Chapter 9: Revolutions of Industrialization 1750-1900
How were Europeans who migrated to Latin America treated?
They added to the European element in those countries and enjoyed economic advantages over the mixed-race, Indian, and African populations
Latin American economic growth
-financed by capital from abroad -dependent on European and N. American prosperity/decisions -"dependent development" as a new form of colonialism through power exercised by foreign investors. Also seen as behind the scenes imperialism supplemented
Working conditions during Russian Industrialization
-13 hour workdays -Discipline and disrespect from supervisors -No legal unions or political parties, led to large-scale strikes
Russian immigrants
-13 million Russians and Ukrainians migrated to Siberia after freed from serfdom in 1861 -overwhelmed native population -settled in Central Asia as well -attracted by available land, greater freedom from tsars, no exploitation of aristocratic landowners, and trans-Siberian railroad -Europeanization of Siberia -Russian government encouraged immigration to prevent Chinese pressures and relieve population density
European immigration experience in the United States
-32 million immigrants between 1820-1930 -affordable land and industrial jobs -assimilation, "melting pot" -European immigrants seen as inferior, un-American, blamed for crime, labor unrest, and socialist ideas -contributed to expansion of US, European-derived culture in N. America, and displacement of natives
What did England look like during the time of the Luddite uprising?
-At war with Napoleon's France -Mutual blockades reduced trade and hurt textile industry -Early phase of Industrial Rev., machines replaced artisan labor -Bad weather, poor harvests -Economic hardship, unemployment, hunger -Laissez-faire (free market) economic principles, poor and working classes left unprotected
How was Britain unstable as the 20th century dawned?
-Class inequalities -40% of working class lived in poverty -strikes from 1910-1913 added to class conflict -Labour Party major force in Parliament -socialists and feminists radicalized -economics declined as US and Germany industrialized -machinery became outdated as newly industrializing countries invested in modern machinery surpassing that of Britain
What was political life in the new countries of Latin America after the revolution?
-Conservatives favored centralized authority and wanted to maintain social status of colonial era in alliance w/ Catholic church -Liberals attacked the Church in the name of the Enlightenment, wanted social reforms, and preferred federalism -Constitutions replaced one another (Bolivia had 10 constitutions during 1800s, Ecuador and Peru had 8)
What was Russian government like in the early 1900s?
-No national parliament, legal political parties, or nationwide elections -Tsar as absolute monarch, only answerable to God -Dominated by nobility, landowners, military officers, and government officials
What was the focus of Russia's Industrial Rev.
-Railroads and heavy industry -Fueled by foreign investment -Major coal, textiles, and oil industries -Industrial enterprises concentrated in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Kiev -larger factories than Europe
Industrial Rev.'s social impacts on the British middle class
-Upper middle class: factory/mine owners, bankers, merchants who bought country houses, joined Parliament, sent sons to colleges, and gained titles of nobility from Queen Victoria -Middle class: smaller businessmen, doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers, journalists, scientists, etc. -Middle class were liberals, favored constitutional gov., private property, free trade, and social reform who lived with the ideology of success through an enterprising spirit -Lower middle class: (20% of Britain's population) clerks, salespeople, bank tellers, hotel staff, police officers, etc. who distinguished themselves from laboring class
How did the working class better their living standards?
-Wages rose from pressure from unions -Cheap imported food improved diets -Infant mortality rates fell -Shops and chain stores catered to working-class families -English male workers gained right to vote, politicians had to cater to their needs (improved factory conditions, abolished child labor, system of relief for unemployed in 1911, urban parks, and sanitary reform)
Mexican Revolution (1910-1920)
-civil war; middle class reformers, workers, and peasants challenged Mexican dictator Porfio Díaz -reformers such as Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata intent on seizing land to give to peasants and attacking haciendas -reformers held back by factionalism and their focus on local regional issues -women heavily active, prepared food, nursed the wounded, washed clothes, served as soldiers
How did Marx's views affect the laboring class of Europe?
-inspired socialist movements of workers -establishment of political parties that recruited members, contested elections, fought for reforms, and plotted revolution -same ideas spread to late 19th century radical trade unionists and some middle-class men in Britain, Germany, and beyond
Lives of Latin American lower class
-lived in rural areas, worked for low wages -benefited least from export boom -government attacks on communal landholding and peasant indebtedness to wealthy landowners -kicked off land into remote/poor areas -worked as dependent laborers or peons on wealthy haciendas -women and children forced to work for money too
How did the Industrial Revolution affect the laboring class?
