Chemistry: Notable Elements - Set #2 (Official Set)

Lutetium (All Facts)

Last of the 4f Lanthanides Radioactive isotopes used for dating meteorites Used for radioactive nucleotide cancer treatments Named after Paris, the roman name "Lutecia" One of the very few elements named after Cities, along with Ytterbium and the other three after Ytterby Like Thulium, Lutetium is very expensive

Argon (All Facts)

· Argon · Named after the Greek word "Argos" meaning "inactive" or "Inert" as it is · Colorless, Odorless Gas and Liquid, which makes up less than 1% of our Atmosphere, and is used in Incandescent Lightbulbs to prevent oxygen from corroding the hot-wire filaments made of metals that easily oxidize in the lightbulb · Argon-40 is used with Potassium-40 in Argon-Potassium Dating, a technique geologists use to measure the age of rocks like they do with Carbon-14 · The first Noble Gas to be discovered · Its main application works the same way as Neon, producing ionized or plasma Argon as blue or sometimes even purple colors · The process of discovering this first Noble Gas took a while, a lot of men, a lot of steps, but was soon credited to two people, Sir William Ramsay if you didn't guess that already, and Lord Raleigh or John William Strut · In 1785, Henry Cavendish had speculated about the now-known chemistry of our atmosphere, and after discovering Oxygen he hated not knowing that most of air was not Oxygen, for certain locations didn't react with certain elements or metals like Carbon, so they must not contain Oxygen · So he put together all the things he knew which we still know today about the chemistry of the elements known to air now, and soon discovered Oxygen himself, and found out air also consisted of Nitrogen and Carbon Dioxide, so he had to supervise a few chemical reactions in order to isolate any other unknown gases with the gases he already had · Nitrogen and Oxygen react with a catalyst of electrical energy such as lightning or an electric discharge spark which Cavendish used to produce Nitrogen Oxides, which when mixed with Water, like all Nonmetal Oxides, create an Acid, Nitrous Acid · Thus, Cavendish experimented with other locations of air adding sparks of electricity to them, and seeing if they would react in the presence of water or moist air, to produce Nitrous Oxides, and thus if they did, then the atmosphere would contain Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, and nothing else · Since Nitrogen Oxide and Carbon Dioxide are both acidic substances once dissolved in water, you can neutralize them with Sodium Hydroxide or other strong bases, thus leaving Oxygen left in the mixture, which he used another material which could easily oxidize into the mixture he was collecting or dealing with, particularly Potassium Polysulfides would remove the Oxygen from his experimental mixture · Thus, with this mixture after the Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Carbon Dioxide were all used up, there was a small bubble of gas remaining, which enabled Cavendish to experiment more with it since it was unreactive, but he gave up there and couldn't use spectral analysis until it was analyzed a little less than a hundred years later, so he was ahead of his time by a century · In 1892, John William Strut, also known as Lord Raleigh, took mass and weight measurements of the air, and was popular in the field of Atmospheric Chemistry stating that Oxygen was always 16 times more dense than Hydrogen (that's rounded by the way), but more importantly stating from his findings that Nitrogen in Air is more dense than Nitrogen isolated from Nitrogen compounds such as Fertilizers, so he concluded there must be another Gas present in the air · In 1894, William Ramsay teamed up with Lord Raleigh to find what this missing gas may be, and after removing all the components of the air the same way Cavendish did, as well as by using fractional distillation, he just reacted Oxygen with a Combustible substance and Nitrogen with Magnesium, but either way, he relied on his best friend, spectral analysis, to find the distinct emission spectrum of the remaining gas found in these mixtures, he, Raleigh, and Cavendish from early on had set up · Thus, he named it "Argon" after the Greek word for "lazy" or "inactive" · William Ramsay discovered all the other Noble Gases using methods like these, similar to these, and also using Spectral Analysis and Fractional Distillation of Air using techniques associated with supercooling, however he didn't discover Radon, a radioactive Noble Gas · Earth's atmosphere holds 65 trillions tons of Argon, and is still a very small proportion of gas in it · Although Carbon-14 dating which works because traces amounts of the isotope are found in the atoms of Organic compounds like those in plants, and since it is radioactive, the amount of Carbon-14 measured in a plant can be used to determine how long the plant or organic substance has lived or been around, based on Carbon-14's 5,730 year half-life, but material 6 times as old as the half-life of Carbon rids of Carbon-14, thus it is challenging to measure things 60,000 years old with Carbon-14 · Potassium and Argon isotopes can be used to date rocks older than this, when Potassium-40 decays into Calcium and Argon-40, the half lives of these substance collectively is around 1.25 billion years, so the ratio of Potassium to Argon isotopes in a rock an be used to determine how long it has been since the rock began to solidify · Argon-39 isotopes are also no used · Other than from the air, Argon-40 comes from the radioactive decay of Potassium-40, as the most common form of Potassium abundant on Earth happens to be radioactive, and produces the most common or abundant form of Argon in the world as well, Argon-40 · Argon glows green absorbing infrared light as an Infrared image, such as that of the Cassiopeia Supernova 10,000 light years away · Argon is an unreactive, colorless, odorless, non-toxic, stable, and monoatomic gas · The only compound it forms is Argon Fluorohydride at 7.5 Kelvin through the photolysis of Hydrofluoric Acid in Solid Argon at 7.5 Kelvin · Photolysis is the breaking of chemical compounds using electromagnetic energy, which unawaringly is not limited to visible light and may change substances in light we cannot see · Because of its special unreactive properties, it is used in Lightbulbs to protect the filament which carries the electric current which undergoes thermionic emission to not oxidize with the air spontaneously and break the Lightbulb, and is filled inside the otherwise vacuum in a lightbulb other than the Filament · Not only is it used in Lightbulbs, but in cans and storage of wine to protect it from oxidizing with the air around it, and is used in welding to provide a Oxygen-less environment for the welders to work · Silicon and Germanium Crystals which are used for Semi-Conducting Materials and Computers also use Argon in their presence to make the crystal growth inert to outside chemicals or Oxygen · Argon is also used in lasers, specifically in the medical field as plasma, and also has their own Lamps and Lights like the rest of the Noble Gases when excited with Electrical Energy as Electric Discharge · Argon has low thermal conductivity and is used as the gas between the glass panes in high-efficiency double and triple glazing. · · Argon production has already been explained, from radioactive decay of Potassium-40 and from fractional distillation of air using supercooling methods · Argon is unreactive, so if you tell people all the Good Chemistry Jokes Argon, you aren't gonna get a reaction

Silver (All Facts)

· Silver · Periodic Videos · Silver is used in Photography and Forensics, and the black on photographic film is actually pure Silver Halide Salts, in which in the Photolysis of Silver Halide Salts can initiate a chemical reaction with the film and a liquid developer chemical, dip it in a cup, and the film will spread, small amounts of light will produce a large amount of black on the film onto which the light can be spread · Silver can be used as an Anti-Microorganism Agent or Disinfectant of Microorganisms, and there are socks you can buy online with silver nanoparticles in them which claim to prevent smelly feet, since microorganisms getting on your feet can make your feet smell · Like Copper and Gold, it isn't as reactive as the rest of the transition metals to form Oxides, and has been known for tens of thousands of years · Silver is good at demonstrating a competition chemical reaction, which works with the reactivity series of metals and deals with comparing the reactivity of two metals in one chemical reaction · In its minute measurements as a table of exceptions to normal periodic patterns of reactivity, the series shows that Copper is a bit more reactive than Silver, and will compete more for the Nitrate ions, so through a Single Replacement Reaction, Copper Nitrate is produced, and Silver in solution is leftover, you can see the chemical change in which the Silver is precipitated as a solid because the temperature isn't hot enough for it to be molten or liquid, and also because the solution turns blue due to the Copper ions in their particular oxidation states forming the Copper Nitrate and sharp Silver Crystals · So this answers Hannah's and other's chemistry questions about Single and Double Displacement reactions and why they occur even in solution, if they switch out or replace so to speak it because of the relative reactivities, and that one element has more of a reactivity than the other, so it will compete for the ion overall more largely than the other · Silver is very sensitive with light obviously because of its primarily superior electrical, thermal, and photo conductivities to that of any other metal, as well as its superior luster, most Silver Salts are very reactive with light, so they must be stored in dark jars where there is no light · Flash Powder is a mixture of Magnesium and Silver Nitrate, both solid ground powders, and in mixing them they spontaneously react and also demonstrate the significance of the reactivity series in that Magnesium is far more reactive than Silver, and through the reaction, heat is generated and energy is lost in the form of heat so it is exothermic, and is called flash powder because it goes up in a flash for the reaction · In stirring a silver spoon with tea, it gets hot very quickly, and thus you don't want heat around Silver because it conducts it so well, nor do you want electricity, so that goes for Silver Alloys and Silverware as well, never should there by Silverware near heat, in the oven or microwave, or near electricity, such as by the stereo or television · Use of Silver Nanoparticles in socks and in solution, the Tyndall Effect and Anti-Microbial Effects both work · So Silver in the forms of Silver Sulfide, Silver Chloride, Silver Bromide, Silver Iodide, and Silver Nitrate are some of Silver's most common compounds performing the most common reactions and certainly applying to common assets of life · Chemicool · Although the discovery of Silver is unknown, it has a long history just as its native elemental form, and is also another very familiar element like that of Gold, probably discovered in ancient times like the elements of Gold, Copper, Lead, and Iron, all of which happened to be prehistorically used before Silver in that order · While Galena is primarily Lead Sulfide, impure Silver is found in the ore such as Silver in the form of Silver Sulfide · The main historically-known process of producing Silver was to smelt Galena (Lead/Silver Sulfide) using a reducing agent, undergoing a redox reaction usually with Carbon, obtaining a mixture of Silver and Lead, the Carbon reduced the Sulfur Oxide to Carbon and Sulfur Dioxides most likely, and the mixture was heated to 1000 degrees through a process known as cupellation, so the Lead would form an Oxide, and the molten Silver would be leftover, since Silver is inert like Gold and Silver Oxide doesn't really exist, Silver is thus produced · The recent name for Silver, "Silver" comes from the Anglo-Saxon word "seolfor" which they named of this element · The ancient name for Silver, "Argentum" comes from Latin, which originally came from the ancient Sanskrit word "Argunas" meaning "shining" · Like most transition metals go, Silver is perfectly innocent while its compounds or salts are usually carcinogenic and/or toxic nonetheless · A somewhat rare, non-toxic, soft, inert, unreactive, ductile, malleable, lustrous, electrically conductive, thermally conductive, corrosion-resistant transition metal, which happens to be the most electrically conductive and most thermally conductive element on the Periodic Table, with Gold falling very close in 2nd place, it can tarnish to produce Silver Sulfide, but not Silver Oxide, there is no such compound · Silver is used in wiring and electrical conducting for very rich people, as well as in electrical contacts, electronic print circuits, and also electrochemically used in batteries with the other electrode being of Zinc or Cadmium, usually as standard Silver-Cadmium Batteries · Silver is used to make mirrors, given its amazing electrical conductivity also makes it the best element to reflect light, it is the most lustrous of all the elements for it is the most electrically and thermally conductive, its electrons hang loose from its atoms, and its most common oxidation state is +1, instead of +2 or +3 for most metals, so it can be very reflective of light and thus is used effectively in mirrors · Silver is used in alloys to make Solders (Silver Alloys, just like Amalgams are Mercury Alloys), Sterling Silver (Silver and Copper), Electrum (Gold, Silver, and Copper), Britannia Silver (More Silver, Less Copper than in Sterling) · Silver is quite chemically common in the forms of Silver Nitrate, Silver Chloride and Silver Bromide, most of Silver's Salts, Silver Halides specifically, are used in photography because not only are Silver's salts colored, but Silver is the best reflector of light, and thus when ionized in its +1 oxidation state, it makes sense given that it's the best reflector, that it should be used in photography · Silver is used in photography as well as in fingerprints and forensics · Silver Salts, some of them at least, can be used as disinfectants and were widely, successfully used by countries like the US to prevent infection in WW1 · Silver is produced from the refinement, purification, geochemical procession, smelting, and extraction of various transition metal ores like that of Copper, Gold, Lead, Copper-Nickel, and Lead-Zinc Ores · Silver can also be produced by electrolysis and thermolysis or electrochemical and thermal decomposition of its various ores such as impurities of it in Galena (Lead Sulfide), and also as it is in Argentite (Silver Sulfide), and Horn Silver (Silver Chloride) --------------------------------------------------------- - Named after the Latin word "Argentum", meaning "Silver" as is the chemical symbol's derivation, and has been used since ancient times · Today, it is used in many countries to make coins · It has a bright white luster · It is very malleable and ductile · It has the highest thermal and electrical conductivity among all metals, even non-transition metals · Stable, Pure, Elemental Silver exists in air and water, and undergoes a complex series of chemical reactions after being exposed to air over time, producing Silver Sulfide, a black powder called tarnish and known to tarnish · Silver reflects light very well due to its electronic capabilities and bright white luster from the light and physical electromagnetic wave or photon effects with the electrons in a piece of silver metal, and Silver is one of the best light reflectors and has one of the best lusters, so it is often used in mirrors · Sterling Silver is also a common alloy of Silver, another application as a compound, which is made mostly up of Silver with some Copper in it, which allows the Silver in it to be harder, with a lower melting point, and thus due to these changes in properties, Sterling Silver (Copper-Silver) is used in making silverware · Like most transition metals, Silver has great thermal and electrical conductivity, have low to moderate reactivity, are hard metals with extremely high melting points, have a luster or shine due to the electrons interacting with light, and also the multiple oxidation states and electron releases · The Precious Metals include that of Silver, Gold, Platinum, and Palladium #47- Silver- Silver in Latin means "Argentum" and thus that is where "Ag" for its symbol comes from, however Latin took this word from the even more ancient word in Sanskrit "Argunas" or "Shining"

Sodium (All Facts)

· Sodium o Periodic Videos · The second lightest, most reactive Alkali Metal, it is also stored under oil like Lithium and all other Alkali Metals because it reacts violently with both the air and in water, to undergo the same chemical reactions all alkali metals including Lithium normally do · Melting Point of 96 degrees · When cutting up a solid piece of Sodium metal, it will have a crispy silvery shiny layer on the inside, the result of Sodium Oxide from exposure to air and moisture (wet air) or water itself · Sodium's main application isn't Sodium Oxide, but Sodium Hydroxide from the result of reacting with water, along with producing Hydrogen Gas, and this is also known as lye which is a strong base used for oven cleaner · Also, found in Sodium Chloride, or Table Salt, the Salt happens to absorb all or most colors since it is white like most salts, acids, and bases of its kind, and in Infrared Radiation, which is a little less energy than red color waves, it is transparent · Salts like Sodium Chloride even in glass make it break at certain degrees of angles because of its cubic crystalline structure · One of the many abundant metals in the Earth's Crust, it's most abundant or commonplace to find it is in Halite (Sodium Chloride or Table Salt) · Around every 4 gallons of sea water contain about 1 pound of Sodium Chloride · Sometimes, Iodine is added to Table Salts · Silvery metal which tarnishes quickly in Air · Soft and Malleable · Due to its one valence electron being a free radical, it is highly reactive and doesn't exist in its pure form in nature, but exists purely with other compounds · Helps regulate the balance of water in the body, as well as acting in many bases such as Sodium Bicarbonate as a Base to neutralize Acids in forming Salt and Water in double-displacement acid-base reactions, balancing pH · Sweating results in Sodium Loss from the body · Such Sodium-containing Salts are used to preserve food, and also affect your health in terms of balancing water in the body, and food rotting or wearing off · It is also used in Antacids, which are Bases you take and chew and swallow which neutralize the increasing quantities of hydrochloric acid, the acid in your stomach which breaks down some foods (Against Acids, hint the Ant in the name), · It is also used in Fire Extinguishers in case an Acid or Acid-associated oxidation started the burning fire · Chemicool · In 1807, Humphrey Davy discovered Sodium by the electrolysis of Lye, back then known as Caustic Soda, and chemically known now as Sodium Hydroxide, and upon discovering the Sodium at one of the electrodes in one of the batteries, it was a liquid and it later cooled, as he described it as being less dense than most of the metals as we now conclude it has a low density, and is very soft and malleable · Since Chemical Bonds were electrical naturally, he could separate the components of substances using electricity to excite the electrons, and use wet and dry cell batteries with cathodes and anodes to attract parts of the compound electrically while the ions travel through the electrolyte, so Davy used the output work of 3 full batteries to split the Caustic Soda, or simply just "Soda" · Davy also discovered that when the metal reacted with water, it would release Hydrogen Gas and create another substance, which we now know today as (reformed) Sodium Hydroxide or Caustic Soda or Lye · So Metals are Basic and Nonmetals are Acidic, excluding Oxygen and Hydrogen, which can either be Basic or Acidic, when they form ionic bonds of course, a Metal and Nonmetal, which are the strongest electrically natural bonds Davy could split, so he did so with Potash and other Bases as well to isolate Basic, Alkali, or Alkaline metals, such as Potassium and Calcium · He named the new metal "Sodium" since it came from Soda, but JJ Berzelius has wanted it named "Natrium", since Natronlouge was German for "Soda", and so instead they abbreviated this as it was the chemical symbol · Not only does it belong under the Alkali metals electrically and atomically, but also by name, for "Alkalis" are Alkali or Alkaline metal-containing Salts, which can be dissolved in water to form a base or basic solution since it then releases Hydroxide ions, Alkalis are bases dissolves in water with a pH greater than 7, so Sodium, which is a part of both Sodium Hydroxide (pH 14), Baking Soda or Sodium Bicarbonate (pH 8), and Bleach or Sodium Hypochlorite (pH 12), can be dissolved in water to release Hydroxide ions while acting as the "salt of a" base, and therefore Alkali is a base dissolved in water, and Alkaline is another word for "basic", so they mean the same thing and the metals under their names are only separated not by their chemical properties, but by their valency · When lumps or chunks of Sodium metal are cut, they immediately form an Oxide layer which looks silvery or more different than the uncut chunks, since Sodium is quite reactive with other elements, being the second lightest alkali metal and having only a valency of 1, although some Oxide layers are used to protect the metal from further oxidation when placed on uncut surfaces · Sodium and Sodium-containing Alkalis or Salts can absorb electromagnetic radiation or heat which excites its electrons and through the Photoelectric Effect, its flame test produces the characteristic yellow flame, which is especially significant considering the fact that its Emission Spectra only gives off 2 lines of Yellow light · When Sodium combines with Potassium to produce an alloy of the two metals, it is liquid at room temperature and up to 60% of it can contain Sodium · Biologically, Sodium manages the correct fluid balances in the cells of life, as Low Sodium can be seen in "cramps", caused by the loss of Sodium ions when salt is removed from the body in the form of sweat · Biologically, Sodium Salt is vital for good nutrition because Sodium ions help transmit electrical signals in the nervous system and help regulate the water balance between body cells and fluids · Sodium is non-toxic unless it makes contact with the skin in the form of an Alkali, a very soft and silvery metal, and highly reactive, it isn't found as a free metal in nature, only when an Oxide layering automatically coats it cut as synthetically produced by lumps and chunks which can be held in the hand · As a flame test, it burns a bright Yellow color as said before · The 6th most abundant element in the Earth's crust and on Earth itself and the 1st most abundant Alkali metal element · Nucleosynthetically, Sodium is produced in heavy stars when atoms of Carbon came together to give off two protons while producing a neon nuclei, and in the process one of those protons could react with the neon nuclei to form Sodium nuclei · Historically, Sodium is produced from the electrolysis of slightly moistened Sodium Hydroxide or Caustic Soda · Industrially, Sodium is produced from the electrolysis of mostly molten Sodium Chloride or Table Salt · Sodium can thus be found in Sodium Oxide, when freshly cut surfaces oxidize in the air to form an oxide coating, and applied to covering Sodium metal in the first place to prevent further oxidation · Sodium can thus be found in Sodium Hydroxide and reacts with Water to produce Sodium Hydroxide, as well as lots of heat which quickly excited the Hydrogen Gas being formed and causes an explosion, Sodium is less dense than water by the way · Sodium can abundantly be found as Sodium Chloride in waters and oceans and reacts vigorously with Chlorine Gas to produce the Salt · Other than reacting with other elements or substances to produce these chemical compounds, Sodium has many other applications · Sodium is used in producing Organic Compounds such as Sodamide and many Esters · Sodium is also used for mixing with alloys such as Aluminum-Silicon for increasing their metallic or Alkali and Alkaline properties, as alloys, for both are neither Alkali nor Alkaline and not even Transitional, and it also improves their fluidity and malleability, and also has metallurgical uses to descale (smooth the surface of) metals, and purify metals overall then they are liquid · Sodium can be used as a Reducing Agent, since it easily oxidizes with Oxygen, and also a Heat Transfer Agent or as cooling machines in nuclear because of its fluidic properties as a liquid and how cool it can get as a liquid, to very low temperatures under th right conditions · Sodium Halide or Sodium Vapor Lamps are efficient in producing light from electricity and are often used in city lights · Astrochemically, laser beams activated towards the atmosphere at night can energize Sodium atoms and ions leftover by meteorite abundance in the Mesosphere of the Earth's atmosphere, popularly known as the part of the atmosphere containing Ozone which absorbs UV radiation for us, and through the Photoelectric Effect, these Sodium atoms glow a bright spot of light, an "artificial star" as they call it · Biologically, Sodium-Potassium pumping organs in our bodies use 34% of our resting energy to maintain electrolyte balances in cells, balancing Acidic and Alkaline substances entering and exiting the body, as well as excess Potassium Ions inside cells and Sodium ions outside cells, and provides energy for processes inside Cell Membranes · Sodium is also used as Sodium Polyacrylate or "Fake Snow" since it has the chemical property as a white powder of easily absorbing water as Hydrates, and spontaneously swells up or expands when put in a beaker or solution of Sodium Polyacrylate and Water feels and looks a lot like snow · It works because it is a Sodium Salt in aqueous solution, or Acrylic Acid which is polymerized and further reacted with Sodium to produce the Sodium Polyacrylate Salt, and like most polymers the chains are easily linked together and cannot easily separate, so when adding water, it absorbs it and the Sodium ions attract the water molecules and gives itself energy · So if it were a normal salt like Sodium Chloride, it would just dissolve, but since this inorganic polymer are formed in chains or links, it cannot dissolve, and the water that comes in contact with it is attracted by the reactive Sodium center ion, and the Polymers do not dissolve since they are linked, staying where they are at while producing a little heat energy · Used in diapers! #11 Sodium- Sodium's old Greek name "Natrium" is Latin for "Sodium Carbonate", in German "Natronlauge" meant "Caustic Soda" the primary Sodium Hydroxide compound, and after LW Gilbert suggested the name be "Natronium", JJ Berzelius refined it to "Natrium", which in short is Sodium's "Na"

Palladium (All Facts)

Periodic Videos In the same group as Platinum, it is also a part of the Platinum Family, not on the Periodic Table but under arbitrary terms in reference to the Noble Metals- the most inert and dense metals of all the metals and elements of which include Osmium- the most dense, however least inert for it can form Osmium Tetroxide, Iridium- the 2nd most dense, inert nonetheless, Rhodium, Ruthenium, Palladium, and Platinum, however I would include elements of the same period of Platinum, Rhenium and Tungsten a part of the Noble Metals- considering they have the highest boiling and melting points of all the metals, the Periodic properties of metals or elements like Palladium really do stand out, however you can distinguish the facts that the 6 original Noble Metals, including Palladium, are primarily mined, produced, and found in South Africa The Heck reaction includes Palladium, used in organic and organometallic reactions and productions A very rare, expensive, precious metal refined and produced mostly from geochemical purification, refinement, and extraction of Platinum ores from South Africa and Australia Used to make electrodes Used to make electrical circuits and wires A precious metal Used to make Catalytic convertors Used as a Catalyst in Organic Chemistry Used as an Electrode in Electrochemistry Used in the Pharmaceutical Industry Used as a catalyst for Hydrogenation Discovered by William H. Wollaston Chemicool In 1803, Palladium was discovered by William (Hyde) Wollaston in London in the same way he ended up discovering Rhodium He, along with many other chemists of his era, were finding so many different elements in both Platinum and Gadolinium ores, so in using certain geochemical refinement and purification processes with solutions, they were able to obtain precipitates, and in distinguishing the properties of the precipitate from other elements, they could identify a new element He examined the material leftover after dissolving isolated platinum from its ore in Aqua Regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, he isolated the palladium in a series of geochemical reactions involving Ammonium Chloride, and in obtaining Palladium Cyanide from them, he extracted the Palladium metal He shared his discovery in a very interesting, intellectual way, by selling the metal, posting handbills throughout London describing the properties of the metal, and waited for someone to challenge him that it wasn't Palladium, and that person happened to be a very popular chemist at the time named Richard Chenevix, so Wollaston offered him and anyone else a reward for producing the new metal, but no one ever produced it, so he explained how he produced it at the Royal Society, and got his spot on the Society as well as in legendary science, for having been credited with the discovery of Palladium As you might see, he wanted to remain anonymous since he was still discovering things about a metal no one has and might no one ever will produce again, so he would uncover himself towards being the credential discoverer It is named after a recently discovered Asteroid Wollaston heard about and named after the supposed "other" Greek goddess of Wisdom, Pallas A rare, non-toxic, lustrous, silvery-white, malleable, ductile, corrosion-resistant, acid-resistant 2+ oxidation stated, "platinum group", transition metal, it actually is not resistant to nitric acid, but all other acids, and is in second place, just behind gold, in terms of malleability and ductility, and can also be beaten into a thin leaf, it also exists in many of the same ores and has many of the same properties as Ruthenium, Rhodium, Osmium, Iridium, and Platinum, it does tarnish in the air if it contains Sulfur to produce Palladium Sulfide Palladium is used in alloys and as a catalyst, like most transition metals, used as a catalyst in catalytic convertors, petroleum cracking, carbon dioxide reduction, hydrogenation & dehydrogenation reactions, and in hydrogen storage; and in alloys used in dentistry, watchmaking, surgical instruments, jewelry, and electrical contacts, it can form white gold, an alloy of Gold decolorized and thus devalued by adding Palladium or Mercury to it Palladium is also used to purify Hydrogen because the gas easily diffuses through heated Palladium, and this in Hydrogen Storage Palladium is produced as a result of geochemical purification and refinement processes and extractions of nickel and copper ores, and is also found alloyed with gold or "platinum group" metals Scientists suspect the reason such dense metals are abundant near the surface of the Earth rather than closer to the core of the Earth is because the metals arrived by impact of asteroids and/or comets containing the dense "platinum group" metals like Palladium

Alkali Metals (All Facts)

