b. integrative learning c. latent learning d. operant learning

a. enactive learning

When people learn from their own successes and failures and from trial and error, it is an example of ______. a. enactive learning b. observational learning c. operant learning d. latent learning

a. enactive learning

Brenda recently joined a new company. She watches how her colleagues dress and act so that she can fit in better. This type of learning is referred to as ___________. a. observational learning b. enactive learning c. operant learning d. latent learning

a. observational learning

Smoking can cause the arousal of the sympathetic nervous system and mild relaxation of the muscles. From a learning perspective these are considered ___________. a. positive reinforcers b. instinctive drifts c. unconditioned stimuli d. negative punishments

a. positive reinforcers

According to Albert Bandura, the acquisition of smoking behavior--how people become smokers in the first place--is perhaps best explained by ___________. a. social learning theory b. stimulus discrimination theory c. habituation theory d. imprinting theory

a. social learning theory

From birth, animals are inclined toward readily learning some things and not others. Biology makes it possible for humans, but not chimpanzees, to ___________. a. talk b. listen c. lift d. run

a. talk

Neurogenesis is ___________. a. the growth of new neurons b. the destruction of neurons c. the firing of neurons in the frontal lobe d. the mapping of the functions of neurons

a. the growth of new neurons

People displaying which of the following personality traits are more likely to start smoking and less likely to quit successfully? a. Conscientiousness b. Agreeableness c. Extraversion d. Intuitiveness

c. Extraversion

Which of the following statements is true regarding imprinting? a. Imprinting occurs only in humans. b. After a certain age, imprinting cannot be modified at all. c. Imprinting provides clear evidence of synaptic change. d. Imprinting can be learned at any age.

b. After a certain age, imprinting cannot be modified at all.

Which of the following is most likely to be essential for moving an experience from short-term to long-term memory? a. Connecting an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus b. Having experiences repeated over a short period of time c. Converting a change in response into habituation d. Connecting a conditioned response to an unconditioned stimulus

b. Having experiences repeated over a short period of time

Which of the following statements best describes the concept of operant conditioning? a. Organisms learn from the relations between stimuli. b. Organisms learn from the consequences of their behavior. c. Organisms learn by observing the behavior of others. d. Organisms learn from their involuntary responses which develop over time.

b. Organisms learn from the consequences of their behavior.

____________ decrease the frequency of behavior. a. Reinforcers b. Punishers c. Stimulators d. Converters

b. Punishers

Which of the following is an example of positive reinforcement? a. Thomas is tired; he drinks coffee to stay awake. b. Ravi is given a candy by his mother for cleaning his shoes. c. Greta gets caught while speeding and the police officer gives her a ticket. d. Cindy loses her credit points because she submits her homework late.

b. Ravi is given a candy by his mother for cleaning his shoes.

While training his dog, Mark first says the word "sit" and once the dog sits, he gives her a treat. Immediately after this, he says, "Good dog!" He repeats the same process many times, and each time his dog sits after listening to his command. In this example, which of the following is the primary reinforcer? a. The words "good dog" b. The treat c. The word "sit" d. Mark

b. The treat

Which is the true statement regarding mirror neuron system (MNS)? a. They are existent in only adult beings. b. They are involved in imitation and social learning. c. They are responsible for stimulus discrimination. d. They are found only in human beings.

b. They are involved in imitation and social learning.

Konrad Lorenz demonstrated that in mammals and birds, there is a rapid and innate learning of the characteristics of a caregiver very soon after birth when he: a. conducted the first fMRI tests on infant-parent attachment. b. became an imprinted parent to a flock of goslings. c. conducted a worldwide study on how infants recognize their parents' voices. d. conditioned few puppies to salivate to the sound of a bell.

b. became an imprinted parent to a flock of goslings.

A gaggle of baby geese instinctually form a bond with their mother. This is an example of ___________. a. shaping b. imprinting c. association d. habituation

b. imprinting

The learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement and is not demonstrated until later when reinforcement occurs, is called ____________. a. conditioned learning b. latent learning c. implicit learning d. operant learning

b. latent learning

Matthew has been playing the clarinet for many years, and he can play musical scales without giving much thought to the finger positions involved in the process. Matthew's mastery of the clarinet is most likely a result of ___________. a. the associative potential of mirror neuron systems (MNS) in his brain b. strong synaptic connections that have been built during years of practice and playing the instrument c. years of classical conditioning leading to a permanent increase in GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) activity d. the consolidation of episodic memories by the limbic system

b. strong synaptic connections that have been built during years of practice and playing the instrument

In operant conditioning, the word "positive" (preceding the term "reinforcement" or "punishment") indicates: a. the desirability of a stimulus. b. the addition of a stimulus. c. the ineffectiveness of a stimulus. d. the effectiveness of a stimulus.

b. the addition of a stimulus.