-negatively impacted -rapid urbanization --> most of population in overcrowded cities, horrible living conditions -dirty and polluted water, air, and streets -low life expectancy (39.5 years), ignored by rich -work in factories with long hours, low wages, and child labor, under constant supervision and disciplinary action -capitalist economy made for insecure industrial work
Robert Owen
-spread among working class, challenged capitalist society -Robert Owen (British cotton textile manufacturer) in 1771-1858, urged creation of small industrial communities where people would be well treated -Robert Owen created mill in Scotland with a community working 10 hours a day with nice homes, good wages, and education for children
American opposition against capitalist industrialization
1. 1890s small farmers fought against banks, industrialists, monopolies, the money system, and major political parties that they believed to be dominated by corporate interests of easter elites
1905 Russian Revolution
1. After Russia's defeat in naval war with Japan, workers in Moscow and St. Petersburg went on strike and created representative councils called soviets 2. Peasant uprisings, student demonstrations, revolts of non-Russian peoples 3. Forced tsar to make reforms: constitution, legalized trade unions and political parties, permitted election of national assembly (Duma), eased censorship, created universal primary education
American vs European Industrialization
1. American self-made industrialists of great wealth became cultural heroes and were admired more than those in Europe 2. American government backed industrialization and offered much help whereas European industrialization was focused more on family businesses 3. Preindustrial America had social equality unlike Europe, but soon lost that equality when it industrialized and class divide occurred 4. Social/labor protests and riots happened just like those in Europe (ex. Luddites) 5. No major political party emerged in America like those in Europe and socialism didn't appeal to American workers as much 6. America had more diverse population due to European immigrants whereas Europe had relatively homogenous population 7. American working class had better living standards due to better economy than that in Europe
Why did Marxist socialism not develop in the US?
1. American union organizations were conservative (American Federation of Labor) and focused on skill workers rather than radical unskilled laborers, refusing to side with any party 2. Many immigrants from Europe beginning in 1840s created diverse industrial labor force on top of country's great racial divide, undermined class solidarity of American workers and made it difficult to obtain class-oriented political parties and socialism 3. America's economic growth led to higher living standards for American working class, cheaper land, more available home ownership
What did Latin American look like after its fight for independence?
1. Decimated populations and livestock, flooded or closed silver mines, abandoned farms, shrinking international trade and investment capital, empty national treasuries 2. 4 major administrative units (viceroyalties) dissolved into 18 separate countries 3. Regional revolts in Brazil, international wars 5. Peru and Bolivia united then broke apart in conflict (1836-1839), Mexico lost land to the US (1846-1848), Alliance of Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay went to war with Paraguay (1864-1870)
What was the global impact of European migration?
1. Europe's share of world population increased 2. Australia and New Zealand became settler colonies of European civilization 3. Europeans in South Africa, Kenya, Rhodesia, Algeria, and elsewhere injected racial divide 4. 20% of migrating Europeans from Italy, Spain, and Portugal migrated to Latin America (Argentina and Brazil)
Environmental impacts of the Industrial Revolution in Europe
1. Extraction of raw materials (coal, iron, petroleum, etc.) altered landscape 2. Sewers and industrial waste emptied in rivers 3. Smoke from coal-fired industries and domestic use polluted air, increased respiratory illness
How did the laboring class adapt/react to the Industrial Revolution? Did social protests occur?
1. Formed self-help societies that provided insurance against illness, decent funerals, and social life 2. Skilled artisans such as the Luddites were unable to organize in legal unions and had their jobs taken by machines, so they burned the mills and broke machinery 3. Joined movements to obtain voting rights for working class men 4. Joined trade unions (legalized in 1824) to get better wages and working conditions 5. Strikes, attempts at nationwide organization, threat of violence
Social outcomes of the Russian Industrial Revolution
1. Growing middle class of businessmen and professionals 2. Educated middle class opposed conservative tsar of Russia and wanted more say in politics 3. Middle class dependent on state for contracts and jobs as well as suppression of growing radical workers which they feared 4. Factory workers developed radical class consciousness because of their working conditions and lack of legal outlet 5. Millions of factory workers migrated to new industrial centers and had horrible working conditions and standards of life
Where did industrialization occur beyond Europe and N. America?