Since the more electropositive elements are around the bottom of families on the Periodic Table, like any Family or Row, in the Group I Metals, each metal is more and more reactive to other substances because of the low ionization energy, high mass, and large radius and high electropositivity The Group I Metals all share similar properties, react with the same substances in the same ways, and apply to various compounds with similar applications, however only their reactivity is increasingly and proportionally different, as you move down the Periodic Table in this particular family The only other difference between these metals other than their reactivity is their melting point, the larger mass, the easier to melt, and thus the smaller the atomic radius, the harder it is to get electrons out of their shells, so Lithium has a very high melting point compared to the rest of the Group I Metals, while Cesium is practically liquid just above room temperature like Mercury Cesium is also slightly colored to look like that of gold because it is so reactive and its electrons can absorb and reemit energy so quickly and easily to that of a certain color, applying the photoelectric effect, or as Wothers likes to call "Light colorations from electronic transitions" Therefore, the third and final difference among the Group I Metals is their color during flame tests- Lithium is bright pinkish red, Sodium is yellowish-orange, Potassium is purple, and Rubidium & Cesium are both blue Other than their melting and boiling points, reactivities, and colors via flame tests (and atomic radii in the case of Cesium), these metals are all similar in appearance, share similar properties, all have one electron in their valence shell, react with some of the same substances to produce the same effects, and also make up substances that all have similar applications Then there's Hydrogen, the oddball, which is just up there because it has 1 electron in its valence shell, and miraculously makes a connection in which at extremely high pressures Hydrogen can be squashed into a metallic solid of Hydrogen, which scientists believe is at Jupiter's core, and may even be a little bit of our own Sun's core, but Hydrogen is completely different, mainly in that it is the component of all Acids, Mineral and Organic, and that all these metals dissolve in water as alkalis, or later as Bases, and that the two neutralize when they come in contact, forming a salt and water Although many of this is already covered in Alkali Metals Folder of Periodic Chemistry, this document provides a list and summary of some of the properties, reactions, and compounds Wothers demonstrates of the Group I Alkali Metals First he explains the appearance and properties, all of which we already know, as well as the flame tests of these metals Next he explains the reactions and compounds formed of these metals, so let us get started In helping us get over the oddball Hydrogen, all of the Group I Metals react with Hydrogen (even Lithium) to produce Alkali Metal Hydrides, so Lithium Hydride, Sodium Hydride, and Potassium Hydride to name a few, of course Rubidium and Cesium Hydride are the only other two Since Hydrogen is diatomic, 2 atoms of the metal are required to form 2 molecules of the Hydride Sodium Hydride is a white powder, just like the rest of the Hydrides, for the color is neutralized by the Hydrogen present, and all of these Hydrides are just as reactive as the metals themselves, with weak Hydrogen Bonds perhaps pertaining to them Metal Hydrides react with water to produce a Metal Hydroxide and Hydrogen Gas For example, Sodium Hydride reacts with water to produce Sodium Hydroxide and Hydrogen Gas, and Sodium Hydroxide is a base used as an Oven Cleaner and Fat + Oil Cleaning Agent, because fats are acidic, the lye or hydroxide or caustic soda is used to neutralize and cleanout the acid, a means of providing Sodium Hydroxide, and Hydrogen Gas, and Sodium Hydride is applied in the real world to store Hydrogen, since it reacts so easily with water to produce it, and can also be used with water as a fuel for cars So Sodium Hydride reacts with water to produce Hydrogen Gas, which can react with Oxygen to produce water and energy as fuel, so there is Hydrogen Fuel and Sodium Hydride (Hydrogen Storage, & Fuel!) All of the Group I Metals react with each other to produce alloys, excluding Lithium for its melting point is too high, the most famous of these alloys is "NaK" All of the Group I Metals react with the air to produce Metal Oxides, however Lithium reacts with Nitrogen more readily than with Oxygen, and with all the other Group I Metals, and remember Nitrogen Gas is diatomic, so 6 atoms of Lithium react with diatomic Nitrogen Gas to produce 2 molecules of Lithium Nitride, with 3 Lithium atoms electroneutrally balancing 1 Nitrogen atom to produce Lithium Nitride, a strong solid which is used for a further reaction Lithium Nitride reacts with 2 molecules of Hydrogen Gas to produce Lithium Amide and Lithium Hydride, so although Lithium Hydride cannot be produced initially, converting Lithium into Lithium Nitride, and then reacting it with Hydrogen to produce Lithium Hydride, as well as Lithium Amide proves beneficial Lithium Nitride is useful for producing 2 new compounds which store Hydrogen, Lithium Hydride and Lithium Amide (NH2), and heating this up even more produces Lithium Nitride again, and the Hydrogen is driven off, so Lithium Nitride, as well as Sodium Hydride, are both applied and used for "storing" Hydrogen Gas, unlike the other metals' applications, Lithium's is quite unique, and Sodium's in the form of Sodium Hydride So you can see that the Lithium Nitride produces compounds of Hydrogen which can be heated to produce Hydrogen, which will just react again with the Lithium Nitride, forming the two new compounds So Lithium Nitride and Sodium Hydride are two other fuels for the future Despite all this however, Lithium does react with Oxygen at high temperatures, Oxygen is diatomic so it takes 4 atoms of Lithium with the Oxygen Gas to produce 2 molecules of Lithium Oxide All of the Group I Metals react with Oxygen just in the air to produce Oxides, the more reactive the metal, the more violent the reaction to produce the Metal Oxide However, Lithium is able to react with Nitrogen just in the air to produce Lithium Nitride, and the other metals can still react with Nitrogen and produce Nitrides, but not in the air, rather through a series of organic chemical processes which produce such compounds known as "Azides" Sodium Azide is used in Airbags to produce Sodium, which reacts with other chemicals inside the bag, and Nitrogen Gas which makes the bag inflate and pop, and also best exemplifies the need for Nitrogen to be diatomic as it is extremely reactive and unstable unless in its triply bonded form Metal Oxides include Sodium Oxide and can react with excess Oxygen to produce Sodium Peroxide, is reactive enough to release Oxygen, just like Chlorates Release Oxygen to produce a Chloride salt, Sodium Peroxide happens to be a yellow powder evident of Sodium's flame test being yellow, so Chlorates and Peroxides work in the same way pretty much Metal Oxides include Potassium Oxide and can react with excess Oxygen to produce Potassium Peroxide, and can even rarely react with a -1 oxidation state of 2 Oxygen atoms in KO2 to produce Potassium Superoxide, which as the name suggests, is a great source of Oxygen, and electrons! This Potassium Superoxide reacts with water to form Potassium Hydroxide or Caustic Potash, and Oxygen Gas, and this reaction is useful for air tanks and breathers, but the Potassium Hydroxide reacts with Carbon Dioxide you breathe out to form non-toxic Potassium Carbonate, getting rid of the Carbon Dioxide so you don't breathe it in again and choke, known as a "Rebreather", recycling the same air over and over again, using Potassium Superoxide Potassium Superoxide can react with any group I metal vigorously, producing a colored flame like in a flame test based on the color of the metal turning into an ion and burning, so it reacts with Lithium, which needs Oxygen as it is superiorly supplied with Oxygen as the name suggests, and the two react to produce Lithium Oxide and Potassium metal leftover All of the Group I Metals react with water to produce a Metal Hydroxide which can be dissolved in water to make an alkali, and also produces Hydrogen Gas All of the Group I Metals react with the halogens to produce Salts, since Halogen literally means "Salt Generator", and can vigorously react to produce Salts like Sodium Chloride forming from the burning of the yellow Sodium in a green gas called Chlorine to produce it, or Sodium Bromide, or Sodium Iodide, and so on All of the Group I metals react with the Chalcogens as well (Oxygen Family), such as Sodium reacting with Sulfur to produce Sodium Sulfide and a lot of energy in the form of heat energy used to power enormous batteries, a vigorous reaction which converts this heat energy formed into controlled electrical energy which powers the battery Potassium reacts with Iodine vigorously aflame with purple color characteristic of Potassium atoms, and produce Potassium Iodide, a salt used for medicine Like many chemical reactions, after these salts are formed, the energy released that was once stored as Potential Energy can be used to power up things such as batteries Although all of these metals cannot be found in nature by themselves, they do react very vigorously with other elements to produce salts, such as Halite (Sodium Chloride), Saltpeter (Potassium Nitrate), or Cesium Chloride, which is much denser and heavier than Sodium Chloride because it contains Cesium of course Salts are commonly found around the sea because of the sedimentary rocks, salts, and ions which dissolve in rivers and streams, and go into lakes, and eventually into seas and oceans, for this is why they are salty, and these salts are denser than water, but Cesium Chloride isn't as dense, it actually isn't dense at all, so heavy and dense Magnesium metal floats on Cesium Chloride based saltwater instead of Sodium Chloride, because it is quite dense Salts like Sodium Chloride used for roads, chemical processes, cleaning agents like lye Lithium was added to beverages in the early 19th century, such as Lithiated 7-Up, or "Happy Day", and since they relieved people of depression, Lithium Carbonate is now used as an anti-depressant It is also used in Lithium Batteries, because it is very light, making such light, mobile batteries Sodium can be used for Batteries as well, such as the energy produced after it reacts with Sulfur, as the heat energy it produces ic converted to electrical energy to power the battery

Tungsten (Fact A)

Originally, the element was called "Wolfram" until IUPAC changed it, so that is where its symbol comes from

Radon (All Facts)

Produced from the radioactive decay of Radium, it is pretty carcinogenic, and is emitted naturally from soil and rocks Glows with a yellow color when it is cooled to its solid state Colorless radioactive gas, with its longest half-life being about 4 days

Fluorine (All Facts)

· Fluorine · Like most Halogens, Fluorine can exist as Fluorine Gas (nonmetal) which exists as a diatomic molecule, are highly reactive and not naturally found in places on the Earth, just like that of Alkali and Alkaline Metals, occur in all three states as solids, liquids, and gases at certain temperatures, where Iodine is a solid, Bromine is a Liquid, Chlorine and Fluorine are both gases · It is very reactive and hard to split from other compounds · Most electronegative element, and thus most reactive element · It was finally separated and isolated as a gas in 1886 by French chemistry Ferdinand F.H. Moissan · Pale Yellow-Green Color as a gas, and highly corrosive in gaseous form · Minerals containing Fluorine were used to etch glass · Hydrofluoric Acid is a highly dangerous and corrosive acid as well · Fluorine's reactivity makes it hard to store, attacking glass and causing most metals to burn to flames especially when coming in contact with Hydrofluoric Acid · It is added to toothpaste to prevent tooth decay, and is so reactive that it reacts with the Noble Gases! · Most reactive element due to its 7 valence electrons attracted close to its nucleus giving it its electroneutrality an extremely electronegative outlook, measured at 4.0 Paulings · Interestingly, the more reactive an element is to form a compound, the more stable the compounds results as · Fluorine Gas is like a man and woman eager to get married and floating around until finally they get married and their stuck together forever, and they share everything between them (covalent bond supports Fluorine Gas) · So Fluorine Gas isn't so reactive, rather stable, although just because something is stable doesn't mean it is unreactive · By highly reactive, Fluorine releases large amounts of energy in the form of heat or light when it reacts with another substance, and thus becomes stable at macromolecular advantage since it takes just as much energy to put them together as it does to take them apart · I guess kids and toothpaste really do go together after all · You might want to rub some fluoride toothpaste on your tooth, or else you would have to place in a cup of water every night, in which case you would have a 1-molar solution! HA-HA! Get-it! · Anyway, Fluorine does exist in the forms of toothpaste, and Teflon, used for all sorts of purposes as a Carbon-Fluorine polymer, including looking at in tremendous quantities which proves boring, Gore-Tex Fabric, Gore-Tex Industrial Bags, Non-Stick Substance for Frying Pan, Teflon Suture with a needle, Stopcock for Lab Burette · Common in Fluorite Minerals, with Hydrocarbon Impurities which sometimes tint the mineral yellow from its original and varied pink and brown clusters growing across it · But why is Teflon not sticky? It is because of intermolecular forces... · A pale yellow gas which reacts violently with pretty much anything · First presented by German Mineralogist Georgious Agricola in 1530, the name comes from the Fluorine-containing mineral/rock called Fluorspar, used in metal refining (Calcium Fluoride) and it combined with weak, less dense parts of the ore which allowed it to flow out, and since Fluorine was popular among this mineral, it was named after being isolated from "fluor" which comes from the Latin word "fluere" which means "to flow", today Fluorspar is known as Fluorite, or the polyatomic ion mineral form of Fluorine bonded to Calcium · Over the years, many chemists such as Joseph Gay-Lussac and Joseph Priestly performed chemical reactions with Calcium Fluoride, some of which obtained its primary acid, Hydrofluoric Acid which is commonly a strong acid, but never actually Isolated Fluorine, which we can't blame them for since it is the most reactive element known and was awarded the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize for doing so since it was extremely dangerous work and since it was quite reactive · He isolated it by electrolysis of dry or "anhydrous" hydrofluoric acid, cooling the electrolytic solution in a platinum container to around 20 degrees Farenheit and through the electrolysis, Fluorine was produced at the positive electrode, and thus he concluded it must have a negative electrical charge since it was attracted by the positive electrode sometimes known as an anode in electrical discharge batteries · The term "Fluorescence" was named after Fluorite, just like "Phosphorescence" was named after Phosphates, because it was popularly exhibited by fluorite crystals growing blue in the dark after exposure to electromagnetic radiation and energy (light), and it comes from small, radioactive particles of Europium impurities found in the Fluorite Crystal · Henri Moissan also produced the world's first artificial diamonds or allotropes of Carbon (see Carbon) by exerting extremely high pressures on charcoal · As reactive as it may be, it rarely ever bonds with the Noble Gases except for maybe Xenon and Argon, and Oxygen is just as reactive or very close to being as reactive as Fluorine, with a Pauling measurement of 4.0, it doesn't bond with Oxygen · Hydrofluoric Acid can dissolve glass because Fluorine and Calcium naturally bond together in Fluorite (or Calcium Fluoride minerals, which are also a primary source of extractions as ores for obtaining Fluorine), and thus glass is primarily composed of Calcium, such as with Calcium Silicates or Calcium Carbonates · Highly toxic and corrosive, Fluorine will make anything turn into flames, more than Oxygen can, and is also why Fluorine Gas and Fluorine-containing Halide Aerosols are mostly banned because of how poisonous they can be · Fluorine's physical and chemical characteristics include that it is a pale yellow, highly corrosive, flammable, and reactive diatomic gas with a pungent (strong) odor, and is the lightest halogen · Like most metals, Fluorine does not work well with water! Through a chemical reaction of single displacement, it chemically reacts as 2 molecules of Fluorine with 2 molecules of water to produce 2 molecules of Hydrofluoric Acid and 1 molecule of Oxygen Gas · Fluorine compounds like Uranium Hexafluoride are used as rocket and nuclear fuels since they are so chemically powerful · It is also common in Teflon, which is used as non-stick substances because its electrons are so tightly held by its atoms of Fluorine going through the Carbon Difluoride polymer plastic material and thus do not flow as easily as other semi-conductive polymers or polymers with free radicals, and doesn't participate in adhesive actions or properties because of intermolecular forces concerning those electrons, Teflon is used in sutures and many other products · Since Hydrofluoric Acid dissolves glass, it is used in etching Lightbulbs and other glass-containing materials to make certain designs · Flurochemicals, particularly organic Halides containing Fluorine were once used as refrigeration units but now are banned · Sodium Fluoride, a common compound used in toothpaste · Other than being isolated from Fluorite or Cryolite, the electrolysis of a mixture of Potassium Fluoride and Hydrofluoric Acid or using Hydrofluoric Acid as an electrolyte in classic wet cell batteries produces Hydrogen gas at the cathode and Fluorine gas at the cathode while in charging mode, where the electrodes then reverse in discharge of course electrochemically, so technically this confirms Fluorine was negative when landing on the positive Anode in charging, not discharging · Since it is found in Cryolite which contains Aluminum, it can be applied to Aluminum Refining · 24th most abundant element in the universe, 13th most abundant element on Earth · Fluorine Gas was used for Uranium Enrichment in the Manhattan Project in World War II · Most Fluorite Minerals are used in Steelmaking, and Hydrofluoric Acid is used for Glass Etching (since it dissolves glass from Calcium Fluoride) · Organic Fluorine Compounds, or Organofluorides are used primarily as PTFE or Teflon, as well as Halides such as Fluorocarbons, thus are used for electrical insulation and used for refrigerants and cookware · The Fluoride Ion biologically inhibits cavity production, thus making a use with another ion as an added salt in toothpaste, or Sodium Fluoride, and also inhibits other bacteria so it is used in water purification · Named by Humphrey Davy, isolated by Henri Moissan, and named after the Fluorspar mineral, it was first discovered or presented by Andre-Marie Ampere, who also had figured out about the frequencies of electrical current as the unit of Amp is named in his honor · 3rd Highest 1st Ionization Energy among all elements, behind Helium and Neon for being the most electronegative, having a small radius and thus a high effective nuclear charge and also has a high electron affinity just short of chlorine and actually has a very small radius · There is less chemical and/or binding energy in the shells of diatomic Fluorine Gas, thus it bonds strongly with less electronegative elements rather than itself, such as Carbon, and rarely bonds with Oxygen and Nitrogen, thus it has an easy dissociation with most compounds and therefore due to its high electronegativity, Fluorine Gas Jets will chemically react and bond or set aflame anything under the jet like wood, water, glass, asbestos, steel, etc. · Fluorine is best used in toothpaste because it contains Fluoride, once the Fluorine has got an extra electron from Sodium or Tin as Sodium or Tin Fluoride it remains unreactive and extremely stable so of course it is rarely found in nature, and it works because the enamel coatings on your teeth are made of a calcium compound and mineral family called Apatite, which contain Calcium and can quite easily dissolve in acid such as Carbonic Acid in Soda and create acids of their own, thus burning or corroding parts of the enamel of your teeth and making cavities · To prevent this in using fluoride coatings on teeth, some of the Hydroxides in Apatite are replaced with the Fluoride ions from Sodium or Tin Fluoride in the Apatite Mineral on the enamel on your teeth and thus you make new material called Fluoroapatite which is naturally less soluble in acid and thus doesn't react with the harmful foods, acids, and sodas entering your mouth, thus it is not soluble in bacteria either which may contain acid or other harmful substance insoluble to Fluoroapatite and thus protective and purified in Fluoroapatite's use · Its Allotropes include Fluorine in different phase changes, whereas it is Fluorine Gas at room temperature, condenses into a bright pale yellow liquid similar to properties concerning Oxygen and Nitrogen, and at a solid it has two different crystal forms · Its two allotropes as a solid are Alpha and Beta Fluorine · Alpha Fluorine is a much colder solid under certain temperatures and is colder than Beta Fluorine, and also as it gets colder it becomes denser, harder, and more opaque with dense, angled layers of monoclinic molecular crystal structures/formations · Beta Fluorine is a solid form or allotrope and is transparent, soft, and cubic structured just like Oxygen is when it is solid, so it shares similar formation properties more with Oxygen than Nitrogen or any other element for that matter and doesn't form solid crystals or allotropes unlike that of any other halogen, in which case have orthorhombic molecular structures · The transition from Beta to Alpha Fluorine is thus exothermic in which it gives off heat and changes from the properties of the Beta Allotrope to the Alpha Allotrope · Its Isotopes include F-19 and F-18, F-19 being the most common form, and F-18 and F-19 are both associatively used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging or MRI's while Isotopes 17 and 18 have little or no half lives and quickly undergo beta decay and lighter isotopes undergo electron capture, while isotopes heavier than F-19 undergo Neutron Emission · Throughout historically universal nucleosynthesis, stars such as our sun participate in nuclear fusion, where 2 isotopes of Hydrogen are forced at high temperatures to fuse together to produce a Helium atom, and sometimes an extra neutron dependent on the Hydrogen isotopes used or fused · Thus, Hydrogen fuses to form Helium, Helium may fuse to form isotopes of Lithium and Beryllium, and these isotopes will fuse to form Carbon, and those will fuse to form Magnesium, and the list continues, with isotopes of Lithium, Beryllium, and Boron formed from absorption of the energy of supernovae and cosmic ray spallation as it is called, and this continues down the line, but sort of skips over Fluorine, and thus is the 24th most universally abundant element although they have high probabilities nonetheless of nucleosynthesis with Hydrogen and Helium to produce Oxygen and Neon nuclei respectively · 13th most common/abundant element in the Earth's crust · Fluorite, Fluoroapatite, and Cryolite are three primary sources of Fluorine, although all 3 have larger applications such as Fluorite being used in Hydrofluoric Acid Production, Fluoroapatite is used in Phosphate Production and also as the result of the chemicals in enamel when brushing your teeth, and Cryolite is more of a source for Aluminum as its ore than from Fluorine, and Topaz Gems contain impurities along with Fluorine, unlike most halides, Fluorine compounds are insoluble in water and Fluorine only explodes upon reaction with water and produces Hydrofluoric Acid as well as Oxygen Gas · Antonzonite is the radioactive form of Fluorite found in geothermal veins and volcanoes as well as ancient landscapes · The Discovery of Fluorine: Although his teacher failed, Henri Moissan he succeeded in preserving his master's work in mixing a solution of dry Hydrofluoric Acid not in solution and Potassium Bifluoride (or Potassium Fluoride with Hydrogen and thus 2 Fluoride ions) in solution and found that though his teacher failed at making an electrolyte out of anhydrous Hydrofluoric Acid, he added the hydrous Potassium Bifluoride compound to make an electrolyte and he later underwent electrolysis and Thermolysis of the two compounds to isolate Fluorine using electrochemical cells and wet cell batteries to split the compounds, and he supercooled the new electrolyte resulted from the mixture since any Fluorine compound or Fluorine itself was corrosive, so supercooling it made it unreactive to the platinum electrodes he was using in his cell and therefore he was able to isolate and determine allotropic properties of Fluorine · Fluorine reacts with Alkali metals to produce Monofluorides which are soluble compounds in solution, Fluorite reacts with Alkaline metals to produce Difluorides which are insoluble compounds in solution, and also reacts with rare earth metals to form Trifluorides and are all ionic compounds, and also reacts with some Inner Transition Metals to form Hexafluorides including that of Uranium, all of which are covalent compounds, and all metal Hexafluorides are octahedral molecular structures · Fluorine reacts with Hydrogen to produce Hydrogen Fluoride, which upon contact with water automatically forms a solution of Hydrofluoric Acid and is a relatively weak acid for it only partially dissociates into ions when in contact with water, although because it is strongly and chemically natural to attach and attract Calcium ions, it is able to dissolve and etch glass unlike most halogens or other elements for that matter · Fluorine reacts with Water to produce Hydrofluoric Acid and Oxygen Gas, and also reacts in the air only when moist to produce Hydrofluoric Acid and Oxygen Gas · Fluorine reacts with nonmetals to produce Flame-Retardant Compounds · Fluorine reacts with Noble Gases to produce compounds like Xenon Hexafluoride unlike most compounds but is the most reactive and thus forms more compounds with Noble Gases than any other element · Fluorine reacts with Carbon to produce PTFE or Teflon · Fluorine is produced by Moissan's Process as well as complex chemical processes such as the following · 2 KMnO4 + 2 KF + 10 HF + 3 H2O2 → 2 K2MnF6 + 8 H2O + 3 O2↑ · 2 K2MnF6 + 4 SbF5 → 4 KSbF6 + 2 MnF3 + F2↑ · Periodic Properties are shown below

Helium (All Facts)

· Helium · The discovery of Helium was first based on the spectral analysis, specifically with the absorption spectrum of our sun, as Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen worked together to find out that the sun's atmosphere contained traces of liquid Iron based on many of their discoveries of the elements using spectral analysis such as Cesium, Rubidium, and Thallium, as well as Iron · Pierre Jansen and Norman Lockyer independently worked to find out about Helium's discovery and would soon find a distinctly unique and prominent yellow line using primitive spectroscopes to study the other substances in the sun, only to find that the properties of the substance derived from this yellow line Helium has were much different than the already discovered yellow lines in Sodium in terms of wavelength and frequency and even the number of lines, so the element had to be named something new, and it was named Helium after the Greek word for sun being "Helios" · Although Spectral Analysis seemed to prove Helium's existence, it was historically and thoroughly doubted an element until William Ramsay, the discoverer of most of the Noble Gases, isolated Helium in London in 1895 · William Ramsay found that William Hillebrand had experimented on Uranium and its radioactivity when acid was added to Uranite, the primary Uranium mineral ore and today we know that Helium or Alpha Particles emit in Alpha Decay as a sign of the radioactivity and instability of Uranium and its compounds, however this was before the time of Henri Becquerel and Marie Curie · So when he further tested the experiment of Hillebrand using another Uranium Ore called Cleveite, he found that when the acid reacted with the Cleveite, it also produced gas, three gases actually · Aware of the Nitrogen and Argon Gas produced, he did a spectral analysis on all three gases from their production in Uranium Ore's radioactivity and products of such radioactivity when reacting with acids, all from his motivation that he though Hillebrand's belief in the gas being Nitrogen could've been wrong, and sure enough after his spectral analysis, he found the prominent yellow line, and confirmed Jansen and Lockyer's discovery that an official element, atomic number 2, was Helium · Helium discharge tubes are a key application as our all gas discharge tubes filled with Noble Gases, and like Helium, all elements can absorb, transmit, and reflect light by absorbing light at low energies, thus making its electrons of its atoms entered the excited state from the ground state, and as atoms absorb low frequencies, or short waves of energy, its electrons would jump out of its shells at certain patterns and frequencies and produce shorter, higher energy wavelengths which turn out to be a different color which we may or may not see, since our retina can only absorb, transmit, and reflect light of a certain energy, and this light is measured on the Electromagnetic Spectrum · Based on the frequencies and wavelengths measured and collected as data that light gives off, we can determine which elements are in a substance by undergoing spectral analysis, and thus using the emission and absorption spectra of elements, we can understand what elements are in what compounds or substances or objects based on the light it gives off · As atoms absorb energy and allow their electrons to move out of their shells and create certain patterns of light, these patters are distinct to that of the particular element that atom is characteristic to, and thus always undergoes the same reflection of light as that particular atom, unless it is an ion and therefore produces a different color based on a completely different atomic structure · These characteristic wavelengths at certain frequencies emitted from atoms which absorb low energies, transmit, and reflect light at high energies for us to see or not to see based on electrons moving from their ground to excited states and produce certain colors that are measured using Spectroscopes and given as data in Emission and Absorption Spectra contribute to the examination and are summarized in Einstein's theory of the Photoelectric Effect · Noble Gases' main application to their low reactivity is exactly this, the fact that their certain structures are always absolute and never ionic means they will always produce a certain color, based on particular atoms of certain elements absorbing low energy light, and reflecting high energy light, and when you look at the electromagnetic spectrum, you see that red light has low energy and purple light has energy · It is safe to assume that the heavier an atom as an element, especially with the Noble Gases, have a certain transmission of light (also known as electromagnetic energy) in which the heavier the element, the more light is absorb to go throughout the electron shells of atoms, and the closer and closer it gets to the nucleus to be transmitted and reflected again, the more energy it will give off, and thankfully Noble Gases absorb, transmit, and reflect energy of wavelengths and frequencies visible enough for our retina to allow us to see · So, when Helium absorbs low energy electromagnetic radiation we can't see, it transmits this energy into its atoms and its electrons are excited and are given off and we can see it reflects a bright pink, which has about the same energy as low-energy visible red light, almost to the point where it is infrared, since if you remember, the Electromagnetic Spectrum goes from lowest to highest energy: Radio Waves, Infrared, Visible or Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet; Ultraviolet, X-Ray, Gamma-Ray · So Helium absorbs energy we cannot see into its atoms, its electrons are given off and produce certain wavelengths which thread through the electron shells of the atom, and out they go as a higher energy form of light, "pink light" · So Neon probably does the same, absorbing low energy light, probably Infrared, or maybe even Radio Waves since it is a little larger than Helium and thus can absorb a little more energy than just Radio Waves, and thus transmits, threads its electrons as we described it, and reflects a dark "red light" · So Argon absorbs up to maybe Red Light, or even Orange Light to produce the Blue Light, Krypton is an oddball in our theory of the heavy atoms producing higher energies for it does emit blue light, but can also emit various other colors at different frequencies, and thus our theory can only be a theory, but Xenon then absorbs certain wavelengths, probably up tot hat of green or yellow, to transmit, thread as we so called it, and reflect the purple light it usually emits · The application though is that these Gases are filled inside vacuum tubes, and in order to catalytically get the light going for the Gases to emit, they run electric discharge through the tubes to excite the electrons from the Gases to produce the certain waves since they are not absorbing any light in or from the tubes, so the electric discharge excites the electrons to color the tube, and based on the color you can know the element, and based on the spectral analysis, you can know specifically what function the element or elements play in the Gas's applicative nature · With understanding the Photoelectric Effect, certain light has energies too high or low for us to see or pick up that energy with our retina, so in order to see that light of higher or lower energy, in which something of matter can contain that light, the matter must absorb the highest energy forms of visible light or lowest energy forms, meaning bright purple or dark red light must be shined in a room, therefore the substance can absorb that light, transmit, and then reflect out the light it naturally emits as radiation · So if substances with UV light are slightly radioactive, or Ultraviolet Radiation, which basically means it is a little higher form of purple we cannot see unless we shine visible light's purple at it, therefore it can absorb the purple and when doing so, transmit and reflect a higher form of energy, UV light energy · UV Light and understanding how substances absorb high purple light, transmit, and reflect UV light are applicable to many different science fields · In Meteorology, you learn about the Mesosphere · In Chemistry, you learn about Ozone · In Botany, you learn about plants and how they can absorb UV energy for growth · And Infrared Radiation can help us see the light being absorbed in our Guinea Pigs and Hamster Cages, as Radio Waves, Light, or Rays detected can help us see the light energies which make Radio communication possible · ANYWAY: · Like all Noble Gases, Helium has a low boiling point, little or no reactivity, is inert, have complete octets, do not tend to form chemical bonds with any element other than that of Oxygen or any other electronegative Halogen · Lightest of the Noble Gases · Named after the Greek root "Helios" meaning "sun" · Discovered by Pierre Janssen and Normal Lockyer who noticed something unusual about the sun and the light being read off from it · Second most abundant element in all of the universe · Has the lowest boiling point than that of any other element · Used for inflating hot-air balloons since Helium is less dense than air and therefore the least dense element as a gas · Helium is not combustible like Hydrogen, which is · Jacques Charles is the first to use Helium in Hot-Air Balloons · Helium also has the lowest freezing point of any element and requires not only to be lowered in temperature to reach solid, but extreme amount of pressure, for even at Absolute Zero Helium is still a liquid and Hydrogen is a solid! · A very small gas, Helium is used to find leaks in high pressure vacuum apparatuses in the smallest holes · Most unreactive element, it forms little or no compounds and as the lightest, smallest noble gas, it is a replacement for Balloons in the air since Hydrogen reacts with Oxygen to explode while forming water · When stripped from its electrons at high temperatures, Helium exists as a 4 nucleon atom, also known as an Alpha Particle · Helium is a part of many oil and natural gas mixtures and can be pumped out of the ground as a part of Natural Gases, not like Alkanes, but simple Helium can be pumped out and separated because of its unique properties, and it got there in the first place because of the radioactive decay of Alpha Particles in heavy elements and particles underground such as Uranium Ores and Rocks which then let the Alpha Particles emit and form Helium nuclei, which soon found electrons as Helium atoms in the form of Helium Gas · When you put a match near a Helium-filled balloon, it will produce a banging sound, but will not set aflame because Helium is unreactive with Oxygen in the air or from a burning match stick, and this is only because the thermal energy applied to the balloon made the particles move so fast that the temperature and pressure increased so much it broke the forces holding the balloon together and it popped · Like Hydrogen, Helium will eventually rise out of the atmosphere and into space since it is so light, so little mass, and thus little gravitational pull will make it rise up, as explained in processes of Nucleosynthesis · The speed of sound is greater in Helium than in most ordinary gases or Noble Gases since it is so light and small, so breathing in Helium can make your voice get higher, the sound waves thus have more energy like light waves, and thus travel faster and at higher frequencies produce a higher pitch the faster the waves, the shorter the wavelength, so breathing it in and then talking while breathing it out allows it to travel from within you to without you and as doing so at high energies we can pick up, the voice sounds higher than it really is · As a liquid, it's very useful since its boiling point is almost -270 degrees Celsius (4 Kelvin!), so cooling things with Liquid Helium makes them very cold, and sometimes makes substances lose their electrical resistance, so it is used for powerful magnets such as in MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) in hospitals, if using a vacuum tube to pump hard on Helium liquid the boiling point will lower even more to 2 Kelvin! · Refrigeration Units use Helium as well because of these properties · Liquid Helium is also used in cooling to operate Superconducting Magnets · The Helium Crisis Explained explains an important political issue concerning the disappearance of Helium from consumer markets in filling party balloons because of using Rubber balloons which don't hold the Helium in for long, and thus as it escapes and enters space (as the second most abundant element in the universe), it leaves our atmosphere and we cannot use it again after pumping it from natural gas found there because of it decaying from radioactive material and diffusing into space (as the second least abundant Gas in the Earth's atmosphere), Mylar balloons do not release Helium for a long time, but Helium is scarce on Earth because the force of Gravity isn't strong enough on Helium Gas because it is such a light gas mass and weight-wise, and thus other gases like Argon and Neon, which are rarer, can be used, but not for long · Helium is important to scientists to be used in their fields rather than at parties because as a liquid it can be used to cool substances and do low temperature experiments, as well as being known for an unreactive, working, coolant and Refrigerant chemical since it is unreactive, and for MRI and Superconductors, scientists are also considering or already using piping and circulating systems to recycle Helium in case it becomes wasted, liquefying it in the piping systems at their laboratories to be used again · The 2nd most abundant element in the Universe, it was made in the first 3 minutes of the Big Bang, whereas temperatures where high enough for nuclear fusion to occur and is universally produced from the leftovers of the Big Bang as well as the Nuclear Fusion and Nucleosynthesis processes inside our star and every other sun in the universe to produce Helium gas and give a bright, yellow glow of light at least that our eyes can see · Helium on Earth is produced and comes from the nuclear fission of radioactive elements like uranium which release Alpha Particles which are further generated in environments like that of an electric force field to induce electrons to meet the nucleus of a Helium ion or Alpha Particle, to become a neutral Helium atom, which then goes off into the atmosphere and out into space since it is light and gravity cannot hold on to it · A light, odorless, colorless (unless acted upon with electrical or electromagnetic energy to be absorbed), inert, non-toxic, monoatomic, which can form diatomic gases at extremely low temperatures such as that of 2-4 Kelvin · Helium has the lowest melting and boiling points than that of any other element · · The only state of matter and element combination not possible is Solid Helium, for Liquid Helium only begins to cool at Absolute Zero and thus cannot possibly exist as a Solid unless subject to extremely high pressures · We already discussed the application of high-voice and the way sound works with Helium, as well as Gas Discharge Tubes, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Coolant for Superconductors and as Harmless Refrigerant, Air for (Party) Balloons and Blimps since it is unreactive, pressurized as liquid fuel for rockets, and is also used in some tanks since it releases faster than Nitrogen does in order to decompress and relieve yourself of unnecessary gases to get Oxygen back · Helium is used as a gas shield in the vicinity of arc welding preventing, for example, any reaction of hot metal welds with oxygen. The gas is used in the semi-conductor industry to provide an inert atmosphere for growing silicon and germanium crystals. It is also used as a high temperature gas in titanium and zirconium production, and as a carrier gas in gas chromatography. · Titanium Production and Zirconium Production are discussed in their sections respectively · Produced and Extracted from Radioactive Decay and Deposits from major Natural Gas sources in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, it is produced from fractional distillation of these gases at around 7% Helium · Second lightest element, second most abundant element, rare on Earth · Found in Nuclear Fusion in Sun and also in the atmosphere of Jupiter · Helium has a very high binding energy as Helium-4 and explains how it can be a product of Radioactive Decay and Alpha Particles, and why Beta Decay account for Hydrogen, protons staying in the nucleus, and also for being a product of Nuclear Fusion · Helium is mainly produced for air distillation and from oil deposits around certain radioactive land sites containing Cleveite, Uranite, and other minerals which emit radioactive alpha particles, although in stars it is a product of deuterium and tritium isotopes fusing · Also used as the strongest gas shield of the Noble Gases and all gases in general, this is used in Cryogenics, as a Purge Gas, and as a protective layer over growing, pure crystals, and also as a lifting gas for balloons and airships because of its low density · The Helium is separated from the oil and extracted using the same process as separating noble gases out of air, and is further identified with spectral analysis if needed, called "fractional distillation", using methods of supercooling and superwarming · Helium is also used as coolants, in nuclear reactors, fridges, and even in the Large Hadron Collider, an important system for cryogenics and the study of superconductors and its magnetic applications, as well as being used in MRI Scanners and NMR Spectrometers · MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) is · NMR () is · Helium is the only element which cannot exist as a solid · Thus, its low melting point makes it great as a coolant as applied to before, and also for cooling satellite instruments and rocket propellant fluid, cooling the liquid Hydrogen and Oxygen fuel in the Apollo Space Vehicles · Used as a shield gas in the production of semiconductors and fiber optics as well as welding, arc welding · Fiber Optics are · Since Helium diffuses quickly into the air, the loss of Helium can be used to detect leaks from systems in cars and other devices of transportation · Helium-neon gas lasers are used to scan barcodes in supermarket checkouts. A new use for helium is a helium-ion microscope that gives better image resolution than a scanning electron microscope

