Chapter 9 Learning, Memory, and Development

How does the dopamine reward pathway work?

-reward pathway begins in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) -connects to the nucleus accumbens -rewards activate this pathway and lead to dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens -addictive drugs stimulate the release of dopamine -amygdala and hypothalamus are also involved

Give an example of insight learning

A new situation was presented (toys out of reach under bed) no he was able to combine previously reinforced behavior in a novel way on his own to attain the desired outcome (retrieval of the toy)

When an organism is repeatedly exposed to a given stimulus and begins reacting more and more vigorously to that stimulus, what has occurred? A. Sensitization B. Habituation C. Dishabituation D. Extinction

A; Sensitization occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to a stimulus and therefore begins reacting more intensely to that stimulus; for example, if you have a noisy office clock, at first the constant ticking might be merely annoying, but over time you may become more sensitive to the ticking to the point that you cannot focus on anything but the ticking (choice A is correct). Habituation occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to a stimulus and is therefore able to "tune out" that stimulus and stop reacting or responding to it; for example, if you work next to a busy train station, the noise of the trains might at first annoy you, but over time you will tune the noise out and stop noticing it entirely (choice B is wrong). Dishabituation occurs when the previously habituated stimulus is removed and the organism becomes no longer accustomed to the stimulus. If the stimulus is then presented again, the organism will react to it as if it was a new stimulus, and is likely to respond even more strongly to it than before (choice C is wrong). Extinction, in classical conditioning, occurs when the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no longer paired, so the conditioned response eventually stops occurring (choice D is wrong).

In classical conditioning, if only the conditioned stimulus produces the conditioned response, this is known as: A. extinction. B. discrimination. C. generalization. D. acquisition.

B; Discrimination occurs when the conditioned stimulus is appropriately differentiated from other stimuli; thus, the conditioned response only occurs for conditioned stimuli, and not for other, similar stimuli (choice B is correct). Extinction, in classical conditioning, occurs when the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no longer paired, so the conditioned response eventually stops occurring (choice A is wrong). Generalization refers to the process by which stimuli other than the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response (choice C is wrong). In classical conditioning, acquisition refers to the period where the unconditioned stimulus is repeatedly paired with the neutral stimulus in order to convert the neutral stimulus to the conditioned stimulus (choice D is wrong).

When an organism is repeatedly exposed to a given stimulus and therefore stops or diminishes its response or reaction to that stimulus, what has occurred? A. Sensitization B. Habituation C. Dishabituation D. Extinction

B; Habituation occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to a stimulus and is therefore able to "tune out" that stimulus and stop reacting or responding to it; for example, if you work next to a busy train station, the noise of the trains might at first annoy you, but over time you will tune the noise out and stop noticing it entirely (choice B is correct). Sensitization occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to a stimulus and therefore begins reacting more intensely to that stimulus; for example, if you have a noisy office clock, at first the constant ticking might be merely annoying, but over time you may become more sensitive to the ticking to the point that you cannot focus on anything but the ticking (choice A is wrong). Dishabituation occurs when the previously habituated stimulus is removed and the organism becomes no longer accustomed to the stimulus. If the stimulus is then presented again, the organism will react to it as if it was a new stimulus, and is likely to respond even more strongly to it than before (choice C is wrong). Extinction, in classical conditioning, occurs when the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no longer paired, so the conditioned response eventually stops occurring (choice D is wrong).

An individual experiences panic when in the presense of snakes. To overcome this response, the individual plans to be around snakes as often as possible, until the panic response diminishes. The individual is most likely using which of the following methods to reduce the reaction? A. Aversive control B. Operant conditioning principles C. Classical conditioning principles D. Counter conditioning

C

Observational learning theory hypothesized all of the following, EXCEPT: A. children learn from watching others. B. learning is a social process. C. adults do not model the behavior of other adults. D. learning can occur even in the absence of a clear reward or reinforcement.

C

Paychecks provided on a bi-weekly basis have been shown to produce employees that tend to slack off right after getting paid, but then work increasingly harder as the next pay date approaches. This type of reinforcement is on a: A. fixed-ratio schedule. B. variable-ratio schedule. C. fixed-interval schedule. D. variable-interval schedule.

C

In classical conditioning, the initial phase of pairing the unconditioned stimulus with the neutral stimulus in order to convert the neutral stimulus to the conditioned stimulus is known as: A. extinction. B. discrimination. C. generalization. D. acquisition.

D

Give an example of spontaneous recovery

For example, if the behavior of salivation to the sound of the bell becomes extinct in a dog, and is then presented to the dog again after some amount of lapsed time and the dog salivates, the conditioned response was spontaneously recovered.

Give an example of sensitization?

For example, suppose instead of trains passing by outside your house, you attend a rock concert and sit near the stage. The feedback from the noise amplifier may be irritating, and instead of getting used to it, it actually becomes more painful and you have to cover your ears. Sensitization may also cause you to respond more vigorously to other similar stimuli. A siren of an ambulance, which never really bothers you, seems particularly loud as the ambulance passes.

What are vicarious emotions?

Suggested to be influenced by mirror neurons and are responsible for human emotions such as empathy.