1. Japan during 1800s (response to threat of European aggression), only other major industrialization 2. Minor industrialization in India, Egypt, Ottoman Empire, China, and Latin America
Industrial Rev.'s social impacts on the British aristocracy
1. Owned more than half of land in Britain, leased land to tenant farmers who employed laborers to work 2. Growing population and demand for food, landowners sold food, high demand 3. Continued to dominate British Parliament 4. Declined as businessmen, manufacturers, and bankers rose 5. Economic prosperity rather than landowning seen as success, businessmen led political parties 6. Maintained social prestige and personal wealth, worked as colonial administrators and settlers in the British Empire
Economic outcome of Latin America's involvement in the world economy
1. Rapid growth of Latin American exports to industrializing countries that needed food products, raw materials, and markets 2. Latin American export boom from ca. 1850-1910 increased value of goods sold abroad by 10 times
How was the Industrial Revolution different from the past?
1. Reliance of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas rather than wood, water, wind, and muscle power as sources of energy 2. European fuel of guano (seabird excrement) as a source of energy from Peru used as fertilizer 3. Invention of steam engine that provided limitless power to drive machines, locomotives, and ships 4. Expansion from textile industry to iron/steel production, railroads/steamships, telegraph/telephone, rubber, printing, etc. 5. Agriculture improved by mechanical reapers, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and refrigeration, but shrank in importance in the economy
Why did the Industrial Revolution begin in Europe/Britain?
1. Rivalries between Europe's competitive states led to constant innovation and insurance against economic/technological stagnation 2. Lots of coal and access to raw resources (timber, fish, maize, potatoes, sugar and cotton) 3. Growing consumer market 4. Cheap capital in agriculture and trade 5. Island geography (protected from European wars) 6.High-wage workforce, incentive for laborsaving techniques 7. Wealth accumulated from global trader after 1500 allowed for funding of industrialization 8. Advantages in global market (ex. demand for Asian goods led to production of European copies of such Asian goods such as porcelain, production for overseas markets)
Why were Russian serfs freed in 1861?
1. Russia was defeated by the British and French in the Crimean War (1854-1856) 2. Serfdom viewed as incompatible with modern civilization, holding back the country's development
Why did the Latin American export boom not lead to a thorough Industrial Revolution?
1. Social structure of mostly lower class, small market for manufactured goods 2. More economically powerful groups such as landowners and cattlemen benefitted from agricultural exportation and didn't feel the need to invest in manufacturing 3. Domestic manufacturing enterprises not protected by high tariffs
How did the European government encourage innovation and economic prosperity within the merchant class?
1. Special privileges, monopolies, and tax-collecting responsibilities granted by government in return for loans or payments to the state 2. Charters and monopolies given to private trading companies, states founded scientific societies and gave prizes to promote innovation
How did Latin American become more involved in the world economy driven by industrializing Western Europe and North America?
1. Steamship that cut sailing time from Britain and Argentina in half 2. Telegraph brought the latest news and fashions of Europe to Latin America
American VS Russian Industrialization
1. US industrialization began with the people, Russia's industrialization began with the state as it attempted to catch up with greater states of Europe
Ranking of regions to which European immigrants migrated to (ordered from most to least immigrants received)
1. United States (32 million) 2. Asian Russia (13 million) 3. Argentina (6 million) 4. Brazil (4 million) 5. Canada (4 million) 6. Australia (2 million) 7. New Zealand (650 thousand) 8. Uruguay (600 thousand) 9. Cuba (600 thousand) 10. South Africa (250 thousand) 11. Mexico (250 thousand)
Social changes in Latin America from export boom
1. Upper-class landowners gained riches as exports flourished and their property values increased 2. Middle-class urban dwellers grew in numbers in prosperity like in Europe as their skills were valuable 3. Majority of population was impoverished lower class made up off workers in railroads, ports, mines, and factories 4. Laboring class organized into mutual aid societies, created unions, and engaged in strikes but were crushed by government
Social continuities in 1800 Latin America after independence
1. Women remained isolated from political life 2. Slavery abolished, but persisted in Brazil and Cuba until late 1880s 3. Legal distinctions between races disappeared, free people considered equal citizens 4. Businesses, ranches, and plantations remained in hands of white creole men 5. Military as a means of mobility for mestizo men, some became caudillos 6. Mixed-race people found place in middle class as teachers, shopkeepers, or artisans 7. Majority of minorities remained impoverished, worked on farms, mines, or on haciendas 8. Poor rarely rebelled against those higher up (ex. Caste War of Yucatan between Maya people of Mexico vs European and mestizo intruders)
Similar outcomes of global industrialization
1. new tech and sources of energy 2. urbanization 3. class structures changed, middle classes and factory working class grew in numbers and prominence 4. middle class withdrew from paid labor 5. working class withdrew from paid labor after marriage 6. working women lower wages than men 7. working class anger led to trade unions and socialist movements
What aspects of the Industrial Revolution facilitated migration of Europeans across the globe?