In a ____________, the first response is reinforced after time periods of different duration have passed. a. fixed-interval schedule b. variable-interval schedule c. fixed-ratio schedule d. variable-ratio schedule

b. variable-interval schedule

Thelma is trying to quit smoking. Her therapist tells her to reward herself with a dollar every time she successfully fights off the craving for a cigarette. The therapist is using a ______ technique in helping Thelma to quit smoking. conditioned taste aversion modeling classical conditioning behavior modification

behavior modification

Bandura's famous studies incorporating a Bobo doll were powerful in that they demonstrated which of the following? a. Adults can learn aggression through both reinforcement and punishment. b. Adults can teach aggression to children by reinforcing children's aggressive behavior. c. Children can learn aggression through exposure to aggressive adult models. d. Children's aggressive behavior can be suppressed through punishment.

c. Children can learn aggression through exposure to aggressive adult models.

Which of the following statements is true regarding continuous reinforcement? a. Compared to intermittent reinforcement, continuous reinforcement produces a stronger response in terms of the rate of responding. b. In continuous reinforcement, reinforcement follows a set number of responses. c. Continuous reinforcement means rewarding a behavior every time it occurs. d. Compared to intermittent reinforcement, continuous reinforcement produces responses that are more resistant to extinction.

c. Continuous reinforcement means rewarding a behavior every time it occurs.

____________ is the scientific study of animal behavior. a. Etiology b. Enology c. Ethology d. Entomology

c. Ethology

In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, he presented the sound of a bell along with meat powder to his dogs. After several trials, the dogs learned to salivate to the sound of the bell in the absence of the meat powder. In this study, the sound of the bell acted as a(n) _____. a. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) b. unconditioned response (UCR) c. conditioned stimulus (CS) d. conditioned response (CR)

c. conditioned stimulus (CS)

Dominique had a car accident while driving over a bridge and thereafter developed an intense phobia of driving over bridges. In an effort to cure Dominique's phobia, a psychologist gradually motivated him to drive over bridges. After many sessions of having nonthreatening experiences while driving over bridges, Dominique's phobia was cured. This is an example of ______. a. habituation b. stimulus generalization c. extinction d. backward conditioning

c. extinction

In a ____________, reinforcement always follows the first response after a set amount of time. a. variable-interval schedule b. variable-ratio schedule c. fixed-interval schedule d. fixed-ratio schedule

c. fixed-interval schedule

Billy, a five-year-old boy, sees his father applying shaving cream on his face while shaving his beard in front of a mirror. Billy copies his father's facial and hand movements and later that day Billy stands in front of the mirror and pretends to shave. Billy's behavior is an example of ___________. a. dark adaption b. learning by association c. mimicry d. habituation

c. mimicry

Jiao, who is 13 years old, watches videos of several teen music idols smoking cigarettes and thinks that all 'cool' people smoke. Therefore, she begins to smoke. This is an example of ___________. a. reinforcement b. habituation c. modeling d. enactive learning

c. modeling

Five-year old Hannah learns how to operate the TV remote by watching her mother use it. This is an example of ___________. a. classical conditioning b. operant conditioning c. observational learning d. latent learning

c. observational learning

Teenagers might view "being seen as cool"—a form of peer acceptance—as desirable, and so being seen as cool becomes a(n) ____________ for their smoking behavior. a. unconditioned stimulus b. discriminating stimulus c. reinforcer d. converter

c. reinforcer

The ____________ refers to a period in learning when a particular type of learning occurs very readily if an animal is exposed to a particular stimulus or situation. a. habituation period b. spontaneous recovery period c. sensitivity period d. synaptic change period

c. sensitivity period

The reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior is called ___________. a. stimulus generalization b. habituation c. shaping d. backward conditioning

c. shaping

When we stop using learned information, the ______ that support our knowledge weaken and ultimately degrade--and we forget what we once knew. a. glial cells b. lobes c. synapses d. cortexes

c. synapses

In operant conditioning, the word "negative" (preceding the term "reinforcement" or "punishment") indicates: a. the desirability of a stimulus. b. the ineffectiveness of a stimulus. c. the removal of a stimulus. d. the effectiveness of a stimulus.

c. the removal of a stimulus.