Krypton (All Facts)

· 14- Krypton · A noble gas, it isn't very reactive, but it does react with the most reactive element, Fluorine, to make Krypton-Fluorine compounds, which requires very bright lights or large amounts of electromagnetic energy set at high frequencies to break these compounds apart since they are as stable enough until the point where they absorb that specific amount of energy · Therefore, an application of Krypton is when it is in Krypton-Fluorine compounds, which are also used in lasers which absorb certain amounts of light and can transmit, reflect, and generate UV light for the laser · Krypton also has its Lamp and Light applications like all the other Noble Gases discussed before, and Laser uses as well, as well as a "Gas Shield" or Shield of Gas placed in certain locations to make the things in it unreactive with the atmosphere which otherwise might be if not for Noble Gases or "Gas Shields" like Krypton being there · In 1898, William Ramsay discovered Krypton aware it was contained in much larger concentrations of other gases he sampled, just like certain elements are in certain minerals and rocks like that explained in the history of Gadolinite, in the discovery of Terbium, Erbium, and Yttrium, as well as Gadolinium from the start of decomposing the ore using Thermolysis of Gadolinite · William Ramsay concluded he can make the same observation of Krypton, if he could've found it with all the other Noble Gases, Helium, Neon, and Argon, although he discovered Argon first, Helium second, Neon third, and Krypton fourth, Xenon much later · In obtaining a later sample of liquid air from fractional distillation using supercooling, he thought that he had separated two liquids apart from each other by evaporating them, and in recapturing, realized that one was lighter than Argon, which was not thought possible since he had already atomically and periodically concluded by discovering Helium and Neon that there was Noble Gas or any other Gas which evaporated at this specific boiling point, and so he then came up with the idea, saying maybe the Argon was on the top, and a heavier, more dense gas was at the bottom · His assistant, Morris Travers had removed the Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Carbon Dioxide from the experimental mixture by making them react with certain substances or metals such as Copper (with the Carbon) and Magnesium (with the Nitrogen), and then applied a high-voltage electric discharge in the remaining mixture of the gas and made spectral analysis of the gases, finding a unique spectrum as he did with all other previous gas mixtures, and after doing some specific heat measurements from certain volumes and pressures of the gas existent, they realized only atoms could reach this specific heat, not compounds, and concluded their new element must be isolated already, and thus it was named "Krypton" · He named Krypton after the Greek word for hidden, being "Kryptos" · Adding the "Noble Gases" to the periodic table, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1904 · A white, crystalline, stable solid at room temperatures, Krypton Difluoride is one of the only stable compounds of the Noble Gases, particularly Krypton, discovered in 1963 · A colorless, odorless, inert, non-toxic, and monoatomic Noble Gas, another compound it can actually form are known to be called as Krypton "Clatharates" · Used in lights, like airport runway lights, used in as brilliant white light in high-speed photography when appearing white because it is ionized · Produced from Air Distillation · Used to make Krypton Bulbs, Lamps, and Lights that sometimes glow with a greenish-yellow light if not a white light when fully ionized · Used as a Shield Gas as well as Filling Gas for otherwise fluorescent and incandescent Lightbulbs, just like Argon, but less in quantity and more in quality · The abundance of Krypton in relation to Hydrogen can be used in Astrochemistry to determine or measure how much nucleosynthesis (element creation or formation) has taken place in any region of space · Krypton-85 in the atmosphere can be used to detect the presence of otherwise secret nuclear weapons research and production facilities. (5) · Krypton-fluorine lasers produce pulses with 500 times the power of the entire U.S. electrical grid. Not surprisingly, these pulses are of short duration: four billionths of a second. (

Xenon (All Facts)

· 15- Xenon · A heavier gas than air, it is very dense, and are large molecules, therefore they will sink · Neil Bartlett had discovered compounds prominent of Xenon in its application to form compounds, which no one thought possible for Xenon was a Noble Gas · Neil Bartlett was popular for discovering compounds of Fluorine · In his experiment in doing so, he took a glass bulb and filled it with Platinum Hexafluoride which is actually gas even though it contains a metal, in other words a gaseous metal, but mostly Fluorine since the Fluorine atoms, all 6, react with the metal in a reactive way which makes it produce much energy, thermal energy which causes it to expand and form a gas in the first place · Anyway, this bright-orange Platinum Hexafluoride Gas was in one glass, which formed a tube at the top, and he placed a magnet in between the Platinum Hexafluoride Gas and Xenon Gas he placed in with the rest of the tube, and the magnet is thus lifted and exposes the seal between the two gases so they can mix · He found that when oxidizing the gas, exposing it to air, a rare chemical reaction cationized the Oxygen atoms, which turned into a solid material, and he knew that through this chemical reaction, it required a certain amount of energy to remove this electron from the Oxygen atoms, or an ionization energy, and thus Oxygen's was similar to Xenon's · When the magnet was removed and the gases mixed, it formed a solid that was yellowish looking · Very expensive gas · Exists in the air, and is produced from the liquefaction of air based on the element's periodic properties prominently cause of their boiling points, and they cool the gases to those specific boiling points, each having a different point, and separating the liquid from the mixture, until they are left with the Noble Gases, in which their increasing density and mass as gases gets higher, and the Gases, including Xenon, as well as Neon, Argon, and Krypton are produced by separating them based on density, since it is hard to liquefy these substances, which require very cold temperatures and rarely exist as solids, Helium is the only element which can't even be a solid · Also applicable to Xenon Lamps, large voltages of electromagnetic energy are absorbed, transmitted, and reflected as colorless bright white lights, Xenon being colorless itself like most Gases, and there is some black in the tube from the metal electrode evaporation since the energy absorbed wasn't just converted into light but also into heat energy · In 1898, William Ramsay and his assistant Morris Travers discovered Xenon, by liquefying and distilling air fractionally using methods of supercooling and thus applying electric discharge of a certain voltage to produce data for an emission spectrum of the gas, and through liquefaction of air and Spectral Analysis of the gases extracted, he found a new emission Spectrum, and called the new element Xenon, which comes from the Greek word "Xenos" meaning strange · Xenon is a colorless, odorless, monoatomic gas which is the most heavy and least inert of all the Noble Gases, it forms many compounds with Fluorine and Oxygen, and when bonded with Oxygen, it is a strong and very stable compound used as a highly-toxic Oxidizing Agent, such as in compounds like Xenon Trioxide and Xenon Tetroxide, which are also both very explosive chemical compounds · Xenon also absorbs mostly low energy and transmits and reflects mostly high energy, so it can be used to produce UV light and usually emits a bright purple in its Gas Discharge Tube, Lamp, Bulb, Light, whatever you want to call it when an electric discharge runs through it and excites its electrons to turn the otherwise colorless gas into a purple one, or into one colorless as we can see it, but truly UV colored, or reflecting and releasing UV light · It is also used in these so-called high-pressure arc-lamps to produce UV light, Motion Picture Projection, Photographic Flashes, and Geiger Counters as well as other instruments of radioactivity measuring or detecting, used as an Anesthetic in Medicine and in medical imaging and MRI, like Helium · Produced and Obtained from Air Distillation · Modern ion thrusters for space travel use inert gases - especially xenon - for propellant, so there is no risk of the explosions associated with chemical propulsion.

Silicon (All Facts)

· 16- Silicon · Chemicool · Silicon has a rich history in terms of its most common form, Silicon Dioxide or Quartz Crystals, and Flint, a strong alloy of Silicon and other metals which was used in the making of tools throughout history · In 1811, Joseph Gay-Lussac and another scientist, Louis Jacques Thenard both tried isolating the abundant element proposed to be in Silicon by Antoine Lavoisier (Silicon accounts for 28% of the Earth's Crust as well), and later named Silicon by Thomas Thomson, by setting up an apparatus to make Potassium, a reactive Alkali metal, to react with Silicon Tetrafluoride (then at the time known as something else of course), and demonstrate a Single-Replacement reaction which would then isolate the Silicon but failed at purifying the reddish-brown substance they obtained · In 1824, JJ Berzelius, Silicon's discoverer, succeeded, by similarly using Gay-Lussac's method using the supplies he had and setting up an apparatus in which he would make Potassium react with Potassium Fluorosilicate, also known as Potassium Bararite, and in undergoing the reaction, he was able to produce a various amount or proportion of products, but through a chemical reaction, he was able to obtain the Silicon inside the Fluorosilicate mineral, an amorphous brown substance of amorphous Silicon · Previously named Silicium since Berzelius thought it was a metal, and after our friend Humphrey Davy came to the rescue and announced it acted more as a nonmetal, and should be pronounced Silicon instead of Silicium, and since he had baller skills, that was its new name, and the name derives from "Silicis" which means "Flint", and Thomson who named it concluded with evidence that Silicon acted more as a nonmetal than a metal, so thanks to Humphrey Davy, we have a nonmetal that in pure form is silvery and shiny, wow · In 1854, Henri Deville went at it again in isolating Silicon from the electrolysis of impure, molten Sodium-Aluminum Chloride and through a chemical reaction produced Aluminum Silicide, one of the strangest, rarest chemical compounds ever, and through further Thermolysis and addition of water, he removed the Aluminum (granules) with water, leaving Silicide crystals, pure Silicon, only a different allotrope · While the 2nd most abundant element in the Earth's crust, it is the 8th most abundant element in the universe · Back then, Silicon was produced in a number of different, complex ways explained above · Nucleosynthetically, Silicon is produced from gas giants and other stars at the end of their lives beginning to enter the Carbon-Oxygen phases and Carbon Burning or Fusing phases, and when excess Helium nuclei from Hydrogen nuclear fusion are produced, the Helium nuclei fuse with Carbon to make Oxygen, with Oxygen to make Neon, with Neon to make Magnesium, and with Magnesium to make Silicon · Nitrogen isn't Nucleosynthetically produced, so combining two of those nuclei to make Silicon isn't possible, only the above method works · Since Hydrogen Nuclei form Helium, Helium nuclei are common in fusing processes, but Hydrogen doesn't fuse with any other element or their nuclei, just with itself to form Helium nuclei, which in excess of older stars entering the Carbon fusing phase, form Magnesium from two Carbons fusing, and then from there on out, Helium nuclei are added to other formed nuclei one at a time, so they are added to the Magnesium to make Silicon, and then they add to Silicon to make Sulfur, and then add to the Sulfur to make Argon, and adds onto that to make Calcium, and then add to that to make Titanium, Chromium, Iron, Nickel, and Zinc, and then by then it is all used up and no new elements are created, that's a good way of thinking about how much Helium we have in our universe, let alone all the Hydrogen fusing processes and all the Hydrogen it took to make all those Helium nuclei and all those elements, we are "Star Stuff" · Anyway, Today, Industrially, Silicon is produced from the Redox Reduction react, making Silicon Dioxide with the popular Reducing Agent, Carbon, to Reduce Silicon, and thus Oxidize Carbon, producing Carbon Dioxide gas, and almost-Pure Silicon · Although Silicon itself is non-toxic, eating sand is dumb, and breathing in Silicon Dioxide causes Respiratory System problems, as well as well as forms of Silicon Dioxide, particularly carcinogenic Asbestos, which causes other problems, including getting cancer · Silicon is hard! Ha! It is hard! Not soft! But it is silvery, DANG! A relatively inert metalloid, it has a metallic silvery shiny appearance, a luster similar to Bismuth crystals, and is brittle and crispy in Crystalline form, especially in the form of sand · Silicon Dioxide is the Oxide of Silicon, or sand, or Quartz, or Asbestos, or Mica · Silicon also reacts with multiple atoms of Oxygen to produce free radical polyatomic ions known as Silicates, and are the most abundant form of minerals on the planet, Silicon forms thousands of compounds, and can form even more compounds in the semiconductor industry, but not nearly as many as Carbon, it forms mainly many beautiful Inorganic Compounds, and many Crystals and other minerals · Solid Silicon isn't reactive with water or acids, and therefore we can conclude it doesn't act like metals, at least Alkalis, but does react with air under certain conditions to produce Silicon Oxide, Silicon Dioxide, or Air · Silicon can react with Halogens many times, such as the compounds like Hexafluorosilicate and Tetrafluorosilicate · Silicon is an unusually low-density metalloid, and its crystalline and molecular structures interact in similar ways like water, not Hydrogen bonding, but in Silicon Crystals, the Silicon sort of acts as the Hydrogen in Silicon Dioxide, rather than Hydrogen in Hydrogen Oxide (Water), and like other metalloids of its kind, shares this property of its crystals acting this way to give it the ability to expand when freezing and heating, instead of just for heating, and shares this property with 4 other metalloids, Gallium, Germanium, Antinomy, and Bismuth, most likely in their Oxide compounds · Silicon is used as computer chips and are also Semiconductors, not Superconductors like Barium or Yttrium, but Semiconductor Silicon · Silicon Alloys, such as Silicon added to Steel (Iron and Carbon) toughens it, and Silicon added to make an Alloy with Iron unusually makes it slightly magnetic, and Silicon-Carbon or Silicon Carbide, extremely nonpolar, is known as Carbrorundum and is quite a unique bond since it contains Carbon-Silicon bonds, each wanting 4 electrons, and thus each sharing electrons, and an extremely hard, tough, and strong bond, it is commonly used as an Abrasive, which we'll learn more about in the Metallurgy section of the Official Inorganic Chemistry Journal · Silicon Oxide, Silicon Dioxide, Sand, Quartz, Mica, and Silica are all different names for the same thing, and it's abundance is key to understanding it, since Silica and Silicates are found all over beaches, crust layers, and in mineral deposits · Silica or Sand and other minerals can be transformed into clay and used to make concrete and bricks · Silica or Sand, Sodium Carbonate, and mixtures of Potassium and Calcium are heated and mixed molten to make a stronger alloy with a weird crystalline structure, glass, and other additives like Oxides and Sulfides in the form of pigments are added to give color such as Sodium Chloride for a opaque, milky white color in glass, or Cadmium Sulfide for a bright yellow · Silicon is also used to make important Polymers known as Silicones, and can make these just like Carbon can because of its unique compound-forming tetravalent electronic structure exact to that of Carbon, and has not only all these different minerals known to it unlike Carbon, but also has all these polymers known to it, like Carbon · Silicones have heat-resistant, nonstick, rubber strength properties and are used for cookware, medicine, implants, insulation, and as a sealant, lubricant, and adhesive · Pure Quartz radiates at very high frequencies and are used in HP or HQ Watches and Clocks · Periodic Videos · Silicon Nitride is another compound of Silicon, which like Silicon Carbide, has a similar structure as a very tough substance, but very light, difficult to break, and are used in turbochargers in cars, and the wheels which accelerate to move your car when you press down on the car bumper

Magnesium (All Facts)

· 23- Magnesium · Chemistry Connections · Named after the Greek word "Magnesia" for the common ore of Magnesium found in Ancient Greece · Grayish-White and Shiny Metal which can exist in its Pure Form since it is less reactive than Sodium · Is somewhat magnetic · Like Sodium, it is essential to human health based on the same properties it has as Sodium in being applied to Bases, and for the other following reasons · About 50% of the Magnesium in your body is found in your bones, which are mostly made up of Magnesium and Calcium · Biochemically, it transmits nerve impulses and causes muscles to contract · It is the lightest industrial metal known, with low density to that of plastic · Magnesium is extremely reactive with Oxygen and produces a bright white light as Magnesium Oxide, which are thus commonly used in flares · Magnesium is also found in Epsom Salts, which soothe aches and pains, as well as Magnesium Sulfate, which can be added to normal water to make another type of water called hard water · Chemicool/Wikipedia · In 1808, Humphrey Davy discovered and isolated Magnesium, in the same way he also discovered and isolated Calcium, Barium, and Strontium which were all Alkaline Earth Metals anyway, by electrolysis of Metal Oxides to produce a Metal by itself · In making his apparatus, Davy had obtained a moist paste of Magnesium Oxide and Mercury Oxide (Red), and then obtained and placed mercury metal to act as the cathode or negative electrode, and then obtained and placed platinum metal to act as the anode or positive electrode · In isolating the Alkaline metal, Davy had noticed that when he passed the electricity in discharge from another outgoing battery, a Magnesium-Mercury Mercury alloy, or Amalgam was forming at the Mercury Oxide electrode, or negative cathode, which we can conclude means the Magnesium was positive in forming at the negative electrode with the Mercury, and he heated the amalgam so the Mercury would vaporize, leaving Magnesium isolated in the end · In isolating Alkali Metals he used Hydroxides, and in isolating Alkaline Metals he used Oxides as well as Sulfates · Although not all of the Mercury was able to be removed, he was able to expose his apparatus resulting in Magnesium to the air, where it reacted with the Oxygen to form Magnesium Oxide, naturally known as a white powder, gaining weight when oxidizing, and thus that coming from its original substance he used electrolysis to separate it from, it was its own element · Magnesium's name comes from the source he used to isolate it, Magnesium Oxide or Magnesia, found mostly in Greece by the way · In 1830, Antoine Bussy also contributed to isolating Magnesium, just like Frederic Wohler had discovered Aluminum as a primary source, he produced pure-grade aluminum by reacting Aluminum Chloride with Potassium to produce Aluminum and Potassium Chloride, so Bussy had reacted Magnesium Chloride with Potassium Vapor to produce pure Magnesium and Potassium Chloride, in which he also experimented to see if acid would react with it to form Hydrogen Gas to confirm it was a metal upon his sight of its physical properties of being silvery white, low density, very light but yet very strong, very malleable, and flaky when beat upon, as well as tarnishing quickly to form Oxide coatings · Magnesium metal not only reacts with Acid to produce Hydrogen Gas and a Salt, but it reacts with Water to produce Hydrogen Gas and a Base, the two main chemical production processes of Hydrogen, which Magnesium metal is often used for · Although Magnesium itself is non-toxic, Magnesium Powder can be explosive in the presence of air · When Magnesium burns or is subject to a flame test, it absorbs low energy and gives off a mixture of visible light as white light due to the many lines on its emission spectrum, and also reflects and produces UV light of a higher energy · Magnesium found in its Alloys are highly corrosive-resistant and have high melting points · Industrially, Magnesium is produced by the "Pidgeon" Process, where Thermolysis of Dolomite, Magnesite, and Magnesium-containing saltwater in the presence of a Silicon Reducing Agent extracts and isolates the Magnesium from its complex minerals · Nucleosynthetically, Magnesium is produced by Carbon Fusion, as well as proton and other nuclei fusion additions to Oxygen, Sodium, and Neon · Magnesium is applied to Photography, Flares, and Pyrotechnics because of this amazing white light it produces upon energy absorption · Magnesium in its Alloys are applied to its use in Aircraft, Car Engine Casings, and Missiles because of its lightness and low density · Organic Magnesium Compounds also known as Grignard Reagents are important in Organic Chemistry for synthesizing complex substances · Medically, Magnesium Hydroxide or Milk of Magnesia is used to soothe stomach pain and help with constipation problems · Medically, Magnesium Sulfate are Epsom Salts used to soothe foot pain and other pains, and Magnesium Chloride as well as Magnesium Citrate are used · Biologically, it is the second most important cation and involved many metabolic processes such as breaking down Glucose and also Hormone Signaling · The 6th most abundant metal, and 8th most abundant element on Earth and in the Earth's crust · Interestingly, Magnesium's isotopes are somewhat abundant in terms of diversity, with Magnesium-24 being of 79%, Magnesium-26 being of 11%, and Magnesium-25 being of 10%, unlike most readouts of elements' isotopes · Interestingly, Chlorophyll contains Magnesium in the center of the molecule as an ion and as Chlorophyll's reactive center · A part of the 24 essential elements (elements for life), Magnesium is needed for metabolic processes · When Magnesium burns and turns into a fire, adding water does not help, only when something burning such as wood or something nonpolar and organic does water help, since when Magnesium reacts with it fiercely it produces Hydrogen Gas explosions from the heat generated, as well as Magnesium Hydroxide or Milk of Magnesia, which is good for us at least · Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen Gas also do not work, for Magnesium reacts with the two as well · 2nd most abundant element in the Hydrosphere, aside from Sodium · 13% of Earth's mass comes from Magnesium, which can make an entire planet of Mars as Magnesium · Magnesium is naturally found in Chlorophyll and Pumpkin Seeds · Periodic Videos · One of the lightest elements, it is known to be the lightest element you can use, since Beryllium is toxic and poisonous unless under strict conditions in the Lab, and Lithium and Sodium are also too reactive, especially in contact with water · Since it is so light, you can isolate it and reform it metallurgically to make it into a case for laptops, computers, and phones since they are so mobile and Magnesium is so light as a result, they are mobile · Magnesium used to be use for Photographic Flashlights, which contain bulbs on tubes filled with a Magnesium filament and Oxygen and for each photo, you would put this on top of the camera, and it would flash a bright, white light, as Magnesium does when reflecting light after energy absorption or through the Photoelectric Effect, as it does emit a mixture of colors in the form of a bright, white light and also generates a lot of heat · Magnesium Nitride isn't actually formed · Magnesium is in Chlorophyll, which absorbs energy from the sun through Photosynthesis to produce what the plant needs to grow, Glucose sugars, by combining Carbon Dioxide and Water in proportions different than normal to create a sugar rather than Carbonic Acid, and thus also produce Oxygen Gas which we need to live, so without that Magnesium atom there we would all die · Since you can't put out Magnesium fire with water, Magnesium bombs were used in war to be burned and adding water to the bombs wouldn't work while they burned, which could've caused panic, and thus like Calcium it reacts with water to produce Magnesium Hydroxide or Magnesium Oxide, but Magnesium Oxide ribbon itself doesn't form this and have an exothermic reaction with water because it is already an oxide, and it's hard to tell the difference between Magnesium and its Oxide, so the alternative to putting out metal fires instead of water is sand, or Silicon Dioxide, which sort of acts as a Reducing Agent · Magnesium needs heat to get the reaction going, but slowly without heat or Oxygen as Magnesium Oxide burning present in water, the reaction will occur naturally like normal metals in water such as Sodium and Calcium, only it will occur very very slowly · Magnesium also reacts with dry ice of Solid Carbon Dioxide in which you can cut the Dry Ice with a knife and reserve a little hole for something like Magnesium pebbles to enter and to produce · It is interesting because when lighting Magnesium to produce Magnesium Oxide in an Oxygen environment, Dry Ice is an Oxygen-free environment since Carbon Dioxide, solid, or even as a liquid at high pressures, is used in fire extinguishers to cover the fire like a blanket and let no more Oxygen continually burn it, water doesn't help put out fires since Water itself contains Oxygen which is somewhat reactive to the substance burning, and when reacting produces a bright white light of Magnesium through the Photoelectric Effect, and the Magnesium is going to steal the Oxygen from the Carbon Dioxide in order to keep burning, sort of reducing or dissolving the ice, and also releasing bits of Carbon, and in doing so the Dry Ice starts to turn black · This chemical reaction, among others of Sodium, Magnesium, Potassium, and Calcium can be found in the 100 Chemical Reactions Doc

Potassium (All Facts)