1. poverty 2. rapidly growing population 3. displacement of peasant farming and artisan manufacturing by machinery and factories 4. demand for labor overseas 5. availability of land in other countries 6. cheap transportation of railroads and steamships
How was US industrialization linked to Europe?
1/3 of capital investment financing economic growth came from British, French, and German capitalists and allowed for the creation of an independent Industrial Revolution in the US
Timeline of the Industrial Revolution
1780s Industrial Rev. begins in Britain early 1800s Spread to Western Europe late 1800s Spread to US, Russia, and Japan
Karl Marx
1818-1883. 19th century philosopher, political economist, sociologist, humanist, political theorist, and revolutionary. Often recognized as the father of communism. Analysis of history led to his belief that communism would replace capitalism as it replaced feudalism. Believed in a classless society.
When did the Russian Industrialization begin?
1890s
Russian Social Democratic Labor Party
1898 Russian political party that was illegal. It was composed of a group of educated Russians who followed Marxist socialism as a means of understanding the changes of industrialization. They were involved in workers' education, union organizing, and revolutionary action
Results of Mexican Revolution
1917 Mexico had new constitution that gave voting rights to all men, redistributed land, stripped Catholic church of role in public education and forbade it to own land, announced rights for workers (minimum wage, 8 hr workday), and placed restrictions on foreign ownership of property
Where did Europeans migrate to?
20% of Europe's population (50 million) migrated from 1815-1939 to America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa. Those unsatisfied, around 7 million, returned home
Progressives
A group of reformers who worked to solve problems caused by the rapid industrial urban growth in America of the late 1800s. They called for specific reforms such as wages-and-hours legislation, sanitation standards, antitrust laws, and greater governmental intervention in the economy
Socialism
A political and economic theory of social organization which advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole. Socialism was threatening to existing European order
Reform Bill of 1832
British legislation that extended the vote to most male members of the middle class, but not the women
Labour Party
British working-class political party established in the 1890s and dedicated to reforms and a peaceful transition to socialism, in time providing a viable alternative to the revolutionary emphasis of Marxism. This approach to socialism was known as "social democracy"
How did the Middle Class fuel the Industrial Revolution in Britain?
They provided the demand for goods produced during the Industrial Revolution and were the market for businessmen and merchants
caudillos
By the 1830s, following several hopeful decades of Enlightenment-inspired revolution against European colonizers, Latin America was mostly ruled by these creole military dictators.
What did Latin America do to make themselves more like Europe?
Deliberately recruited poor Europeans with the promise of a new life to increase white population. Argentina received 2.5 million Europeans from Spain and Italy from 1870-1915
What made the US the world's leading industrial power by 1914?
Huge size, natural resources, expanding domestic market, and political stability
1877
Eastern railroads announced 10% wage cut for workers, strikers disrupted rail service, smashed equipment, and rioted like the Luddites in Britain
When and where did the Industrial Revolution begin?
Europe (Britain) between 1750-1900
Where did girls and women of the laboring class work?
Factories, as domestic servants for upper class, worked at home by taking in boarders, doing laundry, or sewing clothes
How did Germany's industrialization differ from Britain's?
Focus on heavy industry (iron, steel, coal) rather than textile industry that Britain focused on. Highly concentrated in huge companies called cartels and generated militant and Marxist-oriented labor movement than Britain's
Social democracy gained prominence in
Germany during the late 1800s. Social democracy later came into conflict with more violent/revolutionary movements of communism
What sparked the Russian Revolution of 1917?
Hardships of World War I and social tensions of industrialization within autocratic Russia. The revolution brought the most radical socialist group in Russia, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov,
Effects of industrialization
Increased Population Greater wealth for societies Increased life expectancy Increased crime Pollution More jobs Poor working conditions (long hours, low pay) Poor living conditions (tenement houses)
How did merchants and innovators benefit from support from the European government?
Independence from state control, higher social status
Where did Latin American capital come from?
Investment from Great Britain which invested greatly in Argentina. Investments also from France, Germany, Italy, and US. By 1910, the US controlled 40% of Mexican property and produced half its oil
What was unique about the effects of industrialization in Russia?