Imprinting and sensitivity periods in learning remind us that: punishment is more effective in changing behavior than negative reinforcement. the mind is a blank slate, able to learn anything at any time, given the right reinforcement. certain kinds of experiences are more or less easily learned at different periods in life. all forms of learning depend on rewards and reinforcement, at least to some degree.

certain kinds of experiences are more or less easily learned at different periods in life.

In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, he presented the sound of a bell along with meat powder to his dogs. After several trials, the dogs learned to salivate to the sound of the bell in the absence of the meat powder. When the dogs salivated only at the sound of the bell and in the absence of meat powder, salivation acted as a(n) _____. A. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) B. unconditioned response (UCR) C. conditioned stimulus (CS) D. conditioned response (CR)

conditioned response (CR)

In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, he presented the sound of a bell along with meat powder to his dogs. After several trials, the dogs learned to salivate to the sound of the bell in the absence of the meat powder. When the dogs salivated only at the sound of the bell and in the absence of meat powder, salivation acted as a(n) _____. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) unconditioned response (UCR) conditioned stimulus (CS) conditioned response (CR)

conditioned response (CR)

In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, he presented the sound of a bell along with meat powder to his dogs. After several trials, the dogs learned to salivate to the sound of the bell in the absence of the meat powder. In this study, the sound of the bell acted as a(n) _____. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) unconditioned response (UCR) conditioned stimulus (CS) conditioned response (CR

conditioned stimulus (CS)

In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, he called the kind of learning he observed the ___________. A. conditioning of behaviors B. conditioning of habits C. conditioning of stimuli D. conditioning of reflexes

conditioning of reflexes

____________ provides clear evidence of a sensitivity period in learning. a. Stimulus discrimination b. Spontaneous recovery c. Association d. Imprinting

d. Imprinting

Which of the following is true with respect to Albert Bandura's social learning theory? a. It shows that most animals learn through classical and not operant conditioning. b. It claims that animals are primed from birth to readily learn some things but not others. c. It describes how a previously neutral stimulus can suddenly stimulate a response. d. It noted that observation and modeling are major components of learning.

d. It noted that observation and modeling are major components of learning.

Which of the following is most likely to be useful to help people kick the smoking habit? a. Imprinting b. Habituation c. Stimulus generalization d. Operant conditioning

d. Operant conditioning

Which of the following facts regarding reinforcement was noted by Albert Bandura? a. Negative reinforcement is more effective in shaping behavior than positive reinforcement. b. Positive reinforcement can be effective only after an unconditioned stimulus is associated with a conditioned stimulus. c. Punishment is more effective in shaping behavior than negative reinforcement. d. Reinforcement matters not only for the person carrying out the behavior, but also for those who watch.

d. Reinforcement matters not only for the person carrying out the behavior, but also for those who watch.

Which of the following statements is true regarding synaptic connections? a. Synaptic connections, once formed, are permanent. b. Synaptic connections between neurons are stronger but lesser in number during long-term associative learning. c. Synaptic connections lessen during long-term associative learning. d. Synaptic connections weaken if they are not used regularly.

d. Synaptic connections weaken if they are not used regularly.

Thelma is trying to quit smoking. Her therapist tells her to reward herself with a dollar every time she successfully fights off the craving for a cigarette. The therapist is using a ______ technique in helping Thelma to quit smoking. a. conditioned taste aversion b. modeling c. classical conditioning d. behavior modification

d. behavior modification

In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, he presented the sound of a bell along with meat powder to his dogs. After several trials, the dogs learned to salivate to the sound of the bell in the absence of the meat powder. When the dogs salivated only at the sound of the bell and in the absence of meat powder, salivation acted as a(n) _____. a. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) b. unconditioned response (UCR) c. conditioned stimulus (CS) d. conditioned response (CR)

d. conditioned response (CR)