· 24- Potassium · Periodic Videos · Like all alkali metals, Potassium is quite reactive, and some pure isotopes are radioactive, that is why they talk about radioactive bananas · Certain elements can extract Oxygen from certain compounds, which not only makes it a redox reaction, but as it is being Oxidized and the Oxygen is being reduced, such as extracting Oxygen from water or in moist air to begin to burn as in the case of Sodium, Potassium can react in extracting Oxygen from Carbohydrates out of food or paper, and extracting this Oxygen it can burn easily, but Argon is usually used to protect it from the air or water · A low melting point metal like Sodium, you can mix Sodium and Potassium together at these moderate temperatures to make an amalgam or alloy of the two, or "NaK" is a silver liquid at room temperature and is very light, but if you drop it from the floor, it will burst into flames before hitting the floor because it reacts with the Oxygen and water in the humid air · This Potassium-Sodium or Sodium-Potassium Alloy is a liquid stored in a vacuum tube to keep it exposed from the atmosphere, industrially and chemically known as "NaK" which looks like Mercury, although of course based on their periodic position, the alloy is a lot lighter than Mercury or Quicksilver, although unlike Mercury it is highly reactive, as reactive as Sodium and Potassium themselves, used to be used as a coolant mainly in nuclear reactors, metals are great conductors of thermal and electrical energy, and NaK and was used in fast reader reactors · NaK conducts heat very well, and as Plutonium Fission is taking place in the core, and carrying the heat away in this liquid coolant just outside of the core, delivering it to water without touching it, and then heating the water which would turn into water, turn a turbine, and generate electricity · The way the machine works to store the NaK is you have a piece of metal carrying an electric current which then generates a magnetic field and there is motion, in other words it is generated by an electric motor · Fleming's Left Hand Rule: Hold your left hand up and point your thumb up so your fingers point to your right hand, them make a fist with all but your thumb and index fingers, kind of like a 1-finger or index finger gun of your left hand pointing to the right, palm facing you, then open your fingers you made a fist of so the tips of the three fingers are facing you · Your index finger represents the electric current and electric field, the fingers facing you represent the resulting magnetic field, and the thumb pointed upwards represents the overall motion created by these forces · And Potassium cannot react with Water in the reactors because it always reacts with water violently, and also reacts with water and Diethyl Ether as illustrated in the chemical reaction below, and the products are quite interesting, you get lots of energy emitting from the reaction · Potassium in the form of Potassium Permanganate reacts with Hydrogen Peroxide, a common Oxidizing Agent, to produce new substances as shown below, removing the violet color of the Potassium compound, and when the Manganese atoms contained inside the Permanganate first touches water they turn into Manganese ions, which are naturally colorless · Potassium in the form of Potassium Chlorate can react with Sugar to produce Carbon Dioxide and Water, sort of like a Combustion Reaction, as well as Potassium and Chlorine or Potassium Chloride, and is known as the "Jelly Baby" reaction for the sugar used can be used from any ordinary candy or "Sucrose" containing substance, in which you heat the Potassium Chlorate and remove some of the Oxygen, leaving Potassium Chloride, and thus then adding the candy in this new mixture and it produces a colorful, fiery, and exothermic reaction and actually sometimes produces Carbon as well, and the reaction takes longer than usual, you have to wait, and it produces a bright pink color in the end from the Potassium, but the light color changes from the candy or dyes of the candy · It was also an experiment which depended on the salts used, in the case of not using Potassium Chlorate, Strontium in the form of Strontium Nitrate replaced the Potassium Chlorate to give Strontium Nitride, Nitrogen Gas, and an overall deep and rich red color, and using Barium in the form of Barium Nitrate could have replaced the Potassium Chlorate to give Barium Nitride, Nitrogen gas, and an overall deep and rich green color, characteristic to the spectral analysis, firework, and flame test color of Barium · Chemistry Connections · Named after the word "Potash" or wood ashes, Potassium's "Potash" was actually the first type of substance discovered to have Potassium in it as it was electrolytically split by thermal decomposition process in relation to that of Humphrey Davy from Potash, and the Potassium was isolated, although Potassium or "Potash"-like compounds are found and formed in a number of different ways including that of the following · Potassium Carbonate, Potassium Oxide (fertilizer), and Potassium Hydroxide (caustic Base of Potassium, known as caustic potash) · Is a soft, silvery metal in elemental form, and in pure form although highly reactive · Has a lower density than that of water, for it will float on water, although it is highly reactive with water · Reacts with water to form Caustic Potash, Potassium Hydroxide, the Potassium-based Base (no pun intended), and Hydrogen Gas and heat, which usually ignites the Hydrogen Gas and makes big explosion go BOOM-BOOM · Like Sodium and Magnesium, Potassium has biological and biochemical applications which make it an essentiality for human health in the following ways · Like Sodium, Potassium helps keep a normal water balance between cells and body fluids and in pure form exist in fruits like bananas, oranges, and cantaloupes · Like having to be required for plant growth, it is used as a fertilizer · Its special isotope, Potassium-40 is used to date rocks containing Potassium as well as plants containing Potassium in the same way Carbon-14 Dating works · Chemicool · In 1807, Humphrey Davy had discovered and isolated Potassium by the electrolysis of Potash, or Potassium Hydroxide, as he did with all the Alkali Metals from their Hydroxides, and Alkaline Earth Metals from their Oxides conveniently differentiating because of their valency to that of the other side of the Periodic Table, and it was named after the substance of Potash, Potassium was actually the first element Davy discovered using this method, and he used the output work and/or energy of three batteries to do it, as Potassium metal nodules grew at the negative electrodes or anodes, and thus from the moist-collecting paste he used, he was able to isolate the Potassium · It has extremely low density, as Davy put it in oil and it floated unlike any other metal · Like many other scientists, we now know from studying other elements that metals like Potassium can be verified metals when they react with water or acid to produce Hydrogen Gas, as well as a salt with the acid and a Base, or reformed Potash with the Water, Potassium Hydroxide Alkali · Potash originally was a substance derived from an alkali extracted with water in a pot of ash or burned wood or tree leaves · Potassium was called "Kalium" in Germany, and thus is where it gets its symbol from on the Periodic Table, just like Sodium got its abbreviation of Natrium from Natronlouge, which was called "Soda" in Germany also · Discovering Sodium shortly after, he used this to discover the other two Alkali Metals, Rubidium and Cesium · Forms alloys as liquids with Sodium as explained in the Sodium section · Biologically, Potassium is found in many fruits and veggies and is essential to our health, as well as plant's health and survival as it is found in Fertilizers and most of the human use of Potassium Compounds are for the manufacturing of these fertilizers · Many neurotoxins can destroy the essentialities of Potassium in our bodies in the form of Apamin (Bee Stings), and Agitoxin (Scorpion Stings) · Nutritionally, people whose diets are low in Potassium can suffer from Hypokalemia · Carbon-14 dating uses the decay of it being radioactive to find the ages of once-living things such as animal and plant matter which contained small amounts of Carbon isotopes, for they are somewhat rare as isotopes, and Potassium-40 as well as Argon-40 dating uses and applies the exact same concepts, only to nonliving matter such as rocks without Carbon and figuring out how old they are, and you can find out more about this in the Argon section · Too much Potassium secreted into the Urine is not good for you, and must be handled with extreme care since it is highly reactive in nature and reacts with Acids and Water to produce explosive Hydrogen Gas, and with water it also reforms or reproduces Potash or Potassium Hydroxide · A silvery-white, low melting point, soft, and light metal easily able to cut with a knife easily tarnishes or oxidizes with the air to form an Oxide coating or layer like Sodium and all the other Alkali Metals in the form of chunks and nodules and even powders · Through a Flame test and Absorption of Energy, Potassium burns with a lilac colored flame or light purple shade · Nucleosynthetically, Potassium nuclei are made in the final the moments of the explosion of giant stars into supernovas, and is made from the Oxygen burning in the shells of star explosions when Oxygen undergoes nuclear fusion to produce Sulfur and Silicon, and other isotopes of Oxygen, Sulfur, and Silicon further produce Potassium · Back then, Potassium was produced from the electrolysis of Potassium Hydroxide or Potash · Today, Industrially, Potassium is produced or obtained from the electrolysis of Potassium Chloride, although Potassium Hydroxide electrolysis methods are still used · Potassium is used for and applied to fertilizers as it is essential for plant growth, and plants use it to make proteins · Potassium is found in Potash or Potassium Hydroxide as a very strong Alkali and Base, and is important industrially since it can be used as a Water-Softening Agent (see Inorganic Chemistry Journal: Household Chemicals), as an additive to soap to make it softer or as a base end of soap with Potassium cations and also to Detergents, mainly of which are cationic detergents on the side of the Carboxyl Group to not only make it polar, but also soluble and interacting easily with acids or bases, but primarily water soluble · Thus, Potassium in the form of Potassium Hydroxide is used to make Fertilizers, Soft Soaps, and is used as an electrolyte in Alkaline Batteries (see Electrochemistry, General Chemistry Journal), and Potassium by itself can be used as a Water-softening Agent · Also, Potassium in the form of Potassium Nitrate can be used to toughen class by placing it in molten Potassium Nitrate, and this compound is also explosive and is the main ingredient in gunpowder · Potassium Chloride is used a healthier alternative to Sodium Chloride Table Salt · Potassium-39 and Potassium-41 are its most abundant and stable isotopes which exist in relatively equivalent proportions naturally #19- Potassium- Potassium in German and Scandinavian means "Kalium" and thus the K symbolizes this, Pot in the word comes from it being the extraction of its primary compound, Potash, or Potassium Hydroxide

Calcium (All Facts)

· 25- Calcium · Chemistry Connections · Named after the word "Calx" in Latin, which means Lime since Calcium exists in so many different compounds associated with the material of lime · The most common lime compound includes Calcium Carbonate, which makes up Limestone, Chalk, Marble, Eggshells, Clam Shells, and more · Another common calcium-derived compound includes Calcium Sulfate, which makes up chalk, mortar, plaster, Plaster of Paris, and cement, which are heterogeneous mixture applications of Calcium among other metals and ores associated with concrete · Another common calcium-derived compound includes Calcium Oxide, which is made by burning Calcium, and which makes up · Another common calcium-derived compound includes Calcium Hydroxide, which is the base of Calcium, and which makes up · I like to call Calcium the four-way Applicative Element, since it naturally exists as 4 uniquely different applicative compounds, but all the more straightforward in terms of learning chemistry, and also convenient to know that it doesn't exist naturally in pure form or is very rare this way, but overall existing in other forms, 4 as a matter of fact, that are extremely common and useful, historically and presently · 5th most abundant element in Earth's crust · Like Sodium, Potassium, and Magnesium it is essential to your health, and like Magnesium makes up a good percentage of your bones, and about 99% of the Calcium in your body is stored in your bones and teeth, Calcium keeps bones strong · Overall; Magnesium, Calcium, and all Alkaline Earth Metals are harder, denser, and have more mass than Alkali Metals as well as a smaller atomic radius · These Alkaline Earth Metals are gray or silver colored metals with high melting points, are very reactive metals, have two electrons in their outer energy level, are found mostly in the Earth's Crust but not in Pure (or Elemental) Form because of their reactivity, and are also found not only in salts and minerals, but also in many rocks on the surface and n the crust · Chemicool · Calcium has a rich history, in which significantly the Romans heated Calx (at the time called Calx, today it is known as Limestone, chemically as Calcium Carbonate), driving off CO2 and leaving Calcium Oxide, and then mixed it with water to make cement, a tough hard substance used to bond stones together or make them sort of sticky together, and applied them for building things from aqueducts to amphitheaters · In 1808, Humphrey Davy had discovered and isolated Calcium using a similar method to isolating the lighter Alkaline metal of Magnesium · With help from JJ Berzelius, he used a battery and through electrolysis, he was able to decompose Calcium Oxide at a Mercury metal electrode to obtain an amalgam or alloy of Mercury, being Mercury-Calcium alloy, heating it would drive off the Mercury and leave Calcium nodules to collect and present as was the method from Magnesium in place of the Calcium · However, Davy did it a different way than Berzelius, and he set up his apparatus with a paste of slaked or "anhydrous" lime (Calcium Oxide) which when exposed to the air to be moist lime (Calcium Hydroxide), and with a paste of Mercury Oxide (Red) · Then, when he added to a depression in the paste two electrodes, a Platinum electrode and a Mercury electrode, he placed Naphtha or Hydrocarbon liquid oil which can store metals so they aren't immediately oxidized, and when he passed electricity from the output of three batteries, a Calcium-Mercury Mercury alloy amalgam formed at the Mercy electrode, which was supposed to act as the negative electrode or cathode, and thus Calcium is cationic, and drove off the Mercury like Berzelius would have by distillation, removing and storing the element from the Naphtha liquid, and isolated Calcium, and he would do the same process for isolating Strontium and Barium · He named it Calcium after the ancient Greek word for Limestone, its main source as mineral, ore, and application, which was called "Calx" by the Greek · Most textbooks and websites discuss what I like to call the Big Four, the 4 Calcium Compounds everybody gets mixed up with, which I explain below · A non-toxic, essential mineral metal element, Calcium is a reactive, metal, soft metal which takes a little force from a sharp knife to be cut, and when reacting with air forms an Oxide coating, as well as Nitride coating which protects it from further oxidation or corrosion, and makes Calcium alloys, such as Aluminum, Beryllium, Copper, Lead, and Magnesium-Calcium alloys corrosive resistant, light, durable, and efficient · Calcium reacts with Water and Acids to produce Hydrogen Gas, and with water to produce Calcium Hydroxide, and with the Air to form Calcium Oxide and Calcium Nitride · Back then, Calcium was produced by the electrolysis of Calcium and Mercury Oxides · Today, Industrially, Calcium is produced by the electrolysis of liquid Calcium Chloride, and by driving off Calcium from Calcium Carbonate when it reacts with Aluminum Vapor to isolate Calcium while producing Aluminum Carbonate, in hot high temperature, low pressure conditions · Today, Calcium is also produced from its removal by heating or undergoing Electrolysis and Thermolysis processes of its primary ores and minerals, including Limestone (Calcium Carbonate), Gypsum (Calcium Sulfate), Quicklime (Calcium Oxide), and/or Fluorite (Calcium Fluoride) · The fourth of the Big 4 is Calcium Oxide is also known as Quicklime and is used in the treatment of drinking water, as a Water-Softening Agent, and in removing Arsenic to produce Calcium Arsenide · Biologically, Calcium is found in, applied to, and used as communication signals between cells in animals and plants, and Calcium ions are used for these electrical signals · Calcium is used in the manufacture of Radioactive or Complex atoms such as Ununoctium when bombarding Californium atoms with Calcium nuclei, and in other radioactive elements such as Uranium and Thorium · Calcium is used as a Reducing Agent in removing Oxygen, Sulfur, and Carbon from Alloys · Calcium is mainly found in and used in Cement and Concrete, used to make sidewalks and build homes for people to live in, made of lime or Calcium Oxide, and Snails and Shellfish use Calcium Carbonate in their shells, or their homes · Calcium is the most abundant of the metal elements in the body, 99% of Calcium is in bones and teeth, and is the 5th most abundant element overall in our body, with only the Big 4 [elements] being more abundant · Periodic Videos · Calcium is stored in Nitrogen Gas since it is a somewhat reactive Alkaline earth metals in the form of turnings or powders and the Nitrogen Gas acts as a shield gas from it forming compounds with Oxygen or water moisture, including Calcium Oxide and Calcium Hydroxide · Calcium in the form of Calcium Phosphate and other inorganic material is what makes up bones and are very strong because of the structure, specifically at the molecular level · Calcium in the form of Calcium Carbonate is what make up shells of sea animals at the beach, and are naturally produced from the Calcium from the Seawater and reacting with Carbon Dioxide to form Calcium Carbonate which make up their shells · Calcium purified is a metallic element itself as a solid, due to the way the electrons behave in the metal and is also a very good electrical conductor like many more of the Transition metals, but many of Calcium's ionic bonded compounds are all white because Calcium has no free electrons which can be excited to higher energy levels when absorbing energy such as heat or light in its compounds · However, unlike many more of the transition metals, its compounds are white, and transition metals form ionic compounds with anions to produce compounds such as Copper Sulfate, which are blue because of the electrons available in the shells of the Copper to be excited and participate in the Photoelectric Effect to be excited so the compound is normally blue · Although Copper Sulfate is blue, Calcium Sulfate is white (Gypsum, Chalk), and therefore is colorless and would look like glass, therefore the only reason so many compounds such as Calcium Sulfate are white is because as crystals, they scatter the light in their orderly patterns when absorbing and transmitting it and then reflecting it again · So Calcium containing compounds are mainly white, and pure Calcium is silver or silver-shite upon oxidation, specifically corrosion · Calcium in the form of Calcium Carbonate reacts with water as it is soluble and Carbon Dioxide solvent to produce Calcium Bicarbonate, which is more soluble and you can thus obtain hard water with high levels of Calcium from this series of reactions, and when this hard water with Calcium ions in it flows through the soil and to caves, it can form precipitates and dry up as crystals, known to reform into Calcium Carbonate as Stalactites and Stalagmites · Calcium produces a bright orange-yellow mango-pink or "brick-red" color in its Flame Test, despite the fact that most of its compounds are white it doesn't produce a white light · Basis of Cement and Concrete, and use Iron and Silica as well · You can burn ice on fire in making it the form of water to react with Calcium Carbide, since Water and Calcium Carbide react to produce Acetylene Gas and Calcium Oxide · On Old Cars, there are Carbide Lamps, which have Calcium Carbide, and in generating a small pressure of Acetylene Gas which went through a pinhole, it would burn a steady flame · Acetylene and Oxygen-Acetylene Gas is also used in welding and are hot flames which can burn straight through steel · Compressing Acetylene at high pressures, it will explode with high temperatures

Rubidium (All Facts)

· Chemicool · Humphrey Davy did not discover Rubidium! What a surprise! · In 1861, in Germany, Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff used concepts of Spectroscopy and Spectral Analysis, and further passed on this knowledge to William Ramsay when he confirmed the existence of all the Noble Gases minus Radon, using Spectral Analysis of lines never seen before · Known for creating a spectroscope, inside it at the center lay a glass prism, which split the light coming from the flame of the substance into a spectrum, just like raindrops split sunlight at different angles into new colors to form a rainbow, and was magnified by other technology to make it able to be more detailed and efficient · Through Spectral Analysis, they discovered the unique emission spectra of not only Rubidium, but also of Cesium, to discover the two new elements, discovering the Cesium from the Spectra of Mineral Water · Serendipitously, they were studying the mineral of Lepidolite (Lithium-Potassium-Aluminum Silicate) which we now know contains Rubidium, and then they used a very complex acid and in the reaction, precipitates a precipitate salt of Potassium Chloroplatinate, but noticed they found another salt they had never seen before, and upon Thermolysis/Electrolysis of this salt, Rubidium Chloride, and spectral analysis of the products of this, they saw a Spectrum which contained many new lines, signifying it is a new element, and saw two beautiful red lines paired right next to each other, and had never seen these red lines in their emission spectra studies · Therefore, they named Rubidium after the Latin equivalent "Rubidius" which meant or suggested to express 'dark red' shades or colors, as Bunsen and Kirchhoff had discovered · Like all metals, it still had less reactively reacted with Water to release Hydrogen Gas and Acid to create a salt and release Hydrogen Gas, and Air through vigorous reactions and low activation energies · Non-toxic, it is a soft, silvery-white metal · Solid at room temperature, liquid just above that · Rubidium is produced by extracting it from its historically known ore of Lepidolite, and also from Lithium-Rubidium containing Ores, although is more efficient in being produce using a Reducing Agent and reacting Rubidium Chloride with Calcium to produce Pure Rubidium and naturally occurring and popularly known compound of Calcium Chloride · Rubidium forms alloys with Cesium, Gold, Sodium, Potassium, and Mercury (as Amalgams with Mercury of course) · Rubidium, through a flame test, burns with a reddish-violet flame color · Rubidium is used as a getter or remover of trace gases in vacuum tubes and as a working fluid in vapor turbines · Ruibidum-85 at 72% and Rubidium-87 at 28% as its isotopes, Rubidium-87 is slightly radioactive then and is used in dating rocks like Potassium-40 and Argon-40 processes · Rubidium compounds are used in fireworks, giving off a Purple color, and can burn with a reddish-violet flame color as well · Rubidium compounds, specifically salts, are also used in glass and ceramics as an additive · Periodic Videos · Low-melting, somewhat reactive, more than Sodium uniquely and exceptionally as an Alkali Metal · Like Phenolphthalein, some indicators are colorless acids which can react with bases or alkalis and rearranging their molecular structure as in all chemical reactions, it actually also changes the color since it may turn into water and a salt, or two ions which atoms being ionized usually have their own color due to the overall applications of the Photoelectric Effect, and as such these ions which will soon form the salt now color the indicator, and it turns a certain color dependent on how acidic or basic the substance is and what it formed and how it interacts with light · The reason placing an alkali metal (base) into water with indicator changes dark pink-red color shade is because through the chemical reaction described above, the structures of the alkali and acid, particularly the acid, change, the energy levels of the electrons within the molecule also change and then absorb visible light · In the case of Rubidium in Phenolphthalein, it looks red because it is absorbing higher energy light, and lower energies along with it in transmitting and absorbing blue light, of a higher energy · This reaction also affects the Phenolphthalein indicator as well, changing its color and making it ionic, although when mixed in with water it pretty much turns the water into Hydrogen ions (protons) and Hydroxide ions which ionize and change color, and thus give the slightest impurities to normal water, these ions move at very fast rates or speeds, and Rubidium Hydroxide is soon created along with Hydrogen Gas as any Metal and Water reaction would create, however the involvement in the production of ions and changing of the structure of Phenolphthalein results in the change of color along with the explosion and the pink from the Indicator changing because of the natural emissions of color from Rubidium, along with purple ·

Uranium (All Facts)

· Identified and isolated by extracting it from Pitchblende Ore (1789), which was named after the planet Uranus discovered around the same time · Heaviest Naturally Occurring Element on Earth · It is highly radioactive, toxic, and carcinogenic, and has over 16 radioisotopes chemoluminisecent properties · Used mostly in explosives and atomic bombs in nuclear fission when bombarded with neutrons which cause more than usual interference which cause the atom to break apart and start a chain reaction of the decomposition of the most common isotope, Uranium-235 · Fluorescent in giving green and yellow color effects as additives to glass

Iodine (All Facts)

· Iodine · Discovered by Bernard Courtois in 1811, Iodine is both helpful in small doses and harmful in large doses · Comes from the Greek word "Iodes" meaning Violet for it formed a pink vapor upon evaporation · Courtois was primarily isolating Potassium Chloride from seaweed and after crystallizing from its main form he mixed in Sulfuric Acid into the solution and through this chemical reaction, he serendipitously produced and isolated Iodine, traces of it left alone in seaweed apparently · Courtois was originally probably trying to synthesize Hydrochloric Acid or Potassium Sulfate, the products of the reactants of Potassium Chloride and Sulfuric Acid, although the Potassium Chloride also contained a little Iodine as we know it today which was apart of the Potassium Chloride compound upon the original synthesis of Potassium Sulfate or Hydrochloric Acid, now we can also indicate Iodine as a product from Courtois's discovery · He found that it combined well with Hydrogen and Phosphorus, and not very well with Carbon and Oxygen, these rules remain the same today · Iodine and Ammonia formed Nitrogen Triiodide he found, which was an explosive containing Iodine · A bluish-black lustrous, shiny solid, it quickly sublimates at room temperature into a pink-purple vapor and is the least reactive Halogen but still forms many compounds Chloroform, Carbon Tetrachloride, and Carbon Disulfide creating a purple colored solution and changing it as it reacts chemically, although as much as it reacts with these compounds it is barely soluble in water and gives it a slight change of color in yellow · Thyroxin is an important substance used by the body for various biological purposes which contains Iodine · Silver Iodide is used in photography, Potassium Iodide in Alcohol is used as a Disinfectant, and Iodine itself is used as a Disinfectant · Sodium Iodide is used to prevent causable thyroid disease from Sodium Chloride · Iodine is also used for printing and photography purposes and processes, and can be used as a catalyst · Mostly occurs as Iodide ions in nature, going back to its isolationist's origins, it can be found in particular minerals and soils going through natural hydrological cycles via seaweed and sea plants · Releasing Iodates from Nitrate Ores to produce Iodine is another way of isolating it · Iodine-127 is the most abundant isotope · Dependent on what you dissolve Iodine in, the color of the solution the solute is changing · Dissolving in water gives dirty brown and yellow colors, but in the 3 organic compounds mentioned above, it's a beautiful purple color · Iodine powders are quick to oxidize like all powders when their surface areas of the particles are larger than normal and not smaller, a factor in rates of chemical reactions and kinetics as you may remember · It also mixes well with Aluminum to oxidize and make Aluminum Triiodide, just like Aluminum Tribromide, adding water or putting both in a solution in the presence of moist water so that the Oxygen from the water activates the Iodine or any other substance for that matter to strongly react and oxidize if it doesn't do so already in the air · Your thyroid gland must have Iodine or else it will swell and enlarge your neck · Frogs need Iodine from the seaweed in the water or else their legs become dysfunctional and they cannot hop and do not develop their legs as little tadpoles so they can't perform the functions most frogs do for the rest of their life o Applications o Reactions "Clock" Reactions it makes the solution turn dark blue when mixed with starch Hofmann Elimination An iodine methyl-halide is used in this reaction Prevost Reaction Yields anti-diols Is added in the first step of this reaction Kabachnik-Fields Reaction Is a catalyst for the formation of alpha-aminophosphonates in a variation of this reaction Dess-Martin Oxidation Is complexed to three acetal groups in this reaction

Iridium (All Facts)

· Iridium · Periodic Videos · Found in the Cobalt Group along with Rhodium, Iridium is used as a catalyst and in alloys as a very hard, heavy, dense material · As dense as Osmium, it is the densest of all elements · Has a very high melting point · Extremely Heavy · It's very useful, used for making Iridium Crucibles, used for handling liquids · Iridium is used in spark plugs, done using Iridium tips, so they don't melt off · A spark plug is a device for firing the explosive mixture in an internal combustion engine · Iridium is found in quite high concentrations in asteroids and meteorites as proposed by Louis Alvarez, a Spanish Scientist who discovered the K-T layer, a geological layer of Iridium, and also that supports the "destroying the dinosaurs" theory that an asteroid hit them and killed them all · Chemicool · In 1803, in London, Smithson Tennant discovered Iridium at the same time as Osmium, and also in the same year William Wollaston separately discovered Palladium and Rhodium, both using the same methods together from isolating Platinum using geochemical purification and refinement processes and extractions from Platinum ores, and then dissolving it in Aqua Regia, and reacting the precipitates with different chemicals such as acids and alkalis and then adding water to remove the acid and alkali counterparts and heating the remaining mixture, finding the Osmium in the Alkaline solution, Tennant discovered Iridium in the Acidic solution that remained · Tennant named Iridium after the Latin Word, "Iris", who was actually the Greek Goddess of Rainbows, and which the word in Latin meant, "Rainbow", for Iridium was naturally and atomically found in many oxidation states in its salts, thus having many different colors for each oxidation state, and rainbows have many different colors · Scientists suspect the reason such dense metals are abundant near the surface of the Earth rather than closer to the core of the Earth is because the metals arrived by impact of asteroids and/or comets containing the dense "platinum group" metals like Palladium and Iridium, especially since unbelievably scientists have found an abundance of Iridium in rocks they used Carbon dating to determine were existing between the Cretaceous and Tertiary Periods over 65 million years ago, which scientists believe that these "special" asteroids and/or comets that "destroyed the dinosaurs" contained these heavy, dense, "platinum group" metals, and deposited them closer to the surface that farther away towards Earth's core · Iridium is a rare, non-toxic, lustrous, hard, brittle, "platinum-group" and platinum-like, unreactive, corrosion-resistant, acid-resistant transition metal, and although Gold lives up to many of the rewards on the Periodic Table for being at the top of the list, Osmium and Iridium have others · Iridium is in 1st place for density, just behind Osmium which is considered the densest, however we make mention of its place in this document and not in the Osmium document, because supposedly the space lattices of the elements, specifically comparing Osmium and Iridium, show Iridium is denser than Osmium, and thus the densest, so we can consider it in a tie for 1st place with Osmium · Iridium is in 1st place for being corrosion-resistant · Iridium is in 1st place for being acid-resistant · It literally reacts with nothing except for molten salts strangely enough such as Sodium Chloride and Sodium Cyanide · Iridium was and still is used in making the international (SI) Standard Kilogram, an alloy of 90% Platinum and 10% Iridium, since it is completely unreactive and reacts with nothing except for high temperature and pressure molten salts · Iridium is used in alloys as a hardening agent along with Platinum, and is used in alloys as for the tops of pens and compass bearings along with Osmium · Iridium is used in making crucibles, and other equipment used at high-temperatures, and heavy-duty electrical contacts · Iridium's radioactive isotopes are used in radiation therapy for ionizing cancer cells and destroying them · Iridium is produced from geochemical purification and refinement processes and extractions through a series of chemical reactions from Nickel Ores

Manganese (All Facts)

· Manganese · Chemicool · In 100 AD, Pliny the Elder is famous for being doing somewhat of his own kind of alchemy, using Manganese in the form of Manganese Dioxide to make glass, which is still used today in this way · In 1740, Johann Hein Reich Pott discovered a new earth metal from Pyrolusite with different properties than that of which was originally thought to be Iron, and then was able to produce Potassium Magnanate from reacting Potassium Hydroxide with Manganese Dioxide (Pyrolusite) in the presence of a moist atmosphere and as it underwent color changes, it reached a green different than that of Iron (III) and wasn't any other Iron state, thus it had to be another metal · This Pyrolusite we now know as Manganese Dioxide, the main form and ore of Manganese Dioxide, and also what is sometimes used in a chemical reaction to produce Chlorine Gas, as well as Manganese Dichloride and Water as illustrated in the following chemical equation, as used by Henry Cavendish to discover it as it reacts with strong acid like Hydrochloric or Hydrofluoric Acid o MnO2 + 4 HCl Cl2 + MnCl2 + H2O · In 1770, Ignatius Gottfried Kaim and Johann Gottlieb Gahn both worked on isolating Manganese, a mystery metal to them from Pyrolusite separately instead of together, and they used Reducing Agents like Carbon or Silicon to produce Carbon or Silicon Dioxide which was driven off, and Manganese metal, which they were able to isolate as a solid, and are both credited for its discovery · A white, hard, brittle, sometimes blue, granular structure as first described by Kaim and Gahn · Although it's name derived from the Latin "Magnes" means "magnetic", it doesn't exhibit magnetic properties whatsoever · Like many elements and metals surprisingly, Manganese has both biological and nutritional applications and is most commonly applied to enzymes in the body as well as photosynthesis · Manganism is the inhaling of Manganese Powder, which when ionized into the body can potentially harm the body even to induce Parkinson's Disease · A gray-white, hard, brittle, high-polished, non-magnetic, multivalent transition metal, and reacts with the air and tarnishes, and with heat and Oxygen to synthesize or produce Manganese (II) and Manganese (III) Oxides · Its multiple Oxidation States which ionize at different temperatures to produce different colors simply based on the number of electrons taken away include +2 (pale pink color), +4 (black, gray color), +6 (green color) and +7 (purple color, found in Permanganate Ions as well) · Since the principle of complementary colors, meaning colors on the opposite side of the color wheel cancel each other to produce a gray color, defines in such a way that a violet color would cancel a green color, the green color found from the Iron (III) Impurities found in the otherwise colorless Silica Glass are canceled and made the glass colorless when purple color ions of Manganese are reacted, and thus when Manganese Dioxide reacts with the Silica, it produces an otherwise Purple colored Silicate which in fact cancels the green Iron (III) present · Manganese Dioxide is used for the production of clear, colorless glass as explained above physically and chemically, and is also used as a black colored pigment in paint, as a "filler" in dry cell batteries, and for the production of Chlorine as explained above also · Manganese itself is added to alloys such as Aluminum to improve the corrosion-resistant and stiff, hardness properties of the original metal · Manganese in Organic Compounds is also used to improve gasoline! · 12th most abundant element in the Earth's crust · In the human body several manganese-containing enzymes are need to metabolize carbohydrates, cholesterol, and amino acids. Typically our bodies have about 10 - 20 mg manganese. This needs to be topped up frequently because our bodies cannot store it. About a quarter of the manganese in our bodies is in bone, while the rest is evenly distributed through our tissues · Manganese can be produced from the splitting of its main ores, Pyrolusite (Manganese Dioxide) and Rhodochrosite (Manganese Carbonate), and is also found abundantly but unable to be produced from many rock nodules on the ocean floor · Manganese can be produced from the Reduction of its metals with an Aluminum Reducing Agent in producing Carbrorundum, it also isolates the Manganese · Manganese can be produced from the Reduction of its metals like in the past times · Manganese can be produced from the electrolysis of a Magnesium Sulfate solution for a more high-purity form of Manganese · Periodic Videos · Believe it or not, the reason Manganese is named after being magnetic is because itself as a metal is not magnetic, however one of its main salts, Manganese Sulfate is magnetic, and it is a white salt with a slight pink color, so it is a mixed up science here! · The reason the salt is magnetic is because Manganese's (which naturally has 5 electrons in its non-ionized form, since it is the fifth metal in the first row of transition metals, all which are in the d-block with the d-shell, Manganese has 5 electrons in the d-shell d-shell electrons are all unbelievably all NBP, in other words are all free radicals and each can act as an electromagnetic field separate than with another electron to make the Bonding Pair or BP exist, and has this because metals can have multiple oxidation states, however Manganese's electrons just work differently, and thus since single electrons produce stronger electromagnetic fields than double ones, these 5 d-shell electrons emit a stronger electromagnetic field in the specific oxidation state of the specific Manganese Sulfate salt · So its salts are magnetic, itself is not, its salts are white, itself is colored · Manganese in the form of Potassium Permanganate is purple, and is in a common for Manganese but rare for most transition metals, in a +7 Oxidation State, and in this Oxidations state, it gives up 7 electrons, and thus produces an emission spectrum with a wide variety of colors, however mostly purple, and in the common form of Potassium Permanganate, it is in its +7 Oxidation State which is purple, thus Potassium Permanganate is purple · However, when heating it with Oxygen or oxidizing it to break its bonds and form new ones in order to decompose it, through a chemical reaction of 2 moles Potassium Permanganate you get 1 mole Potassium Permanganate with 2 Potassium atoms, thus oxidizing it, and also producing Manganese Dioxide and Oxygen Gas, and in this process, 1 atom of Potassium clung onto the "used to be" 2 molecules and "now being" 1 molecule of Potassium Permanganate, thus it has 2 Potassium atoms, 1 Manganese atom, and still 4 Oxygen atoms, and thus this changes its +7 Oxidation State to its +6 Oxidation State, this compound which is green as its +6 Oxidation state is assumed, this is called Potassium Magnanate (not a very stable compound, and if you add acid to it decomposes very quickly producing Manganese Dioxide, a brown precipitate solid due to the +2 Oxidation State of the Manganese at this brown solid, and also produced Oxygen Gas, just like with 1 more atom of Manganese in Permanganate), while producing Manganese Dioxide and Oxygen Gas, thus changing the color of the reaction, and if in solution, would be in equilibrium, thus producing a chemical clock reaction · Thus, Manganese +7 is purple-pink, +6 is green, +3 is brown-orange, and +2 is almost clear · Normally, Potassium Permanganate being an Ionic Compound, light energy can be absorbed by it, and its electrons it once had before reacting with Oxygen can jump out of the Oxygen shell, and thus with no where else to go in absorbing energy can transfer back to the Manganese atoms · The Potassium Permanganate which you burn using a Bunsen Burner most likely which starts most chemical reactions using thermal heat energy, and heating it yields its color change as change in oxidation states, and also Oxygen Gas, which makes the powder it once was leave since it rises and comes out of the tube with the powder

Thulium (All Facts)

Expensive Lanthanide, hard to separate from other metals due to Lanthanide Contraction Exhibits +2 and +3 Oxidation State Charles James worked his ass off to discover Thulium as a Chloride and isolate it "The Lanthanide Contraction" is simply the phenomenon of the Lanthanides getting smaller down the row due to simple periodic trend laws

Promethium (All Facts)

The only radioactive Lanthanide, not very reactive though, not found in nature, moderately late discovery Its chemistry is largely unknown Francis Aston, who discovered isotopes, was alive before Promethium, Technetium, and Rhenium were discovered

Gadolinium (All Facts)

Used in MRI Scanning, so for full body scans, doctors give you a solution of Gadolinium, sort of like a solution of Barium, for an injection before scanning, and the Gadolinium chemically changes water molecules in the body and changes the way they react to see the contrast between healthy and unhealthy tissues Gadolinium was also historically important in its oxide form of Gadolinite because you could obtain, and scientists, chemists, and geochemists and mineralogists discovered many of the Lanthanides, Actinides, and Transition Metals by means of extracting small amounts of the elements out of Gadolinium ores such as Gadolinite

Actinium (All Facts)

Glows blue in the dark Can be more dangerous than Plutonium, which people say is the deadliest thing to man Very radioactive, so chemistry is not known Glenn T Seaborg discovered most of the Actinides

Zinc (All Facts)

· 30- Zinc · Chemicool · Zinc Ores have been used to make brass for long periods at a time, the renown alloy of Copper and Zinc, and although its discovery is thorough and historical, it was first discovered in isolating it and identifying it as a transition metal by the German scientist Andreas Marggraf in 1746, through a reduction reaction most likely using Carbon Ore and Zinc Carbonate, or Calamine, as most smelting of the its primary mineral ore, Calamine or Zinc Carbonate, was used to produce it · After smelting, it forms sharp, pointed crystals which give its name Zinc, as Zinc is derived from the German word "Zinke" meaning "pointed" · Zinc plays a biological role, found in many enzymes and is essential like many transition metal's properties tend to make them be for good health and survival, and is non-toxic unless taken in overdose, causing nausea · A bluish-silver, lustrous, tarnishible, brittle, electrically conductive, transition metal, it becomes malleable above water's boiling point at 100 degrees Celsius, and tarnishes in most air to produce Calamine, or Zinc Carbonate · Zinc reacts with both acids and bases · When Zinc reacts with the air, it burns in the air with a bright bluish-green flame, producing thick white vapor clouds of Zinc Oxide · Zinc is primarily used in galvanation, making metals corrosion-resistant · Zinc is also used to form many alloys characteristic to all of the first period transition metal elements, including Brass, German Silver, Nickel Silver, Typewrite Metal, Solder, and Car Industry Die-Casting Alloys · Zinc is used as a common electrode, especially in Zinc-Carbon Batteries · Zinc Oxide is a white powder with many uses · Zinc in the form of Zinc Sulfate or Zinc Sulfide are both used in different formulations as a glowing powder · Zinc is used to make sunblock, the rubber industry, the concrete industry, and in paints · Zinc can be produced from by smelting or splitting it from its mineral ores, which include Sphalerite (Zinc Sulfide), Smithosnite and Calamine (Zinc Carbonate) Hemimorphite (Zinc Silicate), Franklinite (Zinc, Manganese, Iron Oxides) · Zinc can be produced from Electrowinning, pyro metallurgy, and electroplating, all methods described in later sections · It can also be produced from certain redox reactions · Periodic Videos · Theodore Gray · RSC · YBTC · Its origins date back to having been produced in India I the 1400s · In 1746, it was discovered again by Andreas Marggraf · Its most common form is in the Brass Alloy, which sates back to being produced by the Romans in 500 BCE · A bluish-white silvery metal which exists in its pure form since it is less reactive as all transition metals are than that of alkali and alkaline metals · It is used in Dry-Cell batteries, and Wet-Cell Batteries as a common Electrode · It is also in the alloying forms as alloys of Copper, Nickel, Aluminum, and Lead, and also comes in pairs of electrodes, it being one electrode, and one of the four elements listed being the other electrode · Galvanization is a common process Zinc is used in, coating iron with Zinc, and in the presence of air, Zinc Oxidizes as well, so Zinc Hydroxide Carbonate can be formed and is a common application of Zinc as a compound, protecting the iron, making it resists corrosion · Mostly found in the Zinc-Based Zinc-Sulfide Ore called Galena · Zinc is very slow to oxidize, in other words it isn't as reactive with Oxygen and thus is used on roofs of houses because of this unique property · Grayish, and Soft Metal · Reacts easily with acids like all metals to produce salt and Hydrogen Gas, and is usually the main metal used for this process, and is used around the world internationally · Used as a coating on Iron, called Galvanization, and what happens is the Zinc corrodes first from the Iron, and protects the Iron from rusting for awhile, it also makes up 98% of a penny, with the 2% being the Copper plating · Many enzymes in our body such as pepsin contain and use zinc for certain biological processes · The most significant enzyme being Zinc Anhydrase, which catalyzes the reaction of Carbon Dioxide and Water, and thus can be used as a catalyst as it is an enzyme, so without Zinc, being in that compound, we wouldn't be able to survive · You can't even smell things without Zinc · Its origins date back to having been produced in India I the 1400s · In 1746, it was discovered again by Andreas Marggraf · Its most common form is in the Brass Alloy, which sates back to being produced by the Romans in 500 BCE · A bluish-white silvery metal which exists in its pure form since it is less reactive as all transition metals are than that of alkali and alkaline metals · It is used in Dry-Cell batteries, and Wet-Cell Batteries as a common Electrode · It is also in the alloying forms as alloys of Copper, Nickel, Aluminum, and Lead, and also comes in pairs of electrodes, it being one electrode, and one of the four elements listed being the other electrode · Galvanization is a common process Zinc is used in, coating iron with Zinc, and in the presence of air, Zinc Oxidizes as well, so Zinc Hydroxide Carbonate can be formed and is a common application of Zinc as a compound, protecting the iron, making it resists corrosion · Mostly found in the Zinc-Based Zinc-Sulfide Ore called Galena · Zinc is very slow to oxidize, in other words it isn't as reactive with Oxygen and thus is used on roofs of houses because of this unique property · Grayish, and Soft Metal · Reacts easily with acids like all metals to produce salt and Hydrogen Gas, and is usually the main metal used for this process, and is used around the world internationally · Used as a coating on Iron, called Galvanization, and what happens is the Zinc corrodes first from the Iron, and protects the Iron from rusting for awhile, it also makes up 98% of a penny, with the 2% being the Copper plating · Many enzymes in our body such as pepsin contain and use zinc for certain biological processes · The most significant enzyme being Zinc Anhydrase, which catalyzes the reaction of Carbon Dioxide and Water, and thus can be used as a catalyst as it is an enzyme, so without Zinc, being in that compound, we wouldn't be able to survive · You can't even smell things without Zinc

Selenium (All Facts)

· 34- Selenium · Chemicool · It is an extremely similar element to that of Sulfur, in which case it can sometimes be discovered in impure minerals and allotropes of sulfur, as the famous alchemist Arnold of Villanova pointed out in 1300 that in burning native (pure) sulfur crystals, "red" sulfur is left behind, and he concluded could be a form of another element · In 1817, Swedish and popular chemist JJ Berzelius and his co-worker, friend, and another popular chemist Johann Gottlieb Gahn who discovered manganese, and now Berzelius was about to discover Selenium, after distinctly identifying a red deposit left behind after sulfur was burned up in the Sulfuric Acid factory he shared with his friend Gahn, and let other scientists know of his conclusions, identification, and also his work in finding that Sulfur, Selenium, and Tellurium all shared very similar properties as Chalcogens, nothing like Oxygen, including the fact that all of their compounds smell, since they have relatively small compounds which evaporate as gases easily and react with the smell receptor cells in particular ways unlike that of any other element's compound, and give out bad smells · Also, Berzelius was examining Pyrite (Iron Sulfide) mineral samples, and in smelting Pyrites, he found impurities of Selenium and thus concluded of its existence (Iron Selenide, toxic maybe) · Berzelius named the element after the Greek word "Selene", meaning "moon goddess" · A normally toxic element by itself unless in very small doses close to that of Arsenic can be healthy, however its compounds even in small doses close to that of pure Arsenic or Selenium are toxic, and has high rates of carcinogenicity and toxicity, including its most famous compounds of Selenates, Selenites, Hydrogen Selenide (a very smelly gas too, like Hydrogen Sulfide), and Selenium Sulfide · Like Arsenic, Selenium has quite a few different characteristic forms or allotropes including that of the following o The most common allotrope is Gray Selenium- the metallic, lustrous, globular crystalline hexagonal system, a great electrical conductor, but is photoconductive meaning it only conducts electricity in light, for gray selenium are long chains of selenium atoms, and shining light upon them makes the electrons move, absorbing electromagnetic energy because of its photoconductive properties, and can convert electromagnetic into electrical energy, or has the property of being photovoltaic o The second most common allotrope is Red Selenium- the monoclinic crystalline system o The third most common allotrope is Amorphous Selenium- red in powder form, and black in vitreous form · Although many Selenium compounds are poisonous, they do not have instantaneous effects, but horrible smells which will drive off the people examining or being around such Selenides, Selenites, Selenates, and Selenium Hydride, however there are many ores that can be smelted to produce selenium and important selenium salts such as Zinc Selenide, Calcium Selenate, and Silver Selenite · Brazil nuts contain the best dietary source for Selenium naturally · Selenium naturally occurs in selenides of Iron, Copper, Silver, and Lead, and is produced by the smelting of such ores · Selenium compounds and salts can be used as dyes, since like Strontium, Selenium's flame test is naturally red, it ionizes to become a salt, and gives out a red color, so it can be used as a dye to make red-colored pigments, glass, glasses, enamels, and for enamel coatings · Selenium is a metalloid, so although it has nonmetallic properties similar to Sulfur, in which case it is very smelly, is used synthetically with sulfur in aromatic organoselenium-organosulfur (particularly Selenium Sulfide ring compounds) compounds in soaps to stop or prevent dandruff, used as a dye, just as Sulfides are dyes like Cadmium Sulfide, and has practically the same smelly properties, periodic properties, and applications as Sulfur · However, it does have properties of metals too since it is a metalloid, so it is also used as a catalyst in many chemical reactions, however it needs that light, since it is photovoltaic, to get that reaction going · It is used in solar cells, photocells, and photographic toners applying its photovoltaic and photoelectric effects · The small biological effect Selenium deficiency has is in the dysfunction of the enzyme Glutathione Peroxidase (GPX), which protects against too much Oxygen being consumed by cells, or so-called "oxidative damage", and not having Selenium in your diet is just as carcinogenic as some of its Sulfide compounds themselves · Periodic Videos · Its main allotrope happens actually to be a long chain of Selenium atoms, unlike any other molecular structure of monoatomic allotropes we've encountered so far · Since it is exceptional as a metalloid, it will start conducting electricity if it absorbs electromagnetic radiation in the form of light, which you can shine on Selenium or Selenium based materials · Was used in burglary and house alarms, conducting electricity towards an alarm when light was shone at it or around it sensitively · Used in shampoo to fight off dandruff, a mixture of sulfur and selenium rings are added to shampoos to kill bacteria that cause dandruff · Like Sulfur (since they are both Chalcogens), Selenium Chemistry is quite smelly

Carbon (All Facts)

· Carbon · Carbon is the most important element to all of life · It exists in more compounds than any other element, and even has two branches of chemistry devoted to it, most popular of Organic Chemistry, as well as Biochemistry · Catenates to form millions of Organic Compounds, including Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes, Alkaloids, Amines, Amides, Aerosols, Aromatics, Alcohols, Aldehydes, Organic Acids, Nitriles, Halides, Ketones, Ethers, Esters, Hexoses, Ketoses, Starches, Sugars, Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins, Nucleic Acids, RNA, DNA, Food and Drinks, Steroids, Drugs, Organic Polymers, Inorganic Polymers, Addition Polymers, Condensation Polymers, Fabrics, Fibers, Plastics, Paper, Diamonds and Graphite (its structural allotropes, graphite being of sheets, diamonds being of a tetrahedral layering), Carbon Rocks, Minerals, and even Buckyballs! · We are made of Carbon · Carbon exists popularly in the form of Carbon Dioxide · Carbon is all over the place · Unfortunately, Diamonds aren't as unique as many rumor to make them, they aren't rare, they aren't unusually beautiful, and they certainly don't last forever, because you can burn them and the Oxygen would react with the Carbon to form Carbon Dioxide, and they can be present in the air at high temperatures and pressures to fall out and turn into Carbon Dioxide · Stacking Sheets of Carbon, and you have graphite, or fold them into a sphere of ultimate probabilities defied equal in the Buckyball, a model of Carbon which accounts for each 4 valence electrons for a total of 240 valence electrons which can pair up evenly as network covalent bonds, with not too much and none left out, all probably and evenly spaced and connected in the form of a Buckyball, named after Buckminster Fuller, who invented such a geodesic dome · Roll them into sheets, and you have Carbon Nanotubes, the strongest material known to science: Carbon Nanotubes · Common in the form of electrodes · Common in the form of Coal and Charcoal · In the form of Carbon Dioxide, which when reacting with water produces Carbonic Acid which is quite acidic and when present in the body helps from the blood becoming too basic or alkaline · Not only naming it, but discovering it, Antoine Lavoisier wanted to figure out what Diamonds were made of, and they knew that Oxygen combined with some substance to make a certain gas, always having the same weight, so when Diamonds were burned with Oxygen and rays coming from the Sun in a Jar with a diamond, it instantly burned to produce this same gas, which we today call Carbon Dioxide, and so they knew that from burning diamonds, they would produce Carbon Dioxide, and that if burning them took Oxygen, Carbon must make up Diamonds, and thus instead of isolating the Carbon, they found that diamonds are Carbon · Other scientists such as William Scheele in 1779 and Smithson Tennant in 1796 discovered that equal amounts in mass and weight of Charcoal, Graphite, and Soot burned produced Carbon Dioxide, and must therefore also contain Carbon, just in different structural forms than that of Diamond, which we now know to provide the best examples of Carbon as allotropes, being of soot, charcoal, coal, diamonds, and graphite · In 1955, Francis Bundy turned graphite into diamond by placing high Temperatures and Pressures on it · In 1985, Buckminster Fullerene was named, and it was discovered by Robert Curl, Harry Kroto, and Richard Smalley · In 2004, Kostya Novoselov and Andre Geim discovered, Graphene, which is one layer of Graphite as a compound who used adhesive tape to detach a single layer of atoms from graphite to produce the new allotrope · 20% of the weight of living organisms consists of Carbon Diamond is an excellent abrasive because it is the hardest common material and it also has the highest thermal conductivity. It can grind down any substance, while the heat generated by friction is swiftly conducted away · Graphene rolled up exists as Carbon Nanotubes · Mechanical Pencils hold 2 million layers of atomic Graphene · Tires are made with Carbon to make it stronger and protected against UV light · Fourth most abundant element in the universe, second most abundant element on Earth · Coal is amorphous Carbon and Diamond is Crystalline Network Covalent bonded Carbon · Diamond is the hardest substance known, and graphite is one of the softest known · Diamond is also the most thermally conductive substance ever, so when you touch your hand on it, it loses some heat which is transferred into the diamond, so it feels colder than it really is at STP · So Carbon isn't only used and applied to the production and applications of its allotropes, but it's also got isotopes too! · Natural Diamonds can be found in Kimberlitic Volcanoes, Graphite can be found in natural deposits · Carbon can be obtained by burning Organic Compounds with insufficient amounts of Oxygen · Living things get almost all their carbon from carbon dioxide, either from the atmosphere or dissolved in water. Photosynthesis by green plants and photosynthetic plankton uses energy from the sun to split water into oxygen and hydrogen. The oxygen is released to the atmosphere, fresh water and seas, and the hydrogen joins with carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates · Living things that do not photosynthesis have to rely on consuming other living things for their source of carbon molecules. Their digestive systems break carbohydrates into monomers that they can use to build their own cellular structures. Respiration provides the energy needed for these reactions. In respiration oxygen rejoins carbohydrates, to form carbon dioxide and water again. The energy released in this reaction is made available for the cells · Carbon is naturally found in the form of Carbonates and Carbonate Materials such as Calcium Carbonate (Marble, Seashells) and Copper Carbonate (Verdigris, Statue of Liberty) · Periodic Properties are shown below:

Cesium (All Facts)

· Cesium · Chemicool · Okay, let's get something straight here, as much as I love the baller of science Humphrey Davy, he didn't discover every Alkali and Alkaline Metal · In 1860, Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff used William Ramsey's methods of using unique emission spectra never seen before to identify new elements including their discovery better explained in its own section, for Rubidium · Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff discovered Cesium in this way, as well as Rubidium · Humphrey Davy discovered Sodium, Magnesium, Potassium, Calcium, Strontium, and Barium, the last two being alkaline metals Kirchhoff and Bunsen didn't discover, and he did so by means of Electrolysis and Thermolysis of Bases or Alkalis · William Ramsay (along with Norman Lockyer and Pierre Jansen) discovered Helium, and independently discovered Neon, Argon, Krypton, and Xenon by liquefaction and distillation of air · For the Halogens, Henri Moissan discovered Fluorine in a weird way, but Carl William Scheele discovered Chlorine (as well as Oxygen), Bernard Courtois discovered Iodine, Bromine was more of a collective study by scientists, and they did this in various ways · Henry Cavendish discovered Hydrogen, Joseph Priestly discovered Oxygen, Antoine Lavoisier (who is the only scientist ever to work in more than 6 different fields of science) discovered Silicon, and Carbon had many discoverers · So that's a recap on who and what in all of these sections, and Cesium straightforwardly was discovered using the same methods associated with the discovery of Rubidium · In 1861, Bunsen and Kirchhoff named it Cesium or still pronounced "Caesium" after the Latin for 'sky' which is "Caesius", since they noticed to bright blue lines next to each other unlike that of any other Spectrum in Cesium's discovery due to using the Emission Spectrum · They found it by precipitating it out of mineral water, which contained various minerals obviously, up for study by curious chemists such as these · Cesium compounds are considered toxic because of its rarity in biological effects, therefore hard to overcome · Cesium itself is stored as a liquid usually, but sometimes as a solid or gas in a vacuum tube to keep it from reacting with air, water, acid, or any other substance for not only is it as reactive as all the other alkalis, but it forms toxic compounds · Cesium is a silvery- ahh! You thought I was going to say Silvery metal! Nope! Cesium is cool because it is actually Silvery-Gold, or "Dark" Gold · Cesium is in the line of other elements who ditch the boring ways of what they look like in pure form, Copper is well, Copper looking or Bronze-like, Gold is Gold of course, Rubidium is silvery but can be violet or red under certain conditions, and then you have all the nonmetals which are of course different looking, and also Bismuth Crystals, which are one of the most beautiful things on the planet in my opinion · A soft, ductile metal, it melts at 83 degrees Farenheit, and is a liquid at room temperature, kind of like Bromine, Iodine, and Francium, Mercury, and Gallium under certain conditions of pressure (in your hand of course), so summing up, we've got 6 cool elements which are liquids under 100 degrees Farenheit · Cesium reacts with water and acid to release Hydrogen Gas and produce an Alkali or Base, Cesium Hydroxide specifically which can corrode glass like some bases, not all bases, since acids corrode glass and metal a little better, and thus is used to etch glass and other Silicon compounds · Cesium is used in Photoelectric Cells and Solar Panels · Cesium is used in Organic Compound Production as a catalyst in Hydrogenation and Saturation processes · Cesium is produced from splitting the ores or minerals called Pollucite and Lepidolite using processes of Thermolysis · Cesium-133 is its most common isotope · Periodic Videos · Cesium is used to measure time, and you could define one second as a fraction of a day, and a second is 1/86,400 of a day but you can't tell whether or not the Earth is speeding or slowing this way, you wouldn't notice this, and this hasn't happened yet, it's just a fraction, so Cesium is used to define the second · In terms of microwaves and their frequency, Cesium is a large atom which can absorb Microwaves causing its electrons to move higher out of their shells and farther from their nuclei until soon the Cesium is ionized, electrons can interact with photons, and undergo the Photoelectric Effect, and from absorbing and transmitting the Microwaves, and reflecting light, the advantage being that the frequencies at which these transmissions can occur were recorded at extremely precise measures and could be recorded that way · When tuning on a radio and turning the knob, you can turn it anywhere and it isn't very sensitive so you will quickly get your favorite music from your favorite station on, but there are some stations where you have to adjust it very accurately in order to get that station, your music, and there is a tiny increment to get that station · This is like Cesium, from the many microwave frequencies it transmits, there is a tiny increment to get that Cesium, if you don't hit it at the right part, it doesn't absorb the radiowaves or microwaves, in other words a second is defined as 9,192,631,770 incidences of radiation caused by the absorption or emission of it between the two lowest ground state levels of a Cesium-133 atom and thus this makes it easier for everyone to acquiesce to the number of waves being passed, or frequency · Cesium is stored in oil to make it inert usually · Cesium is somewhat more reactive than the other alkali metals because as a large atom, its electrons in its valence shell are so far out it doesn't take much energy to get rid of them as it takes to keep an electron on a Cesium atom, and so it can get rid of that lone valence electron very easily and quickly form Cesium 1+ ions, or Cesium Hydroxide upon vigorous contact with water, as well as Hydrogen Gas, which generates thermal energy, and the Hydrogen will catch fire as it reacts with the air to generate an after-explosion as well as we all know very well and love a lot

Copper (All Facts)

· Chemicool · 8000 BCE- Ten thousand years ago is approximately the date at which may artifacts of Copper was recorded as, and although small in amount, there was enough at the time, and is now more abundant than ever · 5000 BCE- Copper is discovered and isolated from other metals like Iron by process of smelting Copper (splitting it from its ores to produce it using fire as a heat energy source) · First comes the Stone Age, then the Iron Age, then the Copper Age, then the Bronze Age soon after when people in various cultures and locations at various times added tin and alloyed and/or smelted it in order to join it with the Copper to form Bronze readily, after signifying its abundance of course · The symbol and word for Copper derives from the Latin word "Cuprum" meaning "metal of Cyprus" because the island and today's known country Cyprus contained the world's most Copper at that time · Cooking acidic foods in Copper Pots can cause Acidity when the Acid corrodes the Copper to Hydrogen Gas and creates salts of Copper which happen to be toxic only if ingested and therefore somewhat toxic- if ingested but not if breathed in, Copper is an exception to its properties of toxic salts · A somewhat toxic, colorful reddish orange, soft, bright, lustrous, thermally and electrically conductive, popular, historical, malleable, ductile, tarnishible (in reaction with the air to produce a dull brownish color with no luster), corrodible (in reaction with air and water, to produce Verdigris, or Copper Carbonate, from Copper reacting with the Carbon Dioxide in the air to produce a green color from its brown, like the Statue of Liberty), non-ferromagnetic, transition metal · Copper can be produced · Copper can be produced · Copper is used for and applied to wiring, electrical motors and generators, turbines in Energy Conservation Mechanisms, roofing, guttering, and rainspouts since it corrodes over time, slowly corrodible, and thus also used in plumbing, as well as sometimes in cookware and cooking utensils · Copper is used for and applied to fusing and producing alloys such as Bronze and Brass, both of which require Copper, and the Bronze which requires Tin also, and the Brass which requires Zinc also · Copper is used for and applied to making Pennies, American Coins, now by electroplating them since Copper is mass produced as pennies and is fairly uncommon now, so they electroplate them by dipping Zinc coins in Copper Sulfate and through a chemical reaction by an electrical catalyst, the Zinc Sulfate is created and the Zinc still left over is coated with the Copper and makes the penny, so only the outsides of pennies are copper, and when pennies react and slowly corrode over time with the air and water, they also form some Verdigris which if ingested is toxic as you can see from that blue green part, so it also has electroplating applications in the form of Copper Sulfate · Copper is used for and applied to gun metals and other ceremonial metals of the day · Copper in the form of Copper Sulfate is used for and applied to electroplating as well as a fungicide and algaecide in bodies of water · Copper in the form of Copper Carbonate is Verdigris and is what you see as the Statue of Liberty · Copper in the form of Copper Oxide is often used in a certain solution to detect monosaccharaides · Copper in the form of Copper Chloride · Copper is very abundant and isn't very reactive, so it is found naturally or natively and also in many mineral compounds, including the follow · Copper in the form of Copper Oxide including Cuprite · Copper in the form of Copper Carbonate including Verdigris, Copper Carbonate-Hydroxide or Malachite and Azurite · Copper in the form of Copper Sulfate and Copper Chloride is also found by synthesis in solution · Copper in the form of Copper Sulfides including Chalcopyrite (Copper-Iron Disulfide) and Bornite (Copper-Iron Tetrasulfide) · However, although it can form all these compounds, it is not a very reactive metal like most elements are · Copper was discovered and is normally produced from the smelting of its ores, reduction of its minerals using Reducing Agents, and/or electrolysis of more crude but necessary purification of other samples of Copper · Copper-63 and Copper-65 are its most stable isotopes · Periodic Videos · Copper has architectural applications, in which it is used to be placed on buildings, such as the Statue of Liberty, and react with Carbon Dioxide in the air slowly over time to produce Copper Carbonate, or Verdigris, which when stored in a secluded space can turn out to be a beautiful green colored compound, colored because of the Copper ions, and the fact that Copper is a transition metal which makes for compounds of great color as pigments and dyes · A very good electrical conductor, it can be used for applications common to the characteristics of all transition metals, with multiple oxidation states, forming colored compounds, used as dyes and pigments, as catalysts, in alloys such as Electrum (Gold, Silver, and Copper), as an electrical and thermal energy conductor, ductile and malleable enough to form wires for conduction, has a nice luster due to the electronic and photonic interactions present in the metal in terms of reflecting light bouncing off the electrons, and that many are also essential catalysts for not only reactions, but also for sustaining life, so you need a little Copper in your diet, but too much or overdose is toxic · Wilson's Disease is the inability to properly digest Copper, can lead to lack of Copper, and in the worst case scenario death · Over 175 kilograms of Copper can be found in an average UK or US home, in the pipes, wires, roofs, and so on · Copper is believed to come from the name "Cyprus" in the Mediterranean, and is found in large deposits all over the world, having no known discoverer or way of discovery since ancient times historically, it is quite abundant, however the mines get deeper and deeper into the Earth, it becomes a problem for many miners and their families · Copper in the form of Copper Sulfate (light blue, solution) reacts with NaK (Sodium-Potassium) Tartrate and Hydrogen Peroxide (an Oxidizing Agent and Catalyst for the reaction, supplies Oxygen) to produce Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, and other chemicals, however some of the Oxygen reacts with Copper to produce Copper Oxide, a thick, orange color resulting from the change in oxidation states of Copper, as all metals may change in one of their multiple oxidation states, exchanging electron configurations, and thus producing different colors, and also absorbs energy and gets hotter, an endothermic reaction, also common among metals changing oxidation states by reacting with different solutions · Hemothyanine is a substance like Hemoglobin, only for crabs, and this compound contains Copper ions instead of Iron ions, transporting blood in a slightly different way by chemical means, and getting the necessary Oxygen into the body, and this Copper is in the same oxidation state as Copper (II) Sulfate, and thus is blue, and crabs have blue blood, while Iron in the form of Hemoglobin has an oxidation state which makes it red, and thus humans have red blood o Applications o Compounds Speculum Alloy of Tin and Copper Verdigris Copper and Oxygen make Verdigris, since Copper can be exposed to air or oxidized to create it o Structure Has 10 electrons in its 3d orbital Violates the Madelung rule o Reactions Copper Sulfate and Steel Wool are used to show the nature of exothermic reactions

Aluminum (All Facts)