What is preparedness?

The species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others.

What is taste aversion?

a learned avoidance of a particular food

What is a conditioned response?

a learned response to a conditioned stimulus

What is classical conditioning?

a process in which two stimuli are paired in such a way that the response to one of the stimuli changes

What is a discriminative stimulus?

a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement

What is extinction?

Occurs when the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are no longer paired, so the conditioned response stops occurring Example: you keep ringing the bell but stop supplying the food

continuous reinforcement will result in rapid behavior ________ but will also result in rapid __________

acquisition; extinction

Give an example of latent learning

if a child in middle school always receives a ride to school from his dad, he may latently learn the route to school, even if he never demonstrates that knowledge.

What is intermittent reinforcement?

reinforcing only some responses

What is an extinction burst?

after not receiving the stimulus for a while, the animal will have a spike in the conditioned response before extinction

What is desensitization?

Occurs when a stimulus that previously evoked an exaggerated response no longer evokes an exaggerated response

What is a neutral stimulus?

a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning For example, a bell with dogs

What is associative learning?

learning that certain events occur together

What is a fixed ratio schedule?

provides reinforcement after a set number of responses

According to operant conditioning principles, negative reinforcement: A. attempts to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring by removing an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs. B. attempts to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring by applying a positive stimulus after the behavior occurs. C. attempts to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring by applying an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs. D. attempts to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring by removing a positive stimulus after the behavior occurs.

A

Researchers repeatedly startle a participant with a loud buzzer. After some time, the participant stops being startled by the buzzer. If the researchers interrupt the study with the sound of banging pots together, which of the following would likely be observed? A. Increased startle response to the buzzer B. Decreased startle response to the buzzer C. No change in the response to the buzzer D. Generalization to previously nonaversive stimuli

A

All of the following are examples of unconditioned responses, EXCEPT: A. a dog barking at the sight of a cat. B. a rat exhibiting a fear response at the sight of a piece of cheese. C. a cat licking its chops at the smell of cat food. D. a male penguin exhibiting mating behavior when a female penguin is placed nearby.

B

Jay joins a social media website to lose weight, and he receives points based on the intensity of his daily exercise and praise from fellow website users for each workout he logs on the website. This increases his exercise frequency and intensity. Eventually he stops logging onto the website, but continues to exercise with increased frequency. This is an example of: A. Vicarious learning B. Operant conditioning C. Innate behavior D. Classical conditioning

B

Who is the father of operation conditioning?

BF Skinner

A 5 year old boy has formed a habit of writing on his parents living room walls. Based on operant conditioning principles, which of the following types of punishment would be least effective in stopping this behavior. A. Giving the child a time out immediately after he writes on the wall, every time the child writes on the wall B. Providing the child with a cookie at the end of each day that he abstains from writing on the walls. C. Spanking the child (an intense punishment) every time that the child writes on the wall. D. Punishing the child occasionally, when the parents happen to notice writing on the wall.

D

A misbehaving child is denied television privileges for the week. What method of operant conditioning is this? A. Positive punishment B. Positive reinforcement C. Negative reinforcement D. Negative punishment

D

According to operant conditioning principles, positive punishment: A. attempts to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring by removing an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs. B. attempts to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring by removing an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs. C. attempts to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring by applying an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs. Your Answer D. attempts to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring by applying an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs.

D

Which of the following processes would increase the likelihood of a behavior? A. Extinction B. Negative punishment C. Positive punishment D. Avoidance learning

D

What is an example of habituation?

Say you move to a house near train tracks. At first when a train comes by, you are startled. After awhile, you becomes used to it.

Which of the following schedules of reinforcement is best characterized by a slow but steady response rate? A. Fixed-ratio schedule B. Variable-ratio schedule C. Fixed-interval schedule D. Variable-interval schedule

D; A variable-interval schedule provides a reinforcement after an inconsistent amount of time. Since the reinforcement is based on time not a specific response behavior, this schedule produces a slow, steady behavior response rate, because the amount of time it will take to get the reinforcement is unknown (choice D is correct). A fixed-ratio schedule provides the reinforcement after a set number of instances of the behavior. This schedule will produce a high rate of response that accelerates as the reward nears (choice A is wrong). A variable-ratio schedule provides the reinforcement after an unpredictable number of occurrences. This schedule produces a high response rate that increases with the number of responses or times the behavior is performed (choice B is wrong). A fixed-interval schedule provides the reinforcement after a set period of time that is constant, and the behavior will increase as the reinforcement interval comes to an end (choice C is wrong).

Give an example of dishabituation

In the example above, dishabituation can occur when the person who lives by the train tracks goes on vacation for a couple of weeks to a quiet beach resort. When you return home, you become startles because you were used to the quiet.

What are innate behaviors?

Inherited behaviors that should increase an animals fitness

What is acquisition?

Refers to the process of learning the conditioned response

Who is Ivan Pavlov?

Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning through his work on digestion in dogs

What is operant conditioning?

Uses reinforcement and punishment to mold behavior.

Give an example of desensitization

When you leave a rock concert, at first the sound of the siren may seem very abrasive, but by the next morning loud noises no longer bother you - you have become desensitized.