In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, he called the kind of learning he observed the ___________. a. conditioning of behaviors b. conditioning of habits c. conditioning of stimuli d. conditioning of reflexes

d. conditioning of reflexes

There is always a distinct scent of olive oil and serrano chilies whenever Salma enters her aunt's home. She no longer notices the smells after staying a little while inside the house. This scenario is an example of ______. a. dark adaptation b. learning by association c. mimicry d. habituation

d. habituation

Classical and operant conditioning do NOT take into account the powerful role of ____________ in the learning process. a. association b. reinforcement c. extinction d. imitation

d. imitation

Revoking a child's TV-watching privileges for repeatedly hitting a sibling is a form of ___________ if it stops the hitting. a. positive reinforcement b. positive punishment c. negative reinforcement d. negative punishment

d. negative punishment

Forward conditioning occurs when the ___________. a. conditioned response occurs before the neutral stimulus is presented b. unconditioned stimulus is presented before the neutral stimulus c. unconditioned stimulus is presented at the same time as the neutral stimulus d. neutral stimulus is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus

d. neutral stimulus is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus

Pavlov defined ______ as fixed stimulus-response patterns. a. behaviors b. habits c. stimuli d. reflexes

d. reflexes

Jenny sees that her mom smokes a cigarette to relax whenever she gets stressed, so she thinks that it will work for her too. This is an example of ___________. a. habituation b. intermittent reinforcement c. imprinting d. social learning

d. social learning

There is always a distinct scent of olive oil and serrano chilies whenever Salma enters her aunt's home. She no longer notices the smells after staying a little while inside the house. This scenario is an example of ______. dark adaptation learning by association mimicry habituation

habituation

Classical and operant conditioning do NOT take into account the powerful role of ____________ in the learning process. association reinforcement extinction imitation

imitation

Albert Bandura called learning by watching the behavior of others ____________. latent learning observational learning integrative learning enactive learning

observational learning

Brenda recently joined a new company. She watches how her colleagues dress and act so that she can fit in better. This type of learning is referred to as ___________. observational learning enactive learning operant learning latent learning

observational learning

Pavlov defined ______ as fixed stimulus-response patterns. behaviors habits stimuli reflexes

reflexes

Teenagers might view "being seen as cool"—a form of peer acceptance—as desirable, and so being seen as cool becomes a(n) ____________ for their smoking behavior. unconditioned stimulus discriminating stimulus reinforcer converter

reinforcer

The ____________ refers to a period in learning when a particular type of learning occurs very readily if an animal is exposed to a particular stimulus or situation. habituation period spontaneous recovery period sensitivity period synaptic change period

sensitivity period

Habituation refers to a: A. cognitive process that results in increased response to a stimulus. B. sensory process in which the change is a fairly short-lived one. C. sensory process in which organisms adapt to intermittent stimulation. D. cognitive process that results in decreased response to a stimulus.

sensory process in which the change is a fairly short-lived one.

Jenny sees that her mom smokes a cigarette to relax whenever she gets stressed, so she thinks that it will work for her too. This is an example of ___________. habituation intermittent reinforcement imprinting social learning

social learning

According to Albert Bandura, the acquisition of smoking behavior--how people become smokers in the first place--is perhaps best explained by ___________. social learning theory stimulus discrimination theory habituation theory imprinting theory

social learning theory

In operant conditioning, the word "positive" (preceding the term "reinforcement" or "punishment") indicates: the desirability of a stimulus. the addition of a stimulus. the ineffectiveness of a stimulus. the effectiveness of a stimulus.

the addition of a stimulus.

In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, he presented the sound of a bell along with meat powder to his dogs. After several trials, the dogs learned to salivate to the sound of the bell in the absence of the meat powder. In this study, meat powder acted as a(n) ___________. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) unconditioned response (UCR) conditioned stimulus (CS) conditioned response (CR)

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

In a ____________, the first response is reinforced after time periods of different duration have passed. fixed-interval schedule variable-interval schedule fixed-ratio schedule variable-ratio schedule

variable-interval schedule

In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, he presented the sound of a bell along with meat powder to his dogs. After several trials, the dogs learned to salivate to the sound of the bell in the absence of the meat powder. In this study, meat powder acted as a(n) ___________. A. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) B. unconditioned response (UCR) C. conditioned stimulus (CS) D. conditioned response (CR)

x