Chapter 9 OB

Status

is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. We live in a class-structured society despite all attempts to make it more egalitarian.

Interacting Groups

Most group decision-making takes place in interacting groups. In these groups, members meet face to face and rely on both verbal and nonverbal interaction to communicate with each other. Interacting groups often censor themselves and pressure individual members toward conformity of opinion

Social Loafing

the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than alone.

The size of a group affects the group's overall behavior, but the effect depends on the dependent variables

: Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks than are larger ones. If the group is engaged in problem solving, large groups consistently do better. Large groups of a dozen or more members are good for gaining diverse input. Smaller groups of seven members are better at doing something productive with that input.

Group

A group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives. Groups can be either formal or informal. Formal groups are those defined by the organization's structure, with designated work assignments establishing tasks. The behaviors that one should engage in are stipulated by and directed toward organizational goals. An airline flight crew is an example of a formal group. Informal groups are alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. Natural formations in the work environment in response to the need for social contact. Three employees from different departments who regularly eat lunch together is an informal group.

Role Properties

All group members are actors, each playing a role. "A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit." We are required to play a number of diverse roles, both on and off our jobs. Many of these roles are compatible; some create conflicts. Different groups impose different role requirements on individuals. First is Role Identity. There are certain attitudes and actual behaviors consistent with a role, and they create the role identity. People have the ability to shift roles rapidly when they recognize that the situation and its demands clearly require major changes. Second is Role Perception. One's view of how one is supposed to act in a given situation is a role perception. We get these perceptions from stimuli all around us—friends, books, movies, television. The primary reason that apprenticeship programs exist is to allow beginners to watch an "expert," so that they can learn to act as they are supposed to. Third is Role Expectations that is how others believe you should act in a given situation. It includes how you behave being determined to a large extent by the role defined in the context in which you are acting. When role expectations are concentrated into generalized categories, we have role stereotypes. The psychological contract is an unwritten agreement that exists between employees and their employer. It sets out mutual expectations—what management expects from workers, and vice versa. It defines the behavioral expectations that go with every role. If role expectations as implied are not met, expect negative repercussions from the offended party. Next is Role Conflict . This is "When an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations" It exists when compliance with one role requirement may make more difficult the compliance with another. During mergers and acquisitions, employees can be torn between their identities as members of their original organization and of the new parent company. Organizations structured around multinational operations also have been shown to lead to dual identification, with employees distinguishing between the local division and the international organization.

Role Properties: Norms

All groups have norms—"acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by the group's members." Norms tell members what they ought and ought not to do under certain circumstances. Performance norms provide explicit cues about how hard members should work, what the level of output should be, how to get the job done, what level of tardiness is appropriate, and the like. These norms are extremely powerful and are capable of significantly modifying a performance prediction based solely on ability and level of personal motivation. Appearance norms include dress codes, unspoken rules about when to look busy and the like. Social arrangement norms focus on whom to eat lunch or whether to form friendships on and off the job. Resource allocation norms include the assignment of difficult jobs, and the distribution of resources, like pay or equipment.

Brainstorming

Brainstorming, the nominal group technique, and electronic meetings have been proposed as ways to reduce many of the problems inherent in the traditional interacting group. Brainstorming is meant to overcome pressures for conformity in the interacting group that retard the development of creative alternatives. In a typical brainstorming session, a half dozen to a dozen people sit around a table. The process is simple. First, the group leader states the problem clearly. Members then "free-wheel" as many alternatives as they can in a given length of time. No criticism is allowed, and all the alternatives are recorded for later discussion and analysis. One idea stimulates others, and group members are encouraged to "think the unusual."