It led to violent revolutionary upheavals, both in 1905 and more successfully in 1917. It was only in Russia that a socialist political party inspired Marxist views was able to seize political power
How did the US industrialize?
Techniques of mass production, interchangeable parts, assembly line, and scientific management. Advertising agencies, mail-order catalogs, and department stores led to a middle-class consumption
Luddites and Luddism
Luddites were workers who lost their jobs to industrial machines and broke the machines in factories. Luddism was a blind protest against progress and a resistance of technological innovation in which they called for price reductions, minimum wages, and prohibitions on flooding of inexperienced workers. Luddites wanted to preserve the old way of life in which men took pride in their work and were protected by the government.
The Laboring Class of Britain
Manual workers in mines, ports, factories, construction sites, workshops, and farms
British textile industry
Mass production of textiles produced due to new inventions during the Industrial Rev., heavily reliant on cotton, tech innovations, and factory machines powered by coal
Gender hierarchy in Britain's factories
Men as supervisors and in more skilled positions, women worked less skilled and lighter jobs with lack of advancement and were not allowed into labor unions
Porfirio Diaz 1906
Mexican dictator who invited the Arizona Rangers to suppress a strike at Cananea near the US border, which led to many deaths
Did the tsar's reforms following the 1905 Russian Revolution satisfy the people?
No. People had very little say in politics and they were alienated by the government. Socialist groups published pamphlets, organized trade unions, and spread their messages and revolutionary parties acted as an outlet for workers
Serfs VS nobility in Russia before 1861
Nobles were highly westernized whereas serfs were involved in Orthodox Christianity with pre-Christian spirits, spells, curses, and magic
Where did the American industrialization begin?
Textile factories of New England during the 1820s, and grew greatly during the 50 years after the after the Civil War (1861-1865)
How did Americans view socialism?
They viewed it as "un-American" as they valued individualism and didn't want such a "big" government
Which goods were in high demand in the global market?
Silver from Mexico, copper from Chile, tin from Bolivia, nitrates from Chile, guano from Peru, wild rubber from Amazon rain forest, sisal from Mexico, bananas from Central America, beef from Argentina, cacao from Ecuador, coffee from Brazil and Guatemala, sugar from Cuba
How did social aspects of America change due to industrialization?
Social equality turned into a widening gap separating classes. Labor protests, unions, strikes, and violence arose from working conditions and social divide.
How did the US government sponsor industrialization?
Tax breaks, grants of public land to railroad companies, laws allowing for formation of corporations, and absence of obsessive regulation of industry led to creation of large business enterprises (ex.US Steel corporation had larger annual budget than federal gov). Germany's government engaged in similar actions, whereas in France and Britain family business still predominated
What is Latin American independence the same as?
The contraction of the Spanish Empire
What occurred that Marx didn't expect?
The rise of the middle and lower class who bettered their standard of living under capitalism. He expected the working class to unite against the bourgeois, but they actually fought against one another during World War I, and national loyalty trumped class loyalty
How was the working-class movement in Britain, Germany, and beyond moved away from revolution?
The improvement of material conditions during the late 1800s
Why were women and girls favored to work in factories in Britain?
They accepted low wages and were deemed docile and suitable for repetitive tasks
How might the social and political backgrounds of the US and Russia affect their industrialization?
US was democratic, expanding, populated by many Europeans, and contained many African slaves. Russia's religion was Eastern Orthodox Christianity, had autocratic tsar, population of serfs, and empire across northern Asia
Example of dependent development
United Fruit Company in Central America influenced by US and allied with landowners and politicians. Company pressured government of "banana republics" to stay in favor of US. The US military intervened and supported American interests in Cuba, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, and Mexico
What changes in middle-class gender roles and family dynamics occurred in Britain during the Industrial Rev.?
Women: -Homemakers, wives, mothers -Emotional haven for men and refuge from capitalist world -Moral centers of family life -Educators of "respectability" and managers of household shopping -Ideology of domesticity meant that a women's job was homemaking, childbearing, charity, embroidery, music, drawing, etc. -Women temporarily kept out of working, only seen as a "lady" -By late 1800s, women began to work in labor force
How did nationalism erode working-class radicalism?
Workers were bound t their middle-class employers which offset economic and social antagonism
In return for exportation of primary products, Latin America ____
imported textiles, machinery, tools, weapons, and luxury goods from Europe and US
What was capital used for in Latin America
railroads, funnel exports to the coast to ship
Communism
society in which all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs
