Chapters 7 and 8 and Lectures: Motivation Concepts and Applications

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

A version of self-determination theory which holds that allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation if the rewards are seen as controlling

Self-Efficacy Theory

Albert Bandura. An individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. also called social learning theory or social cognitive theory. 4 ways to increase self efficacy: -enactive mastery: gaining relevant experience (ex. training) -vicarious modeling: seeing someone else do it, your gain confidence -verbal persuasion: when someone else convinces us we have the necessary skills -arousal: energized state

Hackman and Oldham's Model of Job Design

Identifies factors that influence the motivating potential of a job -- focus on the task 3 critical psychological states for intrinsic motivation: -experience work as meaningful -experience responsibility for the results -knowledge of results (KR) -- you should be able to tell how good of a job you're doing

operant conditioning

People learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences

Expectancy Theory

Victor Vroom. the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual -effort-performance relationship: Will exerting a given amount of effort lead to performance? (expectancy) -performance-reward relationship: degree to which individual believed performing at a certain level will lead to attainment of a desired outcome (instrumentality) -rewards-personal goals relationship: degree to which organizational rewards satisfy personal goals/needs and attractiveness of those potential rewards (valence) Equation: Motivation = E x I x V this theory is idealistic-- many rewards are actually based on seniority, not performance

continuous, short delay of

_______________ reinforcement leads to fast acquisition.

partial, long delay of

________________ reinforcement leads to persistence.

Management by Objectives (MBO)

a program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress

McClelland's Theory of Needs

a theory that states achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation

Behaviorism

behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner, rejects thoughts and feelings. BF Skinner.

Relational Job Design

constructing jobs so employees see the positive difference they can make in the lives of others directly through their work --e x. connect workers with the beneficiaries of their work. important for organizations with CSR initiatives.

schedules of reinforcement

different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior

extrinsic motivation

engage in an activity for a tangible reward (ex. pay, promotion, perks, praise, punishment) operant conditioning, equity theory, expectancy theory

intrinsic motivation

engage in an activity for its own sake (no tangible rewards) -- pure enjoyment, achieve mastery, prove something to yourself self-determination theory, goal setting theory, job design. leads to 2 general kinds of behavior 1. seeking stimulation: novelty + challenge, to explore, to learn 2. conquering challenges: to extend or exercise our own capabilities

Flextime

flexible work hours -- usually must work a specific number of hours per week but may vary the hours of work within limits. may be certain "core" hours when you must be there but then you can vary the rest. about 60% of orgs offer it in some form. helps make the workplace more accessible for working parents, and tends to decrease absenteeism.

flexible benefits

a benefits plan that allows each employee to put together a benefits package individually tailored to his or her own needs and situation (ex. vacation time, healthcare, etc.) generally a good motivator, although its not yet used globally.

Employee Stock Ownership Plan (ESOP)

a company-established benefits plan in which employees acquire stock, often at below-market prices, as part of their benefits. don't. increase motivation as much because the money comes when you cash it in at a later date

Pygmalion effect

a form of self-fulfilling prophecy in which believing something can make it true

Job Characteristics Model (JCM)

a model that proposes that any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback

Employee Involvement and Participation (EIP)

a participative process that uses the input of employees to increase employee commitment to organizational success. motivation and satisfaction increase when workers are given some power in decision making. major forms: participative management, representative management.

merit-based pay plan

a pay plan based on performance appraisal ratings. unions typically resists this, although its becoming more common in the public sector. especially common for salaried employees. beware of discrimination!

piece-rate pay plan

a pay plan in which workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed. typically this does increase productivity although it may not be motivating when the pace of work is determined by outside factors (ex. customer requests) -- may sacrifice quality for quantity

variable-pay program

a pay plan that bases a portion of an employee's pay on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance. in general they do increase performance, and they are often used in sales. may be a part or whole of the paycheck. includes piece-rate pay plan, merit-based pay plan, bonus, profit-sharing plan, Employee Stock Option Plan (ESOP)

employee recognition program

a plan to encourage specific employee behaviors by formally appreciating specific employee contributions. may be subject to political manipulation or abuse. in the ST, financial incentives are good, but in the LT, recognition is extremely motivating.

Motivating Potential Score (MPS)

a predictive index that suggests the motivating potential in a job MPS = [(skill variety + task identity + Task Significance)/3] x autonomy x feedback

participative management

a process in which subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors. this sense of joint decision making power increases trust. modestly good for productivity, motivation, and JS.

social learning theory

we learn social behavior both through direct experience and observation and the perception of consequences

organizational justice

overall perception of what is fair in the workplace, composed of distributive, procedural, informational, and interpersonal justice

true

people prefer rewards based on skill and performance, not seniority.

Distributive Justice

perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals (usually perceived as fair when rewards are distributed equally)

procedural justice

perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. ex. how much influence do we have over how decisions are made?

two-factor theory

relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction (ex. motivation factors like personal growth opps, responsibilities) and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction (ex. hygiene factors like pay, relationships, conditions) -- also called motivation-hygiene theory Herzberg thinks satisfaction is a good predictor of productivity, but its not well supported

bonus

rewards employees for recent performance rather than historical performance. very motivating, helps to increase productivity. but they can also be cut by employers at any time, leaving workers vulnerable.

true

t or f its best to have both promotion and prevention focus!

true

t or f: Justice perceptions are most important in places that are individualistic, feminine, have uncertainty avoidance, and low power distance

true

t or f: distributive and procedural justice are linked to task performance; informational and interpersonal justice are linked to citizenship behavior.

true

t or f: high achievers are internally driven as long as the job has personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risks- not concerned with the the 3 relationships of expectancy theory.

true

t or f: high achievers perform best when the probability of success is 50-50

true

t or f: if you pay more, you get better qualified, more Long term employees. pay is usually the highest cost in an organization.

true

t or f: individuals obtain internal rewards when they learn (knowledge of results) that they've performed well (experienced responsibility) on a task they care about (experiences meaningfulness)

true

t or f: intrinsic motivation -> quality, extrinsic motivation -> quantity

true

t or f: managers with high positive or low negative affect are more likely to act fairly.

true

t or f: most effective leaders have high nPow and nAch.

true

t or f: operant conditioning is less effective for complex, LT behaviors, and more effective for behaviors that can be clearly identified/monitored/paired with a reinforcer

true

t or f: rewards are most effective if they immediately follow behavior

false

t or f: secrecy regarding pay is good for performance.

false

t or f: the degree of ownership we feel about our work has NO impact on motivation.

true

t or f: to decide how much to pay an employee, balance the internal equity (worth of a job to the organization, established through job evaluation) with external equity (competitiveness of an organization's pay relative to the industry, established through pay surveys)

Informational Justice

the degree to which employees are provided truthful explanations for decisions

Interpersonal Justice

the degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respect

self-concordance

the degree to which peoples' reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values

need for affiliation (nAff)

the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships

need for achievement (nAch)

the drive to excel, to achieve in relationship to a set of standards, and to strive to succeed takes into account 2 cultural characteristics: -concern with performance -willingness to accept a moderate degree of risk

job engagement

the investment of an employee's physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance. leads to higher levels of productivity and less turnover.

need for power (nPow)

the need to make others behave in a way in which they would not have behaved otherwise

job rotation

the periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another with similar skills (aka cross training). may help increase JS, commitment, and motivation and decreases boredom and gives people a better view of the organization. BUT it increases training costs, decreases productivity in that role, and creates social disruptions among groups of employees.

motivation

the processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal intensity: how hard should I work? direction: what should I do? persistence: how long should I work? a psychological process that arouses, directs, and maintains voluntary, purposeful, goal-directed behavior. internal force that determines the choices people make among alternate courses of action

Reinforcement Theory

the theory that behavior is a function of its consequences, that behaviors followed by positive consequences will occur more frequently, and that behaviors followed by negative consequences, or not followed by positive consequences, will occur less frequently. not concerned with inner cognition, philosophically at odds with goal -setting theory

Job Design

the way the elements of a job are organized -- can influence employee effort

punishment

-decrease undesirable behavior -behavior followed by a neg stimulus is likely to decrease (positive punishment) -behavior followed by elimination of a positive stimulus is likely to decrease (negative punishment)

Reinforcement

-increase desired behavior -behavior followed by a reward is likely to be repeated (positive reinforcement) -behavior followed by elimination of a negative stimulus is likely to increase (negative reinforcement)

Equity Theory

Individuals compare their job inputs (ex. effort, education, experience) and outcomes (ex. pay/promotions) with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities. we have 4 options: -change inputs -change outcomes (ex. increase pay by increasing the quantity with decreased quality, or complain) -distort perceptions of self -distort perceptions of others -choose a different referent -leave the field (quit) we want the ration of our inputs to outcomes to be similar or equal to others'. equity -- satisfaction overreward -- tension (guilt) underreward -- tension (anger)

Task Significance

JCM. the degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people

autonomy

JCM. the degree to which a job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out

skill variety

JCM. the degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities

task variety

JCM. the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work

Feedback

JCM. the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance

prevention focus

a self-regulation strategy that involves striving for goals by fulfilling duties and obligations

promotion focus

a self-regulation strategy that involves striving for goals through advancement and accomplishment

representative participation

a system in which workers participate in organizational decision making through a small group of representative employees. put labor's interest on more equal footing with management and stockholders. -work councils: groups of employees that must be consulted on management decisions about employees. -board representatives: employees sit on the board of directors and represent employee interests

self-determination theory

a theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation. we are drawn towards challenge and mastering challenges.

Goal Setting Theory

a theory that says that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance. Edwin Locke. note: participatively set goals lead to higher performance, self-generated feedback is most powerful, people perform better when the task is harder. goal commitment: likely when goals are public, self-set, person has internal locus of control. we assume an individual believes they can/wants to achieve the goal. national characteristics: in collectivist/high power distance countries, moderate goals may be more motivating than difficult ones task characteristics: simple rather than complex, achievable, well-learned, independent

job sharing

an arrangement that allows two or more individuals to split a traditional 40-hour-a-week job. can be hard to find a compatible partner, but it helps out working parents and provides a more varied skill set. it also may be less expensive to train/give benefits to 2 PT workers than 1 FT worker.

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior -- start small, then build up to a more complex behavior

profit-sharing plan

an organization-wide program that distributes compensation based on some established formula designed around a company's profitability (ex. cash or stock options). typically increases commitment and adds a sense of psychological ownership to work.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

as each one is met, the next becomes dominant

Telecommuting

working from home at least 2 days a week on a computer that's linked to the employer's office in a place you choose. quite popular. may lower JS and increase isolation. may cause you to miss you on promotions bc you're not there for ant sudden meetings or informal interactions. often increases number of hours beyond the contracted work week. tends not to lower work-family conflict.