What is punishment?

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

What is sensitization?

an increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus; it is essentially the opposite of habituation. Instead of being able to tune out or ignore the stimulus, the stimulus actually produces a more exaggerated response.

What are primary reinforcers?

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

What is shaping?

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

What is reinforcement?

any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

What is a stimulus?

anything that causes a response

What is a primary negative reinforcer?

avoiding pain and danger

What is neural plasticity?

changes in the brain due to learning, thinking, behavior, emotions, etc

short term to long term memory is called

consolidation

What is escape learning?

escaping a stimulus once it has occured

What is continous reinforcement?

every occurrence of the behavior is reinforced

AV is trying to quit smoking. If she goes seven days without smoking, she will treat herself to a movie of her choice. Which schedule is this?

fixed interval

Which schedule is the best for learning a new behavior?

fixed ratio

Give examples of primary reinforcers

food and water

Where are mirror neurons located?

frontal and parietal lobes premotor cortex, supplementary motor area, primary somatosensory cortex, and the inferior parietal cortex

What is long-term potentiation?

increase in synaptic plasticity/strength of synapse. key component of learning.

What is avoidance learning?

individual performs a behavior to ensure an aversive stimulus is not presented

What are secondary reinforcers?

learned reinforcers

The way in which we acquire new behaviors is known as

learning

When long term potentiation occurs, the neurons involved in the circuit develop an increased ___________, which results in increased potential for neural firing

sensitivity

What is an unconditioned stimulus?

something that elicits an unlearned response Example: food causes dogs to salivate naturally

What is negative reinforcement?

taking away something bad to increase a behavior

What are some biological factors that affect non associative and associative learning?

taste aversion

What is instinctive drift?

tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement

What is cognitive psychology?

the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of the mind

What is spontaneous recovery?

the extinct conditioned response occurs again when the conditioned stimulus is presented after a period of time.

What is modeling?

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

What is generalization?

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses Example: a dog salivates the the sound of a bell and a wind chime

In operation conditioning, it is just as important that the reinforcement or the punishment to occur around the same ______ as the behavior

time

What is a token economy?

type of behavior modification in which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens

What is negative punishment?

removing a stimulus to stop a behavior from happening

Avoidance learning and escape learning are (positive/negative)(punishment/reinforcement)

negative reinforcement increase the likelihood of behavior!

What are mirror neurons?

neurons that fire when an individual performs an action, or when an individual observes an action.

Slot machines reward gamblers with money according to which reinforcement schedule?

variable ratio

Which schedule is the best for maintaining learned behavior (slowest rate of extinction)?

variable ratio

The dopamine reward pathway begins where?

Begins in the ventral segmental area (VTA) and connects to the nucleus accumbent

Who is Albert Bandura?

Bobo doll, social learning theory (observational learning)

A rat is trained to press a liver to obtain food under a fixed-interval schedule. Which of the following behaviors would the rat most likely exhibit? A. Pressing the liver continuously whenever it is hungry B. Pressing the lever exactly once and waiting for the food pellet before pressing it again. C. Pressing the lever slowly at first, but with increasing frequency as the end of the interval approaches. D. None of the above

C

Albert Bandura's learning experiments demonstrated that: A. organisms are capable of coming up with solutions to problems all at once, with a flash of insight, instead of only by gradual increments. B. organisms are capable of latent learning, where the learning is not obvious when it is not needed, be as soon as it is needed, it can be readily demonstrated. C. children who observe adult behavior tend to model that behavior, even if there is no clear reinforcement for that behavior. D. children will model adult behavior only if they are directly provided with a reward.

C

All of the following are examples of conditioned responses, EXCEPT: A. a dog sitting when her owner makes a hand signal. B. a parrot saying "cracker" when presented with a cracker. C. a cat hiding at the sound of thunder. D. a dog wagging his tail excitedly at the sight of his leash.

C

Which of the following reinforcement schedules is most analogous with procrastination? A. Variable ratio B. Fixed interval C. Fixed ratio D. Variable interval

C

What is discrimination (in learning)?

The opposite of generalization, in which the conditioned stimulus is differentiated from the other stimuli.

What is habituation?

a decrease in response to a stimulus after it becomes automatic

What is a conditioned stimulus?

a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response

What is insight learning?

a process in which the solution to a problem suddenly comes to us in what might be described as a "flash of insight" Think of it as an aha moment

What is positive punishment?

adding a stimulus to stop a behavior from happening

What is positive reinforcement?

adding something into the situation that increases the tendency to repeat the preceding behavior

What is latent learning?

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

In behaviorism, all psychological phenomena are explained by describing the _________ antecedents of behaviors and their consequences.

observable

What is non-associative learning?

occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus.

What is dishabituation?

occurs when previously habituated stimulus is removed and an organism becomes no longer accustomed to the stimulus

What is a variable interval schedule?

provides reinforcement after an unpredictable amount of time has passed

What is a variable ratio schedule?

provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses

What is a fixed interval schedule?

provides the reinforcement after a set period of time that is constant

Operation conditioning relies on a __________ schedule

reinforcement