The Five-Stage Model of Group Development

First is the Forming stage. It is characterized by a great deal of uncertainty about the group's purpose, structure, and leadership. Members try to determine what types of behavior are acceptable. This stage is complete when members have begun to think of themselves as part of a group. Second is the Storming stage. This is a period of intragroup conflict. Members accept the existence of the group, but there is resistance to constraints on individuality. Conflict arises over who will control the group. When this stage is complete, there will be a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership within the group. Third is the norming stage. It is one in which close relationships develop and the group demonstrates cohesiveness. There is now a strong sense of group identity and camaraderie. This stage is complete when the group structure solidifies and the group has assimilated a common set of expectations of what defines correct member behavior. Next is the performing stage. The structure at this point is fully functional and accepted. Group energy has moved from getting to know and understand each other to performing. For permanent work groups, performing is the last stage in their development. And lastly is the adjourning stage. For temporary committees, teams, task forces, and similar groups that have a limited task to perform, there is an adjourning stage. In this stage, the group prepares for its disbandment. Attention is directed toward wrapping up activities. Responses of group members vary in this stage. Some are upbeat, basking in the group's accomplishments. Others may be depressed over the loss of camaraderie and friendships.

Cohesiveness

Groups differ in their cohesiveness which is "the degree to which members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group." Cohesiveness is important because it is related to the group's productivity. The relationship of cohesiveness and productivity depends on the performance-related norms established by the group. If performance-related norms are high, a cohesive group will be more productive. If cohesiveness is high and performance norms are low, productivity will be low. Encourage group cohesiveness by making the group smaller, encourage agreement with group goals, increase the time members spend together, increase the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of attaining membership in the group. Stimulate competition with other groups, give rewards to the group rather than to individual members, or physically isolate the group.

Groupthink

Groupthink is related to norms and affects decision making. It describes situations in which group pressures for conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views. Groupthink is a disease that attacks many groups and can dramatically hinder performance.

Status and Norms can influence behavior in organizations

High-status members of groups often are given more freedom to deviate from norms than other group members. High-status people also are better able to resist conformity pressures. The previous findings explain why many star athletes, famous actors, top-performing salespeople, and outstanding academics seem oblivious to appearance or social norms. Status and Group Interaction is influenced by status. High-status people tend to be assertive. Status difference inhibit diversity of ideas & creativity. Lower-status members tend to be less active. When Status Inequity is perceived, it creates disequilibrium that results in corrective behavior. Hierarchical groups can lead to resentment among those at the lower end of the status continuum. Large differences in status within groups are also associated with poorer individual performance, lower health, and higher intentions to leave the group. The concept of equity we presented in Chapter 6 applies to status. People expect rewards to be proportionate to costs incurred. Groups generally agree within themselves on status criteria; hence, there is usually high concurrence in-group rankings of individuals. Managers who occupy central positions in their social networks are typically seen as higher in status by their subordinates, and this position translates into greater influence over the group's functioning. Individuals can find themselves in conflicts when they move between groups whose status criteria are different, or when they join groups whose members have heterogeneous backgrounds. Business executives may use personal income or the growth rate of their companies as determinants of status. Government bureaucrats may use the size of their budgets, and blue-collar workers years of seniority. When groups are heterogeneous or when heterogeneous groups must be interdependent, status differences may initiate conflict as the group attempts to reconcile the differing hierarchies. As we'll see in Chapter 10 this can be a problem when management creates teams of employees from varied functions. Do cultural differences affect status and the criteria that create it? The answer is a resounding "yes." The French are highly status conscious. Latin Americans and Asians derive status from family position and formal roles in organizations. In the United States and Australia, status is more often conferred for accomplishments.

Groupshift

In Groupshift, which describes the way of discussing given set of alternatives and arriving at a solution, group members tend to exaggerate the initial positions they hold. Groups tend toward a risky shift.

Why do people develop a social identity?

Several characteristics make a social identity important to a person. (Similarity, Distinctiveness, Status, Uncertainty Reduction) First, Similarity suggests it is not surprisingly, people who have the same values or characteristics as other members of their organization have higher levels of group identification. Distinctiveness suggests that people are more likely to notice identities that show how they are different from other groups. Respondents in one study identified more strongly with those in their work group with whom they shared uncommon or rare demographic characteristics. Status sees a category because people use identities to define themselves and increase self-esteem, it makes sense that they are most interested in linking themselves to high-status groups. Graduates of prestigious universities will go out of their way to emphasize their links to their alma maters and are also more likely to make donations. And lastly, Uncertainty reduction sees membership in a group helping some people understand who they are and how they fit into the world.

Our tendency to take personal pride or offense for the accomplishments of a group is the territory of social identity theory. There is no single reason why individuals join groups.

Social identity theory proposes that people have emotional reactions to the failure or success of their group because their self-esteem gets tied into the performance of the group. Social identities help us understand who we are and where we fit in with other people, but they can have a negative side as well. Probably the biggest downside is that social identities encourage in-group favoritism.

Zimbardo's Prison Experiment

Stanford university study demonstrated how quickly people adapt to roles. Normal college students assigned to either prisoner or prisoner guard living these roles 24hours a day. starting have negative psychological impacts after only a couple of weeks. How seriously taken on. Prisoners actually abusing other prisoner. Negative impact.

Status Characteristics Theory

Status characteristics theory suggests that differences in status characteristics create status hierarchies within groups. Status derived from one of three sources. First is the power a person wields over others. Second is a person's ability to contribute to group's goals. And third is an individual's personal characteristics.

Temporary Groups

Temporary groups with deadlines don't seem to follow the usual five-stage model. Studies indicate they have their own unique sequencing of actions (or inaction). Their first meeting sets the group's direction. This first phase of group activity is one of inertia. A transition takes place at the end of this phase, which occurs exactly when the group has used up half its allotted time. A transition initiates major changes: A second phase of inertia follows the transition; and the group's last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity. this pattern, called the punctuated-equilibrium model, is shown in exhibit 9-2. The first meeting sets the group's direction. A framework of behavioral patterns and assumptions emerges. These lasting patterns can appear as early as the first few seconds of the group's life can. This is a period of inertia—the group tends to stand still or become locked into a fixed course of action even if it gains new insights that challenge initial patterns and assumptions. Then a transition takes place when the group has used up half its allotted time. The midpoint appears to work like an alarm clock, heightening members' awareness that their time is limited and that they need to "get moving." A transition initiates major changes. This ends Phase 1 and is characterized by a concentrated burst of changes, dropping of old patterns, and adoption of new perspectives. The transition sets a revised direction for Phase 2. Phase 2 is a new equilibrium or period of inertia. In this phase, the group executes plans created during the transition period. The group's last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity.

Nominal

The nominal group technique is different. It restricts discussion or interpersonal communication during the decision-making process. Group members are all physically present, but members operate independently. The chief advantage of the nominal group technique is that it permits the group to meet formally but does not restrict independent thinking, as does the interacting group Specifically, a problem is presented, and then the following steps take place: Members meet as a group but, before any discussion takes place, each member independently writes down his or her ideas on the problem. After this silent period, each member presents one idea to the group. Each member takes his or her turn. The group now discusses the ideas for clarity and evaluates them. Each group member silently and independently rank-orders the ideas. The idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final decision.

Deviant Workplace Behavior (Exhibit 9-4)

This term covers a full range of antisocial actions by organizational members that intentionally violate established norms and that result in negative consequences for the organization, its members, or both. (Exhibit 9-4). Rudeness is on the rise and 12 percent of those who experienced it actually quit their jobs. When deviant workplace behavior occurs it can affect employee commitment, cooperation, and motivation. This could lead to performance issues and a lack of job satisfaction. Someone who ordinarily wouldn't engage in deviant behavior might be more likely to do so when working in a group. A recent study suggests those working in a group were more likely to lie, cheat, and steal than individuals working alone. (Exhibit 9-5). Deviant behavior depends on the accepted norms of the group—or even whether an individual is part of a group.

Group Effectiveness

While the five-stage process is generally true, what makes a group effective is more complex. First, groups proceed through the stages of group development at different rates. Those with a strong sense of purpose and strategy rapidly achieve high performance and improve over time, whereas those with less sense of purpose actually see their performance worsen over time. Similarly, groups that begin with a positive social focus appear to achieve the "performing" stage more rapidly. Nor do groups always proceed clearly from one stage to the next. Storming and performing can occur simultaneously, and groups can even regress to previous stages.