· Chemicool · 1000 BCE- Alum or Potassium-Aluminum Sulfate is one of Aluminum's most historically significant applications as a chemical, used for tanning, dyeing, and stopping blood from coming out of the body · In 1750, Andreas Marggraf used a basic or alkali solution and react it with something to make a precipitate, in other words to precipitate a new substance from Alum, however he ended up producing Aluminum Oxide or Alumina · In 1808, Humphrey Davy decomposed Aluminum Oxide by his method of electrolysis using an electric arc to obtain the metal, and obtained an alloy of aluminum and iron, but was later able to extract the Aluminum by reduction of it with the Iron · In 1825, Hans Christen Orsted didn't discover but isolate the metal by reducing Aluminum Chloride with an amalgam of Potassium and heating it, thus Potassium Chloride, Mercury vaporized and drove off, and the Aluminum was left over · In 1827, Frederic Wohler, famous for the science of pee and synthesizing urea, had yielded Aluminum by reduction using Potassium only, a simpler, less toxic method, and also the credited discoverer, since Orsted was more famous for his electromagnets · In 1886, American chemist Charles M Hall and French Chemist Paul Heroult worked hard to discover producing Aluminum to be a common metal would be possible by electrolysis apparatuses or processes of obtaining it from its oxide to produce it, known and used to produce it today via the Hall-Heroult Process · Although Aluminum is relatively cheap because of its modern reduction with more common Sodium than Potassium, and also via the Hall-Heroult Process, it still takes 17 megawatt hours of electrical energy to produce one ton of Aluminum, a lot of energy to break apart its extremely stable bonds with Oxygen · Abundantly it occurs in Earth's Crust at 8% of the entire lithosphere, third most abundant element on Earth, Silicon and Oxygen being the first, and is thus the most common metal in and on the Earth · Before it became common, or discovered that way- in the Earth's crust or by the Hall-Heroult Process, Aluminum was once worth more than Gold · Rubies are mainly Aluminum Oxide, or Carbrorundum with some Chromium ion impurities, making it red · Today, Aluminum is produced by the Hall-Heroult and by smelting it from Bauxite (Aluminum Oxide Hydroxide) its most important ore · Nucleosynthetically, Aluminum is produced when two Carbons fuse and a lone proton fuses in heavy "fire" stars to produce 13 protons, of Aluminum · A soft, non-smelling, not strong, light, non-toxic unless digested, silvery-white, non-magnetic or paramagnetic, electrically conductive, unstable, extremely reactive, not dense, ductile, non-transitional boron-group metal · Once it reacts with Oxygen it forms an acid-resistant, base-resistant, corrosion-resistant metal oxide · Used for various applications or purposes that Iron is used for, second most widely used metal, and is also used in cooking pots and pans, and Aluminum Foil, and overhead power lines because it is so electrically conductive · Periodic Videos · Used in pill packets · On the tip of the Washington Monument! · Very reflective material, put Aluminum coatings on Mirrors · Metal coating on back of mirror · Recycling Aluminum is useful, since it takes a lot of electrical energy just to produce one metric ton of it · Light, common metal · Often used as an alloy, making the Aluminum stronger, use for aircraft and other similar purposes for alloys · With its thin Aluminum Oxide coating · Its melting point is 5 times that of boiling water · Aluminum Oxide acts as a solid acid at high temperatures as a catalyst to make compounds like ethers · Aluminum Oxide has Photochemical Applications, in other words · Aluminum Oxide with Chromium impurities is red ruby gems, and with Iron impurities is blue sapphire gems

Gallium (All Facts)

Chemicool · Gallium is named after the country the discoverer found it in, the French chemist Paul E. Lecoq de Boisbaudran, after he identified part of a sample of a Zinc Ore he was studying, that he found in the emission spectra he obtained, two violet lines on it he had never seen before, characteristic to what now is known as Gallium, and named it after his country, France, in the Latin transliteration · Gallium was isolated as well by Paul Boisbaudran after obtaining it from electrolysis of Gallium Hydroxide in alkali solution (potassium hydroxide solution) · A non-toxic, silvery, bluish-tint, soft, glassy, glossy, brittle metalloid, it does not conduct electricity very well, and has a Conchoidal Fracture, in other words the surfaces fractured off curve up like a seashell · Gallium has interestingly unusual properties very similar to that of Water, and the element Hydrogen, in which it bonds with other elements like Hydrogen bonds, and gives it the properties such as strong cohesive forces occurring within it to cling or "wet" glass and other surfaces like that, as well as expanding as it freezes, mainly explained by the intermolecular forces at work in Gallium molecules · While Gallium exhibits properties and applications similar to that of most metalloids, the fact it acts like Hydrogen in water could lead to future breakthroughs with the element · Silicon, Bismuth, Antimony, and Germanium also expand when they freeze for similar reasons · Low melting Gallium alloys, included with Gallium's low melting, non-toxic properties, are non-toxic alternatives to medical thermometers, replacing the quite toxic mercury · Gallium in the form of Gallium Arsenide, and other Gallium salts are used to producing semiconductors, which are like metal conductors, only metalloid semiconductors, meaning they can still conduct electricity but not as well as the other metals, a property they share with the metals, although they have nonmetallic properties as well, for laser and light-emitting diodes, mirrors, and solar panels · Gallium is extracted as a byproduct of Aluminum and Zinc production, since it is found the most substantially in Aluminum and Zinc ores, as where it was discovered, in a Zinc Ore, by Paul Boisbaudran Periodic Videos · Has an unusual low melting point, enough to melt in your hand if you apply enough pressure and squeeze it · Although many feel Gallium is like a Scandium or Dysprosium, it has many applications as all metalloid elements do, the fact that they are semiconducting materials, and can be used as superconductors, so many Gallium Salts, such as Gallium Arsenide, are used as superconductors, since supposedly it combined nonmetallic properties of not being a metal, but metallic properties of being a little good at conducting electricity · Gallium is also applicative in the sense of forming amalgams (Mercury Alloys), and is used as an Amalgam along with Tin or Indium to produce an alloy with properties not as toxic as normal thermometers containing Mercury, and could be used in the medical field · Mendeleev had predicted Gallium's chemical and physical properties, similar to Aluminum, and found later afterwards using a spectroscope in association with its discover, Boisbaudran, and had the same properties Mendeleev had predicted and has properties similar to Aluminum and Mercury, the second metal discovered in this way, after Scandium and before Germanium, and also like the three, named after regions of the world, Gallium particularly is named after the Latin word for France · Gallium reacts with Sulfuric Acid to release Hydrogen Gas and produce Gallium Sulfate, sometimes colored yellow on the surface of the liquid you are using, and in doing so, this changes the surface tension of the Gallium, which is also an unusual property among most metals, as it is a metalloid, and has unique properties, low melting point, semiconducting material, sensitive surface tension when reacting with acids, its bonds are a bit stronger since much of the Gallium liquid reacted with the acid to produce the Sulfate, the cohesive forces of the liquid remaining had to compensate for the obstructive forces allowing the Gallium to react with the acid, thus making the ball of Gallium smaller · This solution reacts with Oxidizing Agents which will remove the acid or salt, and allow the Gallium once reacted to form Gallium Sulfate make the Sulfate disappear, and allow the Gallium to return, positive compensation of cohesive forces allowing for it to get bigger or go flatter · Part of this has to do with the property it has of high surface tension, and also expands upon freezing, Gallium is even more unique in that it has properties and acts like Hydrogen, expanding when frozen with a high surface tension, its bonds act similarly to the way Hydrogen does, and quantum theory may deeply explain this and as to why · So adding and removing stoichiometric or calculated amounts of the Oxidizing Agent (such as Potassium Dichromate) makes it ball up and flatten out, and sort of "beat" back and forth like a beating heart

Scandium (All Facts)

Chemicool · Scandium was discovered by Lars Nilson in Sweden, 1879, a mineralogist studying gadolinite and other similar minerals containing and as he was, trying to isolate Ytterbium, but through a series of geochemical processes, he had to extract Erbium Oxide out of the mineral, and in undergoing normal geochemical processes he produced Nitrates from the Erbium Oxide to make it easier to extract and identify, and heated them to see if any other elements were contained such as possible Gadolinium as the name suggests · Like most non-chemist element discoverers, the element serendipitously was discovered by Nilson when he realized he found quantities of an element that didn't look familiar, so he decided he would weigh it, since he found it didn't weight the same as the Erbium and other minerals he may have found in his research, and after using already-invented spectral analysis and its emission spectra, he confirmed of a new element, naming it after Scandinavia, for it was one of many elements discovered from active mineralogy studies during the time in the area, including elements such as Ytterbium and Yttrium · Dmitri Mendeleev had predicted the element's existence, more on this below, and that its properties were similar to that of Boron, and Per. Theodore Cleve is credited for confirming this · Scandium was isolated and obtained in 1937 by a mineral company of multiple famous scientists, working together through electrolysis of Scandium Chloride, as well as other Alkali Halides, in graphite with a Tungsten wire and Zinc Anode, and by processes of Electrolysis, isolated the Scandium widespread after Nilson · While it is a transition metal, it is regarded and named a Rare Earth metal in the Lanthanides series, for it shares many similar properties, and is found in many ores with elements of the Lanthanides in them · A non-toxic, soft, silvery-white, light as Aluminum, strong, transitional rare earth metal with a high boiling point, as is its disadvantage to widespread use in golf clubs, baseball bats, bicycle frames, aircraft, and fishing rods as still is used commonly for those items, and Aluminum is used for materials even lighter than Scandium, light yet strong is one of Scandium's primary purposes in an applicative sense, however in competition with Aluminum, it is also much rarer than Aluminum, and it has a much higher melting point · Scandium isn't very reactive, but reacts with the air and tarnishes yellow or pink sometimes to form Scandium Oxide, but soon turns white, and of some oxidation state, whereas its most common oxidation state is +3 or (III), and most salts are colorless, or white, and reacts reactively with acids to produce Hydrogen Gas normally · Scandium also shares more chemical and physical properties with the Rare Earth Metals than the Transition Metals, however still has multiple oxidation states and predictably, atomically, and in terms of weight, belongs with the Transition Metals, remaining to the standard principles of periodic science · Scandium is also used and applied to many alloys such as Aluminum-Scandium Alloys, which mix the properties of both and settle the tension between the two elements into one useful substance used for all the same properties, and the skip between Aluminum and Scandium is kind of obvious, Silicon and afterwards being metalloids or nonmetals, and Potassium and Calcium being too reactive as being normal, so Scandium is next, and fusing the two is like signing a peace treaty, so the plain-named alloy remains massively useful · Scandium is also applied to its salts, some of its most important salts include the following · Scandium Iodide is used in Mercury Vapor Lamps as the primary salt · Scandium Oxide is used in Stadium Lights · Scandium Sulfate is used as a fertilizer and germinating agent, but it must be very dilute for it is prepared, as the chemical name suggests, with Sulfuric Acid · Scandium-45 isotope is used in oil refineries for tracking down trace elements found in oil · Periodic Videos · Like Gallium and Germanium, Mendeleev predicted the existence of Scandium, evident of gradual molecular weight, and was the second element discovered after his predictions, called eka-Boron (meaning "underneath" Boron), and then named Scandium after it was discovered, Gallium however was discovered first after his prediction, then Scandium, and Mendeleev thought that after other chemists discovered titanium (4 valence electrons) and calcium (2 valence electrons), there must be a gap, a gap for the most common oxidation state of Scandium, and although it doesn't seem like it is right under Boron, Mendeleev had it that way on his periodic table, and this can be supported today by the fact that both have 3 valence electrons · Discovered and named after a country or region, just like the rest of the "predicted" elements, so Mendeleev predicted Gallium, it was discovered, and named after the Latin word for France, then Mendeleev predicted Scandium, it was discovered, and named after the region of Scandinavia, and Mendeleev predicted Germanium, and it was discovered, and then named after Germany · A very light metal, it is often used to make objects less heavy, although still as strong as before, and although very reactive and uncommon, it comes into play for application when being used as a source of making things strong but lighter than Titanium, while still being metals · Its main application is for Hydrogen storage in Hydrogen fuel cars, in other words the sponge which soaks up and pressurizes the Hydrogen through a series of chemical reactions using Sodium Hydride and two other chemicals, Hydrogen can be stored in these chemicals after reacting, however when slightly heated these chemicals will release Hydrogen, and tubes which collect Oxygen Gas from within the air in the car can react with the Hydrogen Gas to produce water, creating heat energy to turn the pistons and make the car go, and thus cars are made of much heavier alloys currently for necessary purposes, but to test Hydrogen fueled cars, metals and compounds of Scandium are used to make the car lighter, so it can be compromised for the Hydrogen storage Live Science Theodore Gray

Thallium (All Facts)

Thallium · Periodic Videos · Known for its multiple oxidation states of +1 and +3, such as when reacted with Chlorine to produce Thallium Chloride · Thallium is extremely toxic and/or poisonous and causes people to go mad · Not widely-used at all · A few materials are used with Thallium · Thallium Bromide and Thallium Iodide are used as windows and reflectors for Infrared light and associative experiments involving these salts · Thallium salts are also used as dyes such as red dyes

Ruthenium (All Facts)

· 44- Ruthenium · Chemicool · Ruthenium was discovered by Karl Klaus, in respects to JJ Berzelius (who some say passed on from it and his friend Osann is given official credit with Klaus for the discovery, but Berzelius nonetheless is mentioned for he was a great chemist as we all know) and his friend Gottfried Osann whom examined residues from extraction, refinement, and geochemical purification of platinum ores dissolved in Aqua Regia, in which 3 new elements formed as precipitates, however 2 of them were already known just named by the scientists differently, and one Osann ended up naming and discovering by confirming with Klaus as Ruthenium · Karl Klaus produced Ruthenium and discovered and confirmed it a metal for Osann by using a geochemical purification process isolated from Ammonium Chlororuthenate, a complex and rare Ruthenium salt, and isolated the metal, identifying its properties · Its name comes from the Latin word "Ruthenia" meaning Russia, as the platinum ores they found were in Russia in the first place as Osann and Klaus were Russian scientists · Ruthenium Oxide, in its most common oxidation state of Ruthenium Tetroxide, and many Ruthenium compounds are deadly to the skin and are toxic and carcinogenic · A very rare, hard, dense, lustrous, brittle, silvery-white, wear-resistant, tarnish-resistant, +2, +3, +4 Oxidation State, moist air oxidative-resistant, water-resistant, and acid-resistant transitional metal, it does react with oxygen explosively to become very stable, and halogens, along with bases, specifically ones that are melted or "molten alkali" · Like most transition metals, it and many of its compounds and various oxides by oxidation state are used as Catalysts, Alloys, especially with Titanium to improve its resistance to corrosion, and Platinum and Palladium to make them more electrically conductive as an electrical "contact material" · Ruthenium is primarily used in Pen "nibs", on the points of pens · Ruthenium is produced as a byproduct of refinement of Pentlandite (Iron-Nickel Sulfide) · Periodic Videos · In the same group of the Periodic Table as Iron with similar properties · Discovered in Ruthenia, an area in Russia translated in Latin · Useful for Catalysis and Catalytic Chemistry · Dark form of a powder because little surface area is there, so it cannot reflect light unless there is more surface area to reflect more light, and thus it can participate in reactions this way like many metals, so it is usually made in the small form of this powder · Discovered in the middle of the 19th Century · Used as Hydrogenating Agent, primarily in reaction with Hydrogen atoms, from Water and Hydrocarbon Materials · Bob Grubbs- made Ruthenium catalyst that opened up all sorts of reactions to make compounds, used in a whole series of industrial processes like making fragrant candles · Also, it is a photoelectric material, one that can capture sunlight and make its electrons start moving in that way, based on a certain compounds of Ruthenium

Neon (All Facts)

· Neon · Like Helium, Neon utilizes around a thousand volts to reach the ionization energy or ionize Neon Gas into a plasma, of electric discharge flowing through the atoms to match the ionization energy needed to make certain electrons create certain wavelength patterns unique to the element of Neon as an atom, and thus create a dark, glowing, red light when its electrons are pulled out of its atoms due to electric discharge, thus it is used in gas/plasma sign lamps often, and also is only colored when excited by discharge as plasma, but as a gas it is colorless · William Ramsay discovered and isolated the most Noble Gases after observations were first made by scientists before him, including the discoveries of Helium and Argon · He found a new gas coming out of radioactive material such as Uranium, which we now know as Helium in the form of Alpha Particles due to unstable nuclei, neutron interference, and radioactivity as a whole, but couldn't quite drive out the gas from the radioactive minerals it was contained in · Ramsay realized that there could be small amount of this unisolateable yet discoverable gas from the Argon which was present in the products of the radioactive mineral, so after experimenting with radioactive minerals and the gases produced due to their radioactivity, he used the technique of supercooling gases to liquids, separating them out based on their melting points, and isolating them afterwards based on their densities, and then using spectral analysis to determine the element · He knew that there is an element lighter than Argon but heavier than Helium, and retained the same properties as both, and if the periodic table was accurate at the time, concluded there was a space missing between the two gases already discovered · Evaporating the gases after being collected liquids at low pressures, they ran electric discharge through them, and sure enough, one gas glowed a bright red different from all the others, and so Neon was named by Ramsay after the Greek word for New, since he collected a new gas from the mixture · Although rare on Earth, it is the 5th most abundant element in the universe · Neon forms in stars with a mass of around eight times the mass of our sun · Neon is one of only two elements (Helium) who don't have stable compounds · A light, inert, non-toxic gas, and colorless unless activated by electric discharge · From 1910, George Claude is credited for using Neon in its main application as being in light signs, unreactive of course · It is also used as a cryogenic refrigerant, high-voltage warning indicators since it uses a lot of volts to turn red and orange colors, and in Geiger Counters and Television tubes · Today, the same process Ramsay used called the "fractional distillation of air" using supercooling is used to produce Neon, as well as the other Noble Gases, Helium, Argon, Krypton, and Xenon, although Helium is also produced from extracting from certain mineral deposits because of their radioactive properties as radioactive minerals, and also is used sometimes to isolate Nitrogen Gas

Nitrogen (All Facts)

· Nitrogen · Nitrogen was discovered primarily by Daniel Rutherford in 1772 based on macromolecular advantage being that if Oxygen was not present in the chamber of Priestley's mice (Priestly had a part in discovering Nitrogen too), then another substance must be in it that made them die (he purposely did not make the chamber a vacuum), and also anyone could've produced Nitrogen in the same way they produced Oxygen as described above as they still popularly do today · Also, they realized there was a gas in the air that had no part in combustion or corrosion "phlogiston" reactions as was Nitrogen, for Hydrogen could be burned by Oxygen which could burn Hydrogen or Fuel to produce Carbon Dioxide · Nitro comes from the French Jean-Antoine Chaptal's 1790 translation from the substance Niter, known today as Potassium Nitrate, used to be though of as being composed of as Sodium Carbonate, but today they are two different substances, but like Oxygen, we keep the word anyway as Nitrogen, So, Nitro comes from Niter, in which Nitro comes from Sodium Carbonate which is really Potassium Nitrate, and since Nitrates and Nitrites compose of Nitric Acid forming Nitrogen, the Nitro also comes from the fact that it forms nitric Acid from Potassium Nitrate chemical reactions, "gen" means producer or creator, and thus Nitrogen "produces Nitric Acid" · And as such Nitrogen is the 4th abundant element in your body, and one of the top 20 most abundant elements on the Earth where it fills just under 78% of the Earth and does participate in a certain chemical reaction with Potassium Nitrate, but also reacts with Oxygen in the presence of a lightning catalyst to make the same product of both reactions- Nitric Acid, an important fertilizer, and also exists naturally in many Nitrite and Nitrate compounds, all of which are important in understanding the environmental niche of the Nitrogen Cycle · Nitrogen is in a few Organic Compounds including Amines, Amides, Nitriles, and Alkaloids or large organic compounds natural to the defense of a plant system used today to make legal and illegal nitrogen-containing drugs like that of Caffeine, Morphine, and Cocaine · But those same Amides are used to make Polyamides, a type of Condensation Polymer popular in the production of Dacron polymers and Kevlar fibers as well as cyanoacrylate compounds which are associated in the production of adhesives and superglues · Since Nitrogen contains a triple bond in normal, diatomic, colorless, odorless form, it is extremely explosive especially in Nitrocellulose Polymer Pigment compounds, Nitroglycerin, and also as a major component in TNT and/or Dynamite · Nitrogen is also in Amines stuck to Carboxylic Acids or Amino Acids (substances that are both acids and bases and are organic, whoa!) which make some of them ionic or polar (hydrophilic) and some nonpolar (hydrophobic) which form in certain arrangements to produce Proteins or macromolecular pit stops in the long chromatin strands and chains of your DNA and RNA, and is in ATP energy packets (Adenosine Triphosphate) and Amphetamines, two other important compounds essentially associated with biochemical reactions and biological functions · As such, Nitrogen is produced back then from those Sodium Nitrate or Potassium Nitrate salts in reaction with other substances or from thermal decomposition of those substances, and was electrolytically produced when Lord Raleigh (1910) split it from triple bonded diatomic Nitrogen Gas, releasing heat and also produced a bright yellow whirling substance which he neutralized accidentally with mercury (quicksilver at the time) to produce mercuric nitride which is very explosive and reactive and even poisonous, decomposition of Ammonia (reverse Haber Process) works too · Today, Nitrogen is produced from distillation of liquid air · Also, in the lab, in solution, it undergoes so many awesome reactions like when it is in Cyanide compounds and reacts with Ammonium Chloride to produce Urea and Silver Chloride precipitate [insoluble] (yes, Nitrogen can be poisonous too when existing in Cyanide or Cyanate compounds) · Nitrogen by itself is produced from reacting the same Ammonium Chloride with Sodium Nitrite, which thus produces the Nitrogen Gas, Water, and Sodium Chloride (table salt) · Nitrogen is used in the production of fertilizers, Ammonia, food preserver in place of oxygen oxidizing the food, fire suppression systems, as a replacement for Oxygen in not absorbing UV rays in photography and photolithography, filling car tires to not be exposed to the ingredients of the atmosphere as much as Oxygen, treatment for instant death to block out necessary oxygen to the body in euthanasia, all these uses for Nitrogen are used to replace Oxygen for its weaknesses · Another main use Nitrogen has applies when it is liquefied to Liquid Nitrogen (as solidification is to Carbon Dioxide) and Liquid Nitrogen is Liquid Nitrogen Gas, or Diatomic Nitrogen as a liquid, which can be used for all sorts of purposes such as a refrigerant · From the medical field to Fun, Liquid Nitrogen has many uses and applications concerning these 2 areas · Remember, Nitrogen in the form of Ammonia and Pee and Poop from various carbs, fats, and proteins exists as Nitrates as well, which are used as fertilizers for plants and grass · As explosive as Nitrogen can be in the form of Nitrocellulose, Nitrogen can be used for fertilizer in the forms of Nitrites and Nitrates for plants, explained by complex biochemical processes · It is most famous for inventing Ammonia itself as a known compound, as conducted as one of the most influential chemical reactions of all time, combining Nitrogen and Hydrogen Gas together to create Ammonia, known as the Haber Process, named after Fritz Haber · Very few microorganisms, pretty much just beans and corn, can absorb gaseous Nitrogen Air as their intake · Nitrogen and Phosphorus are the two key elements for fertilizers, as we will discuss more about them in the Phosphorus section · Also interesting to use with Liquid Nitrogen, a readily available cryogenic liquid · 78 percent of the atmosphere is historically recorded as Nitrogen · Common in the Mineral Nitratine, or Sodium Nitrate · Common in the Pills of Nitroglycerine Tablets · Common in the Tools used for being hard, such as in tools based off of Silicon Nitride · Nitrogen is also used to make explosives because of its high binding and chemical energy in its Gas Allotrope bonds, also used in production of Nitric Acid, Nylon Condensation Polymers, Dyes, and of course, like Phosphorus, in Fertilizers, also in the production of Ammonia, used to preserve foods since it is unreactive especially in the atmosphere, used in bloodletting EVA suits · The name derives from "Nitron" and "Genes" meaning "Nitre Forming" or "Gene Forming" · About 3% mass and weight of living organisms comes from Nitrogen being contained in Organic Compounds and other substances such as internal pee · Fourth most abundant element in the human body, Seventh most abundant element in the universe · Found in Nitroglycerin Pills, used for Angina relief · In 1919, the world learned for the first time that atomic nuclei could be disintegrated. Ernest Rutherford reported that he had bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha-particles (helium nuclei) and found hydrogen was produced. (Further research by Patrick Blackett showed that the alpha particles had transmuted nitrogen-14 to oxygen-17 plus hydrogen.) · Direct skin contact with Liquid Nitrogen can cause severe frostbite · Periodic Properties are shown below:

Oxygen (All Facts)

· Oxygen · Oxygen was discovered by (Karl) William Scheele shortly before Joseph Priestly in 1774 and it was further named by Antoine Lavoisier in 1777, both Priestly and Scheele are given credit for the discovery · 'Oxy' comes from "sharp acid" and 'gen' from "creator", literally "acid creator" since thought at the time Oxygen composed acids, not Hydrogen, although we now know today Hydrogen composes Acids, not Oxygen, so maybe it should be called something different · Joseph Priestly heated mercuric oxide, a substance at the time not known to them as an "oxide" but a substance we now know of today to be called this, and when doing so he created a new kind of "air", which we call Oxygen Gas, then tested it by inserting it into a chamber with mice that ended up surviving a very long time with just this gas and then breathed it in himself, the eruption of science in association with respiration, so when taking the gas out, most of the mice died in the chamber · William Scheele also discovered it but couldn't quite understand its elemental or atomic nature and mistakenly did not publish his ideas until after Priestly although he used the same method in earlier time and Priestly had added the effect of the new air with the mouse method · Oxygen today is produced by distilling liquefied air by slowing the kinetic energies of the weak intermolecular forces such as dispersion participation between particles of a gas and thus condense it into a liquid, or just through distillation processes, this is how Oxygen AND Nitrogen is produced, and it is also produced from the electrolysis of water · Oxygen today is used for many different purposes in the medical, industrial, and synthesis fields · Oxygen is in many substances and is considered the most abundant element on Earth aside from Silicon, Nitrogen, and Hydrogen in their inorganic mastermind skillsets · Oxygen is in the air, making up just under 21% of it, and is also in water, every Metal Oxide and Nonmetal Peroxide on Earth, and in alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, organic acids, phenols, amides, condensation polymers, some addition polymers, and more, and is most famous for being in natural (organic) polymers since they are natural and not synthetic and contain natural carbon chains, (inorganic polymers are one of two exceptions as polymers not being organic), these natural carbon-containing chains include that of DNA or chromatin, Carbohydrates- Starches and Sugars, Fats, Proteins, and the Nucleic Acids · Oxygen has two important allotropes, one being of 3 Oxygen atoms which spectroscopically absorbs UV radiation and naturally exists for that purpose to absorb the Sun's UV Light in the Ozone Layer, and one being of 8 Oxygen atoms which supposedly is a main use in safe rocket fuel energy since it may be a powerful oxidizing agent one day · Oxygen is also important in the chemical reactions it takes place in when being absorbed through respiration and released through photosynthesis to give the atmosphere its approaching Oxygen levels with a more clear cut accuracy · Oxygen is also applied to welding and cutting of metals and alloys like steel, rocket propellant (as we described with its allotrope), therapeutic procedures, and emergency life support systems such as in submarines and divers suits · Oxygen is also important in the chemical reactions it takes place in as termed to be combustion (burning) and corrosion (rusting) · Makes up two-thirds of the human body by weight, mostly in the form of water · Makes up over 50% of the Earth's Crust · Makes up all the chemical reactions and essentialities for processes such as oxidation, respiration, combustion, and corrosion (rusting as well as tarnishing) · Oxygen is also important in understanding Inorganic Cycles and their role in the world, thus there is the Oxygen Cycle · Its Isotopes include Oxygen 17 and Oxygen 18 · Its Allotropes include Diatomic, Colorless, Odorless Oxygen Gas which makes up 21% of the Earth's atmosphere by volume, and triatomic Ozone formed from massive electrical discharge (lightning), or UV Light which electromagnetically interacts with diatomic oxygen and makes triatomic oxygen possible, in which its function is to absorb UV light and harmful sun rays in the Mesosphere of the Atmosphere, known as the "Ozone Layer" · Many of the compounds Oxygen is a part of or forms, include -ites and -ates, such as Sulfites and Sulfates or Nitrites and Nitrates, or Phosphites and Phosphates, all derived from their acid associative components · Oxygen applies to both the specific redox reactions of oxidation and reduction, mostly oxidation though, and its two applications, combustion (burning of fuel) and corrosion (rusting of metals such as Iron in the presence of humid/moist air) · It is the essential Oxidizing Agent of use in its gaseous form · So rather the fuel of life, you could say it is the oxidizer of life · Present in the important chemical reactions of respiration, of which both plants use to live at night, and humans use every time you breathe in Oxygen and breathe out Carbon Dioxide, another extremely and vitally important Oxygen-containing compound existing · Out atmosphere is 21 percent Oxygen for crying out loud! · Allotropes of Oxygen include the most common Oxygen Gas and electrolytically split Oxygen found in water, as well as Ozone found in the Mesosphere which interacts with electromagnetic radiation in its own way like all chemicals do, blocking out UV Rays and protecting us from them · Allotropes of Oxygen with 8 or more atoms put together are great for being used as rocket fuel since they have tons of supplies of Oxygen by mass and weight just due to the fact that 1 atom of Oxygen is 4 times heavier than it was before and 4 times as effective in burning diesel fuel such as Kerosene to get to the moon · Too much Oxygen can kill you, you need a balance of the three gases in order to stay alive, unless you are a Silicon-based lifeform, in which case you supposedly breathe in hydrated rocks, and digest all different forms of rocks and minerals · Too much Carbon Dioxide can kill you as well, since the two balance out each other in the respiration reaction vital for survival, you should really read and watch the Martian, you learn a lot about what this can do to a guy alone on another planet, not a spoiler! · When you breathe in Oxygen, you let out Carbon Dioxide, too much Carbon Dioxide means not enough Oxygen, which means you can't breathe, which means your body stops functioning and dies, you need oxygen · When you let out Carbon Dioxide, and breathe in Oxygen, too much Oxygen means not enough Carbon Dioxide, which means that the Oxygen will just start burning more than the food you ate, but your lungs, eyes, and eventually, it will corrode away your heat and die, you need a balance of Carbon Dioxide, and on Earth, we just happen to have Nitrogen as well · When you breathe in Oxygen, it burns all the food you eat, those Carbs, Proteins, and Fats, and rips them apart until they are easily digestible by Hydrochloric Acid and converted to produce fertilizing compounds, particularly pee and poop, which contain Nitrates and Ammonia (Ammonia smells bad, so does pee and poop), and for example, the complex carbs are broken down into Ammonia (Nitrogen and Hydrogen), Nitrates (Nitrogen and Oxygen), and Methane Gas and Hydrogen Sulfide (Farts made of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Sulfur), so little traces of Carbon are left over, and the Oxygen you breathe in attaches to all the Carbon left over, only about 20-30% of that Carbon is converted into that Methane Gas you fart, and the rest is burned by what you breathe in as you are eating, and after you eat · That's why you would probably want to poop after running after eating, just saying, its Oxygen at work burning everything carbon, excluding few traces of it in the form of Methane or farts, however some foods such as Proteins consume all the Oxygen as Carbon, and you don't fart, you just poop more · Anyway, Oxygen is mostly applied to emergency bags and tanks filled with STP, Low-Pressure, and High-Pressure Oxygen tanks · Oxygen is best usable for fuel in its liquid form · Oxygen is an element which is present in minerals, both as Hydrates and Silicates such as Scolecite (Hydrated Aluminum and Calcium Silicates, whereas Oxygen can be found in both the Silicate and Hydrate molecules), and Apophyllite (Hydrated Potassium and Calcium Silicates with Fluorine and Hydroxide impurities mixed in, whereas Oxygen can be found in both the Silicate, Hydrate, and Hydroxide (free radical) molecules) · Most abundant element on Earth · The greatest commercial use of oxygen gas is in the steel industry. Large quantities are also used in the manufacture of a wide range of chemicals including nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide. It is also used to make epoxyethane (ethylene oxide), used as antifreeze and to make polyester, and chloroethene, the precursor to PVC · Oxygen gas is used for oxy-acetylene welding and cutting of metals. A growing use is in the treatment of sewage and of effluent from industry. · Thermally decomposing compounds together of Potash (now known as Potassium Nitrate), Quicksilver (now known as Mercuric Oxide), and Pyrolusite (now known as Manganese Dioxide), William Scheele found a gas with the same properties throughout and thus isolated Oxygen, which Joseph Priestly confirmed the gas we breathed in for it was safe to breathe and live in, as he experimented in isolating this gas in a cage of mice · Lavoisier also found that the weight of the gas released by heating mercury oxide was identical to the weight lost by the mercury oxide, and that when other elements react with oxygen their weight gain is identical to the weight lost from the air · Takes part in many chemical reactions, specifically Production of Water, Oxidation, Combustion, Corrosion, and Respiration · Produced in Photosynthesis · Non-Toxic unless under high pressures, in which in the case of a scuba diver, can lead to a convulsion or seizure · Ozone, an allotrope of Oxygen, is toxic and if inhaled can damage the lungs · Oxygen is the 2nd most reactive element having the 2nd greatest electronegativity as that of Chlorine, and forms somewhat stable compounds afterwards mostly in the forms of Oxides, Dioxides, and Trioxides with every element excluding Noble Gases, and some Chalcogens (Oxygen Group) and Pnictogens (Nitrogen Group) · Solid and Liquid Oxygen are pale blue and have a unique property of Paramagnetism · Other than for Purposes concerning Respiration such as ailments for patients and for plants and animals who need it to breathe, including us, Oxygen's main applications include being used as an oxidizing agent, especially in oxyacetylene welding, and one of its allotropes used as rocket propellant fuel · Oxygen also is used in combusting fuels to produce fires, heat energy, carbon dioxide, and water · Oxygen also is used in Ethylene Oxide production and steel production, in which Carbon Impurities are removed from the Steel Iron-Carbon Alloy by reaction with Oxygen to form Carbon Dioxide · Oxygen is mainly produced by electrolysis of water as well as its discovery productions, and from separating air at freezing temperatures through freeing-point gas separation, condensing gases at the same pressure, but liquefying them and separating them as liquid based on their condensation or boiling points, since certain liquids made of certain elements turn liquid at certain temperatures, the temperature of the air separator plant ultimately determines the gases you have, and ultimately produces isolated gases that you need, including Oxygen and Nitrogen · Although Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, and the 3rd most abundant element in the universe is Oxygen, Oxygen is the most abundant element on the planet Earth, consisting of 21 percent of it being in the atmosphere · Isotopes Include Oxygen-17 and Oxygen-18, both used for various purposes · Oxygen doesn't actually burn itself up, it burns up another substance · 2 times more soluble than Nitrogen, allowing for life in the waters, seas, rivers, lakes, and oceans on Earth · 67% mass and weight of living organisms including humans is made up of Oxygen, mostly in the form of water and internal respiration · Oxygen Gas is mainly environmentally produced by Photosynthesis, used for Respiration, but produced by Photosynthesis, wow! · 90% mass and weight of the Earth's Crust is made of Oxygen in the form of Silicates and Oxides · The green and dark red colors of the Aurora Borealis or Northern Lights are caused by Oxygen Atoms, in which if you know that radiation, either waves or photons coming from the sun as solar wind into the poles of Earth's magnetic field which exhibit now Magnetic force, as is Earth's poles are like that of an ordinary magnet · So when the radiation is absorbed by Oxygen molecules in the Earth's atmosphere, and some electrons are then excited and move out of the shells of the molecule, splitting it into Oxygen atoms, also of high energy as that of the electrons, the Oxygen atoms overall absorb the energy and electrons move to an excited state and release radiation back in the form of a different color than what was absorbed electromagnetically the first time, in this case, absorbing one color, and re-emitting dark red and dark green colors · Although too much Oxygen is not good for you, it doesn't cause Hyperventilation, only losing Carbon Dioxide causes that · Periodic Properties are shown below: · Oxygen is also produced from the chemical reaction of Manganese (IV) Oxide to catalyze the thermolytic decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide into Oxygen Gas and Water · Oxygen are in Zeolites or "Molecular Sieves", composed of Aluminum Silicates, as well as all Silicates, Sulfates, Carbonates, Nitrates, Carbonites, Nitrites, Sulfites, Oxalates, and Oxoacids · Oxygen is used in the steel industry, and are used in the manufacture of other chemicals including Hydrogen Peroxide and Nitric Acid, as well as being used to oxidize Ethylene into Ethylene Oxide, so when you burn bits of plastic and melt them at high temperatures, they turn into Epoxyethylene or Antifreeze, and Epoxyethylene is used to make polyester, since polymers of Esters, come from monomer units of Ethylene joined together with a Carboxyl group, as well as Chloroethane, the basis for certain variations of PVC · Oxygen is also used to oxidize Acetylene or Ethyne and create Epoxyethyne, or Oxyacetylene Gas, used to cool metals to high temperatures, mix them, create alloys, and overall is used in welding and for metallurgical purposes · Oxygen's origin is from being produced on the Earth around 2 billion years ago, biologically, coming from the first photosynthesis of blue-green algae and cyanobacteria forming in the waters of the Earth · Oxygen has its own cycle, and as we said before is an important component to both the chemical reactions of Photosynthesis and Respiration · Oxygen is soluble in water, however too much causes suffocation · In 1608, Cornelius Drebbel had shown that heating saltpetre (potassium nitrate, KNO3) released a gas. This was oxygen although it was not identified as such. · The credit for discovering oxygen is now shared by three chemists: an Englishman, a Swede, and a Frenchman. Joseph Priestley was the first to publish an account of oxygen, having made it in 1774 by focussing sunlight on to mercuric oxide (HgO), and collecting the gas which came off. He noted that a candle burned more brightly in it and that it made breathing easier. Unknown to Priestly, Carl Wilhelm Scheele had produced oxygen in June 1771. He had written an account of his discovery but it was not published until 1777. Antoine Lavoisier also claimed to have discovered oxygen, and he proposed that the new gas be called oxy-gène, meaning acid-forming, because he thought it was the basis of all acids.

Praseodymium (All Facts)

Can be used to get in 1/1,000 of a degree of Absolute Zero Used in welder's goggles, good at filtering out harmful forms of light Used in a Silicate to slow down the speed of light

Lanthanum (All Facts)

First element of the Rare Earths, First element of the Lanthanides Largest of the Lanthanides, Most reactive of the Lanthanides, Very Soft Used as a Catalyst Used for lighting in Hollywood Lights Used for Hydrogen Storage

Rhenium (All Facts)

· 45- Rhenium (Manganese Transition Metal Family) · Chemicool · Mendeleev predicted Rhenium's existence as dvi-Manganese or as we would translate eka-Technetium, although he was correct, its discovery would be much later, and neither Technetium nor Ruthenium was discovered when he was alive · Henry Moseley is given credit for arranging the periodic table in terms of atomic number rather than atomic weight, leaving gaps for elements like those of Rhenium, element 75 · Most element discoveries come from electrolysis or thermolysis of their binary salts, refinement through geochemical purification processes, new emission spectrum lines discovered in solution, light-analysis and x-ray crystallography, reducing agents applying to reduction reactions, and/or by other means of extraction from complex ores and gems (ore impurities) · Rhenium just happens to fall under that category, discovered in 1925 in Germany, as most metals were discovered in Europe, many in Germany, 12 in Sweden, and thus was prized although deemed rare · Rhenium was discovered by Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke, and Otto Berg (working together), from refinement and extraction of platinum ores and columbite, and the group also discovered Technetium in the same mineral, finding the element by means of light analysis, specifically X-Rays · Good time to explain how X-Ray Crystallography works, but we will save that for later · Rhenium is also the last element ever discovered to be non-radioactive, all elements after it would have all unstable isotopes · Rhenium is one of five metals known as the Refractory Metals (metals that are extremely heat-resistant, wear-resistant, and somewhat dense), metals of which Rhenium's chemistry is more shared with, which also includes Niobium, Molybdenum, Tantalum, and Tungsten, since by mystery- the Manganese Family is probably the only family on the Periodic Table that doesn't follow the "family" rules, its elements look nothing alike, and their chemistry is very different from each other, Manganese, Rhenium, and Technetium are nothing alike in the chemical realm, · Rhenium's toxicity is unknown, it could be harmful, but chemists still do not know · A very rare, silvery-white, heavy, lustrous, dense, corrosion-resistant, oxidation-resistant, heat-resistant metal, it usually only tarnishes in very moist atmosphere, but when it does it is very stable, most Rhenium compounds include Oxides, Sulfides, and Halides, but nothing else really · It has the third highest melting point, aside from Carbon and Tungsten · It has the fourth highest density, aside from Osmium, Iridium, and Platinum (the next three elements from Rhenium in order of Atomic Weight) · Used as a catalyst, usually along with Platinum in high-octane gasoline production, and in Hydrogenation of particularly rare or uncommonly fine chemicals · Used as an alloy, usually along with Tungsten and Molybdenum in making and manufacturing aircraft and jet engines · Used as a filament, for mass spectrographs · Used as an electrical conductor and electrical "contact material" · Rhenium is found, along with many other metals in their pure state, from refinement and extraction of mineral ores, although really rare, including in refinement of Copper, and Platinum and Molybdenum ores · Periodic Videos · Rhenium is somewhat boring, however is of great use to scientists in understanding how light works and applies to chemistry; Manganese Salts are purple and pink, but Rhenium salts are just boring white, given Rhenium is a pretty boring element anyway, the fact they are white and not colored is what is so interesting though · Color comes from energy of electrons in ions of compounds and based off of the energy they give, the difference in energy for electrons to jump to and from in Rhenium ions (found in Rhenium salts) is much larger, considering it a larger atom as well, so instead of absorbing color light and reflecting and refracting it again, it absorbs UV light and reflects and refracts color we can't see · Used in aircraft engines and manufacturing, and at faster and higher temperatures, Rhenium is a great high-temperature alloying agent, although used most often for this purpose only, it's chemistry is well-known, made using single crystals of Rhenium, rather than multiple crystals with cleavage points or weak points · Also somewhat rare, hard to separate or obtain · Rhenium, usually in the form of a wire, very heavy, dense material of a metal · Used in Catalysis of Water, and as a Catalyst nonetheless like most transition metals · Used in making Alloys · Not radioactive · Light-sensitive · Discovered in 1925 in Germany, named after the European river Rhine, from the Latin 'Rhenus'

Antimony (All Facts)

· Antimony · Chemicool · Antimony's exact discovery, like that of Carbon's, Sulfur's, Copper's, and Arsenic's is ancient and unknown, however has a long history in terms of use of its compounds such as its most common ore Stibnite or Antimony Sulfide, in which the whole "Sb" thing comes from Pliny the Elder's naming of the ore, Stibium, as both he and ancient cultures like the Egyptians used the compound as a black pigment, such as in eyeliner, and can still be used as such today, Pliny also figured heating the ore would give lead, although we know today this would give Antimony · It is said to have been discovered alchemically by Vannoccio Biringuccio in the 1500's, that in heating this natural ore, will produce a substance shinier than Silver and stiffer, more delicate than glass, a clear description of antimony's physical properties · The name is derived from the Greek words "Anti" and "monos" meaning not one, or "not alone" for it is quite reactive for a metalloid and is naturally rarely found by itself, but rather combined with sulfur in its most common mineral ore form stibnite, or in natural alloys or samples of other common metals like copper or silver · Antimony is quite toxic, and many of its salts include Stibine (its hydride) and Stibnite (its sulfide and common ore) are carcinogenic, without knowing the details, it could lead to death, but very more likely can lead to other disgusting things not worth talking about · In the metalloid squad, it is a brittle, crystalline solid which can be powdered easily, and follows the same periodic properties as Arsenic, Selenium, and Tellurium, behaving like Sulfur, but looks more metallic, but then again has low electrical and thermal conductivity · However, what line of interest it does not follow in terms of behaving like nonmetallic Sulfur and metallic transition metals is its ability to act like Hydrogen atoms in water, to expand upon freezing, like Gallium and Germanium as we explained before, so we go way back up to those elements again and repeat the same info · Antimony is commonly used with metals in alloys, making some harder and more brittle, or adding smoothness in its finish, and these alloys take advantage of antimony's freeze-expansion properties in terms of making alloys with antimony which can also expand upon cooling, to be used as a molding agent, and are used in making "typefaces" · Babbitt metals are very common alloys, made primarily of antimony, tin, copper, and lead here and there, hard but slippery metals used for "bearings" · Antimony is also in the boring lot line with Selenium, Tellurium, Arsenic, Gallium, Germanium, Silicon, and Bismuth, in being used as a doping agent for silicon chips, cells, and also as semiconductors in the semiconducting industry · Antimony in the form of Antimony Trioxide is used as a flame retardant, because it has already been oxidized, and is used as thus in adhesives, plastics, rubber, and textiles so they do not burn · Antimony is produced from smelting its common ore stibnite, and as a byproduct of extracting it impure from common metals like Copper, Silver, and Gold · Periodic Videos · Its hydride is used in the electronics industry, upon heating it in a balanced chemical reaction and process, the hydrogen is driven off, and the Antimony is leftover for semiconducting use as it reacts with materials like Cadmium to make such compounds and salts for being in transistors and such, and can also be used as catalysts, such as in the production of CFC's #51- Antimony- Antinomy in Latin means "Stibnum" and thus that is where "Sb" for its symbol comes from, and derives from two Greek words meaning "Anti" and "Monos" or "Not alone"

Barium (All Facts)

· Barium · Chemicool · Although Carl William Scheele first recognized Barium has its own element when working with an impure Magnesium Oxide mineral and matching it to that as a sample of 1600's shoemaker and Italian alchemist Vincentius Casciorolus, Humphrey Davy was at triumph of discovering Barium again · So the man we all know used electrolysis to isolate Barium from Barium Sulfate in the same way using the same apparatus as he did to isolate Strontium from Strontium Sulfate, and further it was analyzed using spectral analysis to confirm it a new element · The Greek word "Barys" means 'heavy' which describes Barite since it has a high-density, and thus when extracting Barium from Barite, you get Barium, named from this way of thinking, named after the Greek word "Barys" · Although Barium undergoing the Photoelectric Effect to produce electromagnetic energy glows and fires in a flame test as red, although Barium Salts glow and fire mostly Green, such as in Barium Sulfate · Barium is somewhat reactive, although it is the least reactive of the non-radioactive Group I and Group II metals, so its compounds are not only unfamiliar but actually poisonous as well for these and other reasons, and therefore is considered toxic in common chemical compounds · Barium reacts vigorously with water and acid to produce Hydrogen Gas (as well as toxic and corrosive Alkali of Barium Hydroxide), with the air and after being cut from its metal chunk to produce Barium Oxide, and also strongly reacts with alcohol better than most metals, especially acidic alcohol · Barium in the form of Barium Sulfate or Barite (its most common form) is highly insoluble in water and is actually used in X-ray Imaging, and is also non-toxic unlike most of Barium's compounds · Barium is most commonly found in the minerals Barite or Barium Sulfate, and Witherite or Barium Carbonate, and also in Barium Chloride, its main source industrially today · Barium dissolved in most aqueous solutions containing acids, except Sulfuric Acid, in which it forms an insoluble precipitation of Barium Sulfate, and releases Hydrogen Gas · Back then, Barium was produced from the electrolysis of Barium Sulfate · Today, Barium is produced from electrolysis of liquid Barium Chloride · Barium is used as a "Getter" or "Flashed Getter" in vacuum tubes, removing the last traces of gases, and due to barium's reactivity, these are explained more in the Rubidium and Cesium sections · Barium is a component of the famous YBCO (Yttrium-Barium-Copper-Oxide) Superconductors · Barium is used and applied to the production of Sparkplug Wire, since it is mainly a Barium-Nickel alloy that is somewhat ductile can be formed into this wire · Barium in the form of Barium Sulfate is used in X-Ray imaging, specifically to the stomach and digestive System · Barium has a relative amount of isotopes used for various purposes including X-Ray imaging, and include Barium-138 at 72%, Barium-137 at 11%, Barium-136 at 8%, and Barium-136 at 6% · Periodic Videos · Barium is used in X-Rays because heavy elements like Barium scatter X-Rays so shining X-Rays on a solution of Barium would make it turn black, it absorbs all radiation, or scatters the radiation it reflects being X-Rays, so they don't go through, so looking at · X-Rays penetrate the skin and reflect back out in the body, but do not contain enough energy to show past the bones, and organs such as your intestines and throat are invisible when X-Rays penetrate your skin, and go right through those organs to interact with the bones and make them glow or be visible as in William Roentgen's experiment for example, and so these organs wouldn't show just from X-Rays · Barium meal is taken, and pumping in these Barium salts into your body, the parts that X-rays scan look black because Barium absorbs all X-ray radiation and doesn't let it through, so your body acts like Barium in solution, although your body is the solution, and the X-Rays are black and white · Barium is non-toxic, and you can do the same since Lead and Mercury meal would give you better pictures, but you would die · Also used in the YBCO Superconductor described above, a material which has no or zero electrical resistance, and scientists discovered that when compounds of Barium and BCO were cooled with and to the temperatures of Liquid Nitrogen or 196 degrees colder than normal ice, which strips them from their magnetic properties · Barium in the form of Barium Nitrate (reactive somewhat) reacts with Sugar (catalyst for combustion energy since it contains a relative large amount of Oxygen atoms sometimes stripped from compounds containing metals like Barium in which Barium Oxide may then be formed), and sometimes throughout the Photoelectric Effect as demonstrated for Barium in its flame test, the energy given off of this reaction may ionize the Barium and changing its color, chemical equation below, as it oxidizes it produces a greenish-blue shade color, bright and awesome looking · All Alkaline Earth Metals react with Fluorine to produce Fluorides that are insoluble (in water), and glass-looking materials, including Barium Fluoride · This applies to Infrared Spectroscopy where heat rays are absorbed by a liquid to measure its components' spectrum, salts of Calcium and Barium Fluoride are really good for making windows of glass · Between Barium and Fluorine atoms are constant yet slow vibrations because of the thermal energy locked between the atoms and moving around and exciting its electrons, the Infrared light can be absorbed to give the emission spectra · Barium doesn't react as vigorously as all the other Alkali and Alkaline Metals because it is the largest of those atoms (other than Francium and Radium, which I like to call Radioactive Exceptions), with water, although it still produces a base or alkali of Barium Hydroxide and Hydrogen Gas

Bromine (All Facts)

· Bromine · Used in Condensing Vegetable Oil to meet the density of water so that it can be suspended in the water or in Acids in soda like Carbonic Acid · Bromine compounds are one of the only Halogen compounds ever used in very ancient cultures other than Chlorine in the form of Halite around between 6000 and 3000 BCE · Bromine is poisonous and causes skin burns, 3rd heaviest halogen and somewhat reactive, but very reactive with metals like Aluminum, such as in the exothermic chemical reaction and production of Aluminum Bromide and lots and lots of extra energy · Bromine is the only nonmetal which is a liquid at room temperatures and 1 of only 2 elements liquid at room temperature (other than Mercury), although it begins to evaporate slightly higher than room temperature, however Iodine and Gallium begin to melt slightly higher than room temperature, and all boil high above room temperature · It is dense, somewhat heavy, less reactive than Chlorine but more reactive, electronegative, and a smaller atomic radius than Iodine, reddish-brown liquid which evaporates easily at room temperature as previously mentioned, and leaves a pungent odor as a red vapor when doing so · Bromine Compounds follow the typical line of applications Halogens are particularly good at being used for such as oxidizing and bleaching agents, pesticides, water purification compounds, dyes and dyestuffs, and flame-retardants for plastics since Bromine rarely reacts with Oxygen and burns · Potassium and Silver Bromide are also associated with sources of ions for the manufacture of similar compounds applying to photography · Uniquely, Bromine unlike inconvenient halogen use, is used to identify solutions, solvents, and organic compounds to see whether or not they are saturated or unsaturated, if the Bromine is added to a Saturated Hydrocarbon, commonly called an Alkane, the Bromine's color doesn't change since it doesn't chemically react with the Alkane since it is chemically stable supported by single bonds on all sides and angles of its molecular structure, however if dropped into an Unsaturated Hydrocarbon, collectively known as Alkenes and Alkynes, the color will change and the Bromine will react with the Unsaturated Hydrocarbon since it contains double and triple bonds which aren't as stable and thus a little more reactive with the Bromine to form Organobromide Compounds and free Bromide ions, so if the Bromine stays red it is Saturated, and if the Bromine changes color to clear or whatever the color of your original solution was, the compound is unsaturated, and adding Hydrogen Gas saturates it as well · Extracted mainly from sea salt and brine deposits as a source of production · Comes from the Greek word for "Bromos" meaning horrible smell for it is quite stinky, dangerous as Bromine fumes · Politically and Geographically, large deposits of Bromide salts and Bromine is found and produced in the Dead Sea near Israel and Jordan and since Chlorine is mainly found in seas and oceans in the form of Sodium Chloride, you can easily create Bromine by adding a solution of Chloride Ions or water from the Dead Sea and thus the Chlorine displaces the Bromine in a single-displacement or single-replacement reaction and produces Chloride ions and solvent and Bromine fumes which you can collect professionally of course · It is primarily used in plastics to make them less flammable · Bromine is unique in which it has two very stable isotopes and both of them are equally found, in this case around 50% of each is found, rather than Isotopes like Chlorine-35 which occurs around 99% and Chlorine-37 which is less than 1%

Phosphorus (All Facts)

· Phosphorus · In the form of Phosphates, Phosphorus is vital as a fertilizer, and was known to be in the limiting factor in the growth and production of food crops, until Fritz Haber came along · Replenished in Guano and Bonemeal to keep fields growing, Has distinct allotropes of Red, Black, and White · Red Phosphorus exists as a stable allotrope, commonly used in ignition matches · Black Phosphorus is rare and has no applications · White Phosphorus is toxic, pyrophoric, quick to react and spark, and used mainly in war · Phosphorus, overall is a war faring element, but is essential to the common farmer · Known for destroying Hamburg in World War II · Used mainly in modern matches to be fired up · Rare Violet Phosphorus exists as a mixture of the black and red allotropes of Phosphorus · White Phosphorus is deadly, and must be kept in the dark or it will react with light to form Red Phosphorus, the safest allotrope · The earliest discovered and isolated element known to be discovered by Henning Brand in 1669, he discovered Phosphorus through a series of chemical reactions which evaporated urine (your pee), in which a black precipitate was left behind in the solution containing the urine, known today as "Black Phosphorus" · The reason Urine contains phosphates is because it collects Phosphorus-containing waste which is dissolved in any solution running throughout your body which cannot dissolve certain phosphates, while those that can dissolve phosphates mainly dissolve Nitrates as well and as such turn into poop (Phosphate and Nitrate Mixtures), which can be used as fertilizer since it contains Nitrates which also go through a series of chemical reactions to make plants grow through the Nitrogen and Photosynthesis cycles · Therefore, Phosphorus in the form of Phosphates can be used as Fertilizer, similarly to Nitrate-containing chemical compounds · Other Allotropes of Phosphorus include Red Phosphorus which ignites due to the electromagnetic tensions caused by Friction · Therefore, Phosphorus is used in Matches containing Phosphorus-based compounds since Phosphorus in the allotrope of Red Phosphorus will only burn if it can't overcome the powerful forces of friction · Red Phosphorus is also a good starting point to explaining friction as it is used in matches and burns only after enough heat has been transferred, thus chemical energy stored in the bonds and the electrical energy produced from the electromagnetic tensions between two objects, thus it has converted chemical energy into thermal and electromagnetic or "light" energy · Friction is caused by electromagnetic tensions, although all solids rubbing against each other, liquids rolling past each other, and gas fluids sliding past each other as three generalizations or "types" of friction assume that there are irregularities or "bumps" in the somewhat otherwise straightforward edges or borders of the two objects in contact, thus when these borders come in contact, they want to repel each other since they are simply electrons who want to repel against each other, just like electrons repel each other to move further and transfer thoroughly throughout a copper wire to conduct electricity · So these two surfaces with hard points irregularly coming in contact tend to either chemically bond with each because one of the surfaces may contain an element or compounds whose atom or atoms have strong effective nuclear charges which cause the electrons in the other object to flow over to the other object and electromagnetically attract each other, or they tend to repel if the nuclei of both objects coming in contact at these irregularly "jagged points" between the two surfaces have low effective nuclear charges, thus they repel each other, and one of these two theories can explain why heat is generated between two objects and friction is created, also backing Newton's Third Law and Rotational Motion or Rotational Friction · To recap, the first explanation of the heat generated in heat can either be caused by substances containing atoms with high effective nuclear charges, the heat generated is due to the atoms chemically reacting, however substances containing atoms with low effective nuclear charges, the heat then is generated due to the atoms repelling each other, their electrical and magnetic fields not cooperating with each other or repelling each other and turning that electrical and magnetic repulsion energy into thermal or heat energy · If the force of friction is smaller and less than the activation energy of Red Phosphorus, it will not make it react, so there must be enough friction to break the bonds and reach the activation energy or resulting chemical energy of Red Phosphorus in order to make the match light, so Booyah! · Also, Black Phosphorus is rare and sometimes appears violet, although this was the original Phosphorus discovered by Brand in 1669 and portrayed by a painter who was famous for drawing the event of his discovery · White Phosphorus is the third allotrope of Phosphorus which is extremely reactive and extremely overcomes normal forces than that of STP or Friction Heat, and thus turns white in the air when oxidized, and as a waxy-white-yellow transparent solid it can be burned in a lamp to produce a bright white flame which doesn't generate heat energy, as Brand called it "Cold Fire", because it was luminous and glowed in the dark because it needed chemical energy or Oxygen, not electromagnetic energy or light radiation, so it can experience chemoluminescence and can measured in candelas for luminous intensity, the glow is bright green but turns white almost immediately from its black-colored form, so after he isolated the black phosphorus precipitate, he put it in an oil lamp and immediately turned into white phosphorus, red phosphorus could then be isolated it by exposing the Black Phosphorus to light rather than heat energy, and can thus turn into Red Phosphorus rather than White Phosphorus · Scientists like me believe this is because it doesn't need any energy conversion other than its chemical energy or activation energy to be converted to electromagnetic or light energy because it is highly reactive and overcomes forces like friction · White Phosphorus is corrosive and combustive as well as toxic, while Red Phosphorus (the one used in matches for being able to produce heat from frictional forces) is non-toxic, as it burns in air, the bright white is the result of what it produces being Tetra-Phosphorus Pent-Oxide · Phosphorus is the sixth most abundant element in the body and the twelfth most abundant element in the universe · Phosphorus and Nitrogen containing compounds are both fertilizers, therefore they both have their own cycles, and the Phosphorus Cycle can be found in the Inorganic Cycles section to further be explained, as we mentioned, it is also used in matches and pyrotechnical materials like fireworks since they are so reactive and explosive, corrosive and combustive and were used in many wars for many weapons, including basic weapon ingredients which consist of Phosphorus and Sulfur compounds, such as the Phosphorus compounds used in matches called Red Phosphorus including Potassium Chlorate and Ammonium Phosphate, Fertilizer, Math, Cycle, Gun, War, and Life too! · Phosphorus also makes up a small portion of your DNA and RNA and is the main ingredient biochemically in your mitochondria which help produce ATP, or Energy packets which stand for (finally, I can't wait to find out) Adenosine Triphosphate · Phosphorus is also used in steel production to help with oxidation, and production of phosphor bronze, phosphors for Gas-Filled Light Tubes and LED's or Light Emitting Diodes, and Television Screens for the matter of technology, being able to electromagnetically convert heat and light in certain ways to produce certain colors gives it the ability to produce all the colors on TV's, and detergents as well, even though many of them have been banned since some were dangerous because of their reactivity · Phosphorus is produced by heating a mixture of any phosphate mineral like Calcium Phosphate with Sand (Silicon Dioxide) in the right proportions to produce White Phosphorus and Calcium Silicates, and adding and heating Carbon can reduce the White Phosphorus (Tetra-Phosphorus Pent-Oxide) to 10 molecules of Carbon Monoxide or 5 molecules of Carbon Dioxide, and 4 atoms of isolated Phosphorus, this chemical reaction can be illustrated as follows: · 2 Ca3 (PO4) 2 + 6 SiO2 ® P4O10 + 6 CaSiO3 (in the presence of Heat and a Carbon Reducing Agent) ® P4O10 + 10 C ® P4 + 10 CO (where you can see the isolated Phosphorus) · In nature, phosphates exists in the form of Rocks and Minerals including the Apatite Family such as in fluoroapatite (3Ca3(PO4) 2.CaF2), chloroapaptite, (3Ca3(PO4) 2.CaCl2), and hydroxyapatite (3Ca3(PO4) 2.Ca (OH) 2) · White Phosphorus and other Phosphates and Phosphorus Oxides react with water to produce Phosphoric Acid, which is a Polyprotic Acid which forms in stages, and which can further be dried and added to water to release Hydrogen ions and produce Protons · Phosphorus can be stored in water to reduce its reactivity with Oxygen-filled atmosphere, such as in the White Phosphorus form which is further reduced by the water in complex chemical reactions to normal Phosphorus · While Phosphorus is reactive rather than Insoluble in Water and Soluble in Carbon Disulfide, we must learn how CS2 works, and in order to do that we have to learn about Sulfur · Linguistically the name derives from Ancient Greek meaning "light-bearer", which in Latin translates to Lucifer of "Morning Star" for the planet of Mercury or Venus · "Phosphorescence" as to mean glowing after being illumination also derives from the property Phosphorus has of acting this way · "Chemoluminescence" also derives from the property of White Phosphorus burning in air and glowing white after an instant shade of green appears · Phosphorus has special properties of the light it produces dependent on what it reacts with, when only reacting with Oxygen it produces much electromagnetic light energy in the form of a bright white, but cold light, this is known as "Chemoluminescence" · But when it reacts with both Oxygen and electromagnetic light energy does it also convert and produce thermal heat energy, this is known as "Phosphorescence", commonly applies to TV and Gas-Filled Bulb Phosphors · Phosphorus can be found in Inorganic Phosphates, in DNA and RNA as the "Phosphate" backbone which helps all life essentialities and genetics, connected to DNA and a base as well, remember DNA is actually just the sugar the Phosphate connects to along with the base, and the actual strands aren't DNA but millions of DNA, Phosphate, and Base sets called Genes and Organized Probabilities of Genes are called Codons, and trillions of codons from chromatin which are strands of chromosomes and chromatids found in the nuclei of cells of tissues or organs of your body · Phosphorus is essential for life like most elements, even though it only makes up about 2% of your body o In the form of Phosphates that enter and exit the cell membrane to be inserted back into the Phosphate Backbones of Chromatin in the nuclei of cells of tissues of organs in your body o In the form of ATP Adenosine Triphosphate Energy Packets stored in the Mitochondria of every cell o In the form of Phospholipids or fats which make up the cell membrane and are insoluble in water because they are nonpolar and water is polar, thus allowing water and essential Oxygen in water to pass through the Phospholipid Fat Cell Membrane in order to bring in other essential compounds such as those Phosphates which replenish the genetic works of the Phosphate Backbone o In the form of Urine, where all Phosphate-Waste from Inorganic Phosphate Salts participating in the Phosphorus Cycle and traveling through the human body during the cycle are transported and collected along with Urea from broken-down Nitrogen in Nitrites and Nitrates of the food you eat to make up Urine- Phosphates and Urea, and exit the body as waste · Phosphorus is also found in, used for, and applied to Organophosphorus compounds like Penicillin, Pesticides, Fertilizers (just like Nitrogen which is used in fertilizers because it undergoes similar processes biologically like Nitrogen, because they are both a part of the Pnictogen Family and not only have the same chemical properties but are also applied to similar industries- fertilization, and also both have their own Inorganic Cycles which undergo similar processes and confirm their similarities as elements · Also used in some cleaning products to help with replenishing the Phosphate Backbone among your own DNA · Most abundant Pnictogen in the Earth's Crust at less than a 1% since Nitrogen is lighter, less dense, and a gas, and Phosphorus is found as pure phosphorus mostly in the form of Phosphorus Gas but also as White, Red, Black, Purple, and Yellow Phosphorus · Yellow Phosphorus is gunpowder Phosphorus tinted yellow because of impurities or mixtures with other ingredients for the gunpowder · Purple-Black Phosphorus is rare but can be made by creating a solution with solute White Phosphorus and solvent Carbon Disulfide (a common sulfur-based polar solvent) with an electromagnetic catalyst or substance which reacts with electromagnetic radiation to transfer light which can thus be absorbed by the solute and react with the solvent to form Black-Purple Phosphorus, this is how catalysts work not in the form of light but of electromagnetic radiation already transferred through a chemical and absorbed by the chemical near it in solution · This is why Iridium is such a good catalyst because in the presence of electromagnetic energy its electrons dance around and reemit energy which can be absorbed in the solution · White Phosphorus is the least dense, most volatile, most toxic, least stable, and most reactive of all 4 allotropes of Phosphorus · Just because compounds like White Phosphorus are reactive doesn't mean there not stable, you can have a compound which is both strongly stable and quick to react, but stability is the independent variable in which case reactivity for a compound will always be the same, but stability may change, so White Phosphorus is very reactive, but isn't actually stable rather not stable · Like Nitrogen, Phosphorus is a Pnictogen and although quite reactive, is stable in the Phosphorus Gas Form since it contains a triple bond which electronically resembles the triple bond in Nitrogen Gas since they are both Pnictogen, just like Oxygen and Sulfur are both Chalcogens Thermolysis (is also known as the cracking process for thermolytically separating oil and petrol compounds) in which you can thermally decompose something such as a more heavy allotrope of Phosphorus or any other element for that matter, into a less heavy, less dense, more reactive, more stable allotrope, or less stable but still more reactive, the higher the temperature, the smaller in quantities your extensive properties become, so Thermolytically breaking down Tetra-Phosphorus into Di-Phosphorus and then into Pure Phosphorus Atoms at high temperatures · White Phosphorus has a Tetrahedral Crystal Structure, Red Phosphorus has a Polymer-like Crystal Structure, Black Phosphorus has a graphite-like sheeted Crystal Structure, and thus White is Cubic and Triclinic, Purple is Monoclinic, and Black is Orthorhombic · We have discussed much about the Allotropes, and for Isotopes, see "List of Radioisotopes Doc" · Periodic Properties are shown below · Thermolysis (is also known as the cracking process for thermolytically separating oil and petrol compounds) in which you can thermally decompose something such as a more heavy allotrope of Phosphorus or any other element for that matter, into a less heavy, less dense, more reactive, more stable allotrope, or less stable but still more reactive, the higher the temperature, the smaller in quantities your extensive properties become, so Thermolytically breaking down Tetra-Phosphorus into Di-Phosphorus and then into Pure Phosphorus Atoms at high temperatures · White Phosphorus has a Tetrahedral Crystal Structure, Red Phosphorus has a Polymer-like Crystal Structure, Black Phosphorus has a graphite-like sheeted Crystal Structure, and thus White is Cubic and Triclinic, Purple is Monoclinic, and Black is Orthorhombic · We have discussed much about the Allotropes, and for Isotopes, see "List of Radioisotopes Doc" · The following illustrates the complex chemical reaction involved in producing Phosphorus n today's industries · 4 Ca5 (PO4) 3F + 18 SiO2 + 30 C → 3 P4 + 30 CO + 18 CaSiO3 + 2 CaF2 · Periodic Properties are shown below

Rhodium (All Facts)

· Rhodium · Periodic Videos · Used as a Catalyst such as in Ethanoic Acid, in reducing Carbon Dioxide, with Carbon Monoxide and Methanol and more reactions · A very rare metal, expensive · Usually used as an Alloy · Used as a very thin foil for filtering X-Rays in Cancer Diagnosis · It is very rare, only 20 tons made a year, and 75% of that Rhodium is for catalysis in automobiles · Nitrogen Oxides can be decomposed into Nitrogen and Oxygen in Catalytic convertors, and Rhodium is needed · Rhodium is used in Thermocouple Wires, as an alloy with Platinum, it improves thermocouple performance · Rhodium is used as an alloy and as a catalyst in producing thermocouples · A thermocouple is a "thermoelectric device for measuring temperature, consisting of two wires of different metals connected at two points, a voltage being developed between the two junctions in proportion to the temperature difference" · Rhodium alloys are also used in heart pacemakers, producing an electrical signal that help heart beats · A pacemaker is a "small device that's placed in the chest or abdomen to help control abnormal heart rhythms. This device uses low-energy electrical pulses to prompt the heart to beat at a normal rate. Pacemakers are used to treat arrhythmias. Arrhythmias are problems with the rate or rhythm of the heartbeat" · Chemicool · In 1803, Rhodium was discovered by William (Hyde) Wollaston in the same way he discovered Platinum, by splitting out Platinum from its ore using geochemical purification and refinement processes and extractions, and also from refining the Platinum further by dissolving it in Aqua Regia, and in dissolving his solution of Platinum and Aqua Regia in Ammonium Chloride, and in a series of chemical reactions he conducted, he had a precipitate he distinguished of having different properties than other metal, and soon had produced Rhodium-Sodium Chloride from using alkalis in his chemical reaction series containing Sodium · He then precipitated the metal that was supposedly causing the deep red colors in the solution and those being the same deep red colors of the ores he originally found, he knew this color was not characteristic to ionized Platinum in Platinum ores, so he had to find a new element, and in producing a black, flaky precipitate from the powder in solution he created from his series of chemical reactions called Rhodium-Sodium Chloride, he treated it with Zinc to produce Zinc Chloride, and in driving off the Sodium, he got the Rhodium, which he named after "Rhodon" the Greek word for "Rose" since it was responsible for creating the red and rosy colored salts from the original ore, and from his solution, which first led to his suspicion that he discovered a new element · A rare, non-toxic, electrically conductive, stable, lustrous, hard, silvery-white, highly reflective of radiation, extremely corrosion-resistant, acid-resistant, "Platinum Group", transition metal, its most common oxidation state responsible for its red-colored salts is the 3+ oxidation state · Rhodium is used in alloys and as a catalyst like most transition metals; used as a catalyst in catalytic convertors, and industrial catalysts; and in alloying as an alloying agent for hardening and improving corrosion-resistant effects upon platinum and palladium metal-based alloys, as well as in alloys for jewelry and decorations · As a result of its electrical conductivity and low electrical resistance, Rhodium is also used as an electrical contact material · Rhodium is produced by geochemical purification and refinement processes and extractions through a series of complex chemical reactions from the ores of Platinum, Palladium, Nickel, Silver, and Gold, as well as Nickel-Sulfide ores from Canada

Strontium (All Facts)

· Strontium · Chemicool · Like most Alkaline Earth metal discoveries, Humphrey Davy did not discover, but isolated Strontium using electrolysis and built a 600-plate battery which he ignited electricity over the salts he was working with from this, and broke them down or decomposed them electrolytically · To set up his apparatus, he created a paste of Magnesium Oxide and Strontium Sulfate, both dry, and made a depression in the paste or small bowl for mercury metal to act as an electrode, and put Platinum on the other side as the oppositely charged electrode, so when he passed electricity through the apparatus, the Strontium moved over to the Mercury metal, meaning that the Mercury metal being a Cathode, attracting the positively charged or cation of Strontium to the Mercury metal, and then the Mercury Alloy Amalgam formed was heated and through Thermolysis, the mercury expanded and was driven off, and the Strontium metal was then isolated · It was first recognized an element by Adair Crawford who analyzed a mineral sample we now call Strontium Carbonate today, since the mineral was known as Strontianite named after the Scottish town it was recognized in, Strontian · So, we can give this one to Humphrey Davy again · Back then, It was produced from the electrolysis of Strontium Sulfate · Today, Industrially, it is produced from the redox reduction reaction, reducing Strontium Oxide to Strontium by reacting it metallurgically with Aluminum to form Strontium metal and Aluminum Oxide, or Corundum · Today, also, it is produced from Thermolysis of Common Strontium-containing Ores including Celestine (Strontium Sulfate) and Strontianite (Strontium Carbonate) · If it isn't radioactive, it is harmless Strontium · A soft, silvery metal, it quickly can be cut to form its quick Oxide, Strontia (Strontium Oxide) which actually upon absorption of some of the light and heat energy of the Oxygen makes it turn yellow · Like all metals, It reacts with water and acid to produce Hydrogen Gas · Like many metals, it also is highly reactive with the air and reacts with air to produce Strontium Oxide, and also it undergoes the Photoelectric Effect in flame tests to produce a bright red color, commonly used for fireworks · Like many metals, therefore, it is stored in a Gas Shield, or Oil · Strontium is used for producing glass, specifically for the Cathode Ray tubes and Color TV tubes · Strontium Clocks are the most accurate clocks today, and these work because · Atomic Clocks work because · Strontium Salts are used in flares and fireworks because of its rich red, crimson shade of color, Strontium Chloride is used in toothpaste, and Strontium Oxide is used in association of pottery glazes, given its yellow look, and Strontium-90 is the best electron producer in all of Chemistry, used mainly in cancer therapy · Strontium's main isotopes include the non-radioactive Strontium-88 at 83% in abundance, and include the radioactive Strontium-86 at 10%, Strontium-87 at 7%, and other isotopes at less than 1% · Periodic Videos · Only element named after a town in the United Kingdom, in Strontian, Scotland · Strontium has had strong political attributes in the 1980s and 1990s · First of all, · Second of all, · Also, · Sci-Show · Strontium is awesome also because it knows where you have been · Your teeth hold a lot of information in them about your life story and scientists are beginning to understand all of it because of Strontium's unique radioactive properties · Strontium has 4 major isotopes as explained above, and the most useful as most common and radioactive of the isotopes are Strontium-86 at 10% and Strontium-87 at 7%, usually when the radioactive isotope of Rubidium-87 undergoes transmutation through decay into Strontium-87 · Geologists and Archaeologists already know the geology of places you or others have lived, and in all places there is a certain ratio of Strontoium-87 to Strontium-86, so Old rocks which have had more time to decay may have contained Rubidium-87, and rocks with granite or clay also contain traces of Rubidium-87 · And through the Mineral Cycle, or Phosphorus Cycle, the ratio of Strontium-87 to Rubidium-87 can be used to determine where you lived based on what rocks contain what minerals at what times, and through the Cycle, the Strontium mainly exits these rocks as they erode into water and soil and get into crops which are soon sold and eaten, and up towards the Food Chain and Food Cycle, gets into the food you eat, and your teeth · Strontium and Calcium are both Alkaline Earth Metals, and share very similar properties and the rare bits of Strontium isotope which enter your mouth seal off the Calcium enamel coating · When your teeth incorporate the Strontium into their coating, the ratio of which your teeth have Strontium compared to Calcium can be used to determine where you live, what that Strontium comes from, and also dependent on the different teeth you grow or develop at different ages, when you lived in a certain place or at what time and for how long dependent on how well developed the teeth incorporated the Strontium and/or Calcium and their ratio

Sulfur (All Facts)

· Sulfur · Sulfur has many ties to history, called "brimstone" in the Old Testament, linguistically derived from ancient Indian Sanskrit from "Sufra" (meaning yellow) and "Shulbari Ari" (enemy of copper), which means many knew that Sulfur was reactive enough to chemically react with Metals like Copper, especially in the form of Sulfates and Sulfuric Acid where it can burn metal and produce Hydrogen Gas · Sulfur is also used in many weapons historically such as Byzantine Flamethrowers, Odysseus's Weapons in the Iliad and Odyssey written by Homer, and Chinese Gunpowder in 808 containing Saltpeter, or Carbon Disulfide which is mostly used as a polar solvent which can dissolve Phosphorus compounds and allotropes like that of White Phosphorus to produce gunpowder and propellant · Since Sulfur has more of an electronegativity than Carbon and the difference is large between the two, Sulfur has 2 atoms since it snags 4 electrons to each Sulfur Atom to achieve an octet since the Carbon Atom naturally offers 4 electrons anyway · Getting back to its history, it was named by Lavoisier in 1789, and shortly after it was discovered to have 2 different forms or allotropes both explained and named by the German chemist Eilhard Mitscherlich in 1823 · The first allotrope which he called Monoclinic Sulfur was isolated from cooling molten Sulfur into the form of Crystals and takes the allotrope of 8 Sulfur Atoms · The second allotrope which he called Rhombic Sulfur (the names suggest the molecular or crystal structures) was isolated from cooling Sulfur in the form of Crystals from Solution rather than from a hotter, more energetic phase state of Matter, and takes the allotrope of 8 Sulfur Atoms as well · It was also the first Allotrope discovered and was the basis for defining allotropes- even before Carbon and Phosphorus! Concepts associated with Allotropes were innovated by JJ Berzelius in 1843, who used Sulfur, Phosphorus, and Carbon allotropes as his primary examples · Industrially, Sulfur is abundant in the form of Sulfuric Acid, the number one most industrial chemical on the list, since in solution and high concentrations is one of the most powerful acids of all time in the world with a pH of 0, and can be used to burn metals, shape metal in complex processes discussed in the Various Post-Units of Chemistry Doc such as in Metal Etching, and also can produce Hydrogen Gas after reacting with metals, among other things · Atmospherically, Sulfur is abundant in the form of Sulfur Dioxide, which is Sulfur oxidized or combusted in the form of a gas, which also accounts for Acid Rain and the processes it undergoes as discussed in the Inorganic Cycles section, and is also noted to be called "brimstone" since it produces a bright blue flame when this happens due to electromagnetic energy conversion processes, "brimstone" derives from meaning "stone that burns" or "burning stone" · Chemically, Sulfuric Acid can react with metal to produce Hydrogen Gas, which can react with Sulfurous Gas to produce DiHydrogen Sulfide, which gives the odor to most Sulfurous compounds including rotten eggs · Luminously, Sulfur exists in the form of Zinc Sulfate, which is a glow powder used because of the chemoluminisecent properties of Sulfur in reaction with Zinc · Medically, Sulfur exists in Penicillin as an Organic compounds with Organic properties and as an antibiotic · Ediblely, Sulfur exists in Foods like Onions and Garlic · Okay, now I am just making adverbs up! · Sulfur is the seventh most abundant element in your body, makes up 3% of the Earth's Crust, there is 100 times more Sulfur in the Earth's core than there is in the Earth's Crust, and is non-toxic purely, but then is very toxic as Sulfur Dioxide, Carbon Disulfide, Hydrogen Sulfide (which can only be smelled and causes eye irritating such as in those onions you can't peel because your eyes start tearing up) and extremely corrosive as Sulfuric Acid, so just know the higher concentration of these compounds around you, the more of a chance of death of toxicity · Soluble in Carbon Disulfide and insoluble in water, reacts with Zinc strongly thus is also used in rockets · So as we have mentioned, Sulfur exists in many forms and is applied and used for many different things, such as in Sulfur Dioxide Gas (Natural Gas, Acid Rain), Hydrogen Sulfide (Bad Odors, Toxins), Sulfuric Acid (Hydrogen gas Production, Powerful Industrial Chemical Agent), Zinc Sulfate (glow powder), Lead-Acid Batteries (batteries with lead and lead oxide electrodes in a Sulfuric-Acid electrolyte) used to power cars for their high 12.1 voltage, Carbon Disulfide (Polar Solvent, Gunpowder, Saltpeter Production), Gunpowder Production, Rocket Fuel (Zinc and Sulfur interactions), Vulcanization of Rubber as Vulcanizing Rubber to make it stronger in Neoprene and Isoprene Polymers, Production of Phosphate Fertilizers, and like Phosphorus in the form of Phosphates, Sulfur in the form of Sulfates are applied to detergents, some of which are now banned because of its reactivity, White Vitriol (Zinc Sulfate) is also used to make glow powders · And like Phosphorus, Sulfur has biochemical applications too! Since it is present in Cysteine and Methionine, two vital protein and Nitrogen-containing amino acids which go through the same fertilizer-producing processes as Nitrates (Nitrogen) and Phosphates (Phosphorus) in your body to produce poop, pee (usable fertilizer) · Sulfur also has many inorganic applications! Since it is present in many rocks and minerals including Pyrite or Fool's Gold (Iron Sulfide), Galena (Lead Sulfide), Cinnabar (Mercury Sulfide), Sphalerite (Zinc Sulfide), Gypsum used in chalk and plaster (Calcium Sulfate), and Epsom Salts (Magnesium Sulfate) as well as flocculating agent and water purifying agents (Aluminum Sulfate), and many of these ores are oxidized, heated, or can undergo specific process to isolate the metals and make the Sulfur-containing free radicals to bond with elements like Carbon (in the form of coal or charcoal) · Sulfur is produced in the Frasch Process, geothermically pumping Sulfur out of the core and ground with superheated steam to heat it · Another way Sulfur can be produced is by using simple home lab objects to produce Sulfur in a tube, when an Oxidizing Agent such as Nitrous Oxide reacts with Carbon Disulfide Polar Solvent in Solution, it is an exothermic synthesis reaction in which energy is taken in by the combustion process set by the Laughing Gas or Nitrous Oxide, and Sulfur Crystals crystallized from the reaction, known as the "barking dog" reaction for the sound it makes when the temperature and pressure of the reactants are raised high enough to interfere with the sound-wave nature of the reaction, and as a Combustion Reaction it produces Carbon Dioxide Gas, Nitrogen Gas, and Sulfur Crystals and can be seen below · Nucleosynthetically created by Silicon and Helium nuclei fusing from energy released from stars as part of the Alpha Process and is the 10th most abundant in the universe · Solid, Molten, and Gaseous Sulfur and Sulfur Ions and Compounds cover Jupiter's prominent moon known as Io and also are contained on meteorites as minerals such as Troilite · Sulfur is most likely the 3rd most abundant element as a binary ion with some metal, aside from Oxygen and Silicon, in which there are many Silicates, less Oxides, and even less Sulfides, but still many Sulfides, some of which are principal metal ores, sources and occurrences of Sulfur as being a recurring theme in many minerals on Earth as well as rocks, these include Troilite which is also found in meteorites and is composed as Iron Sulfide · Also, Pyrite which is earthly Iron Sulfide, Cinnabar (Mercury Sulfide), Galena (Lead Sulfide), Sphalerite (Zinc Sulfide), Stibnite (Antimony Sulfide) · Sulfur reacts with metals to produce Sulfides · Sulfur reacts with Oxygen to produce Sulfates, some of which are also common and dominant in minerals, such as Zinc Sulfate (White Vitriol), Gypsum or Chalk (Calcium Sulfate), Alunite (Potassium and Aluminum Sulfates), and Barite (Barium Sulfate) and you can find it mostly around geothermal vents, veins, and volcanoes, boom boom boom alliteration! · Once again, Sulfur reacts with metals to produce Sulfides · Once again, Sulfur reacts with Oxygen to produce Sulfates · Sulfur may also react with Oxygen to produce Sulfur Dioxide, which is the Carbon Dioxide of Sulfur sort of, and when combined with water can form Sulfuric Acid or Acid Rain which can dissolve metals and stones by reacting with them and producing Hydrogen Gas and Hydrogen which can react spontaneously in the air to form water and as you can see by now it has many harmful effects · Sulfur Dioxide is still able to react with Oxygen in the air to form a more stable, less reactive Sulfur Trioxide, in which case if it bonds with one more Oxygen atom it will turn into a Sulfate · Sulfur may also react with Hydrogen to produce Hydrogen Sulfide, the pungent odor of rotten eggs · Sulfur radicals may transmit light and reflect off bluelight, as was it as a fire called "brimstone" such as in Lapis Lazuli · Thiosulfates are Sulfates with more than one Sulfur atom and are used as reducing agents · The principal ores of many metals are Sulfides and as such these metals react with Sulfur to produce these Sulfides, some of which include what was mentioned above as well with Copper, Zinc, Nickel, and Cobalt Sulfides · Sulfur also reacts with Carbon and Organic Compounds to produce Organosulfur Compounds, some of which include Penicillin, and the Amino Acids Cysteine and Methionine contribute to its roles in biology and biochemistry, as well as producing Carbon Disulfide which is not technically organic · Sulfur reacts with itself (Sulfur) to produce strong Sulfur-Sulfur bond used for vulcanizing or strengthening rubber by which it is heated in a solution with the rubber until complex chemical reactions form disulfide bonds between Isoprene units · Sulfur compounds include Thiols · Sulfur compounds include Thioethers · Sulfur compounds include Sulfonic Acids · Sulfur reacts with Carbon to produce Carbon Disulfide, a common Polar Solvent used in the Barking Dog Reaction or Chemical Reaction Production of Sulfide and structurally similar to Carbon Dioxide as a colorless and volatile liquid and is also used as a reagent catalyst to make the polymer called Rayon · Rayon is · There's also a Sulfur Cycle! · Sulfur Cycle · Sulfur has been so abundant near volcanoes and in crystalline form that it never had to be isolated and has a rich, obvious historical chemistry although Iron Sulfide (fool's gold) or Pyrite is a known source to extract Sulfur from · As mentioned in the Hydrogen video, Hydrodesulfurinization is a process used to eliminate impurities and simplify petroleum by adding and pressurizing Hydrogen Gas to Organosulfur Petrol Compounds to reduce them to Hydrogen Sulfide and simpler Thiols or Organosulfur Compounds · Known as the Claus Process, the Hydrogen Sulfide produced reacts with Oxygen to produce Sulfur Dioxide and Water, and then the Hydrogen Sulfide left over reacts with the Sulfur Dioxide already created to produce Sulfur and more water as illustrated by the chemical reactions below (known as comproportionating) o 3 O2 + 2 H2S → 2 SO2 + 2 H2O o SO2 + 2 H2S → 3 S + 2 H2O · Another cool application of Sulfur is when it forms a compound called Sulfur Hexafluoride, the heaviest gas known to man, and like Helium, the concentration of gases determines how well sound waves or electromagnetic energy as sound waves will travel through the gases, so with Helium being a light gas the concentration is tiny and sound can easily pass through it, thus giving it a higher frequency or shorter wavelength, since wavelength and frequency are pretty much indirectly proportional, but anyway this fast sound or high frequency produces a high pitch, since it is light it travels through quick, its frequency is quick, and thus frequency isn't related to volume but wavelength and frequency of sound waves are related to pitch, so Helium is 6 times lighter than air and eventually goes off into space, so when breathing in and undergoing respiration with Helium Gas, when you breathe it out the sound waves you are releasing are high in frequency, and thus have a high pitch, so your voice sounds funny · With Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas, which is 6 times heavier than air, the exact opposite happens since its concentration is larger and thus the concentration of air @STP is normal, with Sulfur Hexafluoride, your voice gets deeper, very deep · On StarGate SG-1, the actors who play the Goa'uld probably breathe in Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas to get that deep alien host sound, and as for the yellow eyes, just thank Sulfur's greatest pigment compound, Cadmium Sulfide, actually used to paint the Mona Lisa by Pablo Picasso himself, Sulfides also include Cadmium Sulfide, which is probably used in solvents like water to make a gel used for their eyes, but who knows how to describe the science behind Hollywood? · Sulfuric Acid reacts with Water only to produce lots of energy, produces a lots of energy, gradually making the acid stronger because of all those Hydrogen ions and boils the water · Do not dilute Sulfuric Acid with water, it only produces more heat and makes an exothermic reaction, forming Hydrogen bonds between the Acid and Water, and dropping the water in the acid makes the water boil, and the acid spits out onto you · Sulfuric Acid reacts with paper to produce wholes of black Carbon · Sulfuric Acid is very reactive, absorbing large amounts of water · Sulfuric Acid is a Dehydrating Agent, it removes the water inside substances, · C (H20) formula for Carbohydrates, whether that be paper of sugar, and the Sulfuric Acid reacts with the Paper and Sugar both to remove the H20 and you are left with Carbon, the more sufficient way of writing this reaction is shown below · Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) has many industrial applications and is used in many reactions, it is the acid used for electrolytes of Car Batteries, is used as a Dehydrating Agent, for Carbon Production, for Refining of Oil, making diesel and petrol gasoline, they removing Sulfur from the oil so it doesn't evaporate in the moist air to create Acid Rain, and thus it is cheap to produce Sulfuric Acid, and has many applications, it also produces water in the exothermic form of steam, and thus the Carbon is all that is left

Lead (Fact A)

- in Latin means "Plumbum" and thus that is where "Pb" comes from, all these metals are among ancient metals discovered long ago and are credited with their Latin names for their symbols still

Ytterbium (All Facts)

Changes properties under certain pressures, at normal pressure it is metallic and electrically conductive, but under extreme pressures it turns into a semiconductor, so it is used at extremely high temperatures and pressures as a pressure sensor, also changes due to temperature from metal to semimetal or semiconductor Ytterbium in the 2+ oxidation state are yellow salts Second rarest Rare Earth Metal, although twice as abundant as Tin in nature, but very little utilized in artificial terms Ytterbium reacts with Oxygen to form Ytterbium Oxide Used in the Electronics Industry Used as a Dopant in Electronics and the Electronics Industry

All Elements Named After Geographical Areas (All Elements)

1. Magnesium (derived from Magnesia, a Greek City, for Greece) 2. Scandium (derived from Scandinavia, an area of Europe consisting of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark, for the respective countries) 3. Copper (derived from Cyprus, an island-country in the Mediterranean close to Italy, for Cyprus) 4. Gallium (derived from Gaul, Latin for France) 5. Germanium (for Germany) 6. Strontium (discovered and derived from Strontian, a city in Scotland, for Scotland) 7. Yttrium (discovered and derived from Ytterby, a city in Sweden, for Sweden) 8. Terbium (discovered and derived from Ytterby, a city in Sweden, for Sweden) 9. Erbium (discovered and derived from Ytterby, a city in Sweden, for Sweden) 10. Ytterbium (discovered and derived from Ytterby, a city in Sweden, for Sweden) 11. Ruthenium (derived from Ruthenia, Latin for Russia) 12. Europium (for Europe) 13. Holmium (derived from Holmia, Latin for Stockholm, a city in Sweden, for Sweden) 14. Thulium (derived from Thule, Latin for Norway) 15. Lutetium (derived from Lutecia, Latin for Paris, Capital of France, for France) 16. Hafnium (derived from Hafnia, Latin for Copenhagen, Capital of Norway, for Norway) 17. Rhenium (derived from Rhine, a river in Europe, for Europe) 18. Polonium (for Poland, where the Curies were born and from which they worked) 19. Francium (for France) 20. Americium (for America) 21. Berkelium (for Berkeley, a city in California, US) 22. Californium (for California) 23. Dubnium (for Dubna, a city in Russia, for Russia) 24. Hassium (for Hesse, a state in Germany, for Germany) 25. Darmstadtium (for Darmstadt, a city in Germany, for Germany) 26. Beryllium (for Belur, India, for India) (proposed definition) 27. Helium (for the Sun) 28. Mercury (for Mercury) 29. Selenium (derived from Selene, Latin for Moon, for the Moon) 30. Palladium (derived from Pallas, Latin for Asteroid, for the Asteroid Belt) 31. Tellurium (derived from Tellus, Terra, Latin for Earth, for our planet Earth) 32. Cerium (derived from Ceres, for Ceres, a dwarf planet between Mars and Jupiter) 33. Uranium (for Uranus) 34. Neptunium (for Neptune) 35. Plutonium (for Pluto)

Dysprosium (All Facts)

Like Samarium, it is a Neutron Absorber, and can be used in atomic and nuclear fission stations Mixed with Cadmium and Sulfur, it is used in devices which produce Infrared Light

Europium (All Facts)

Like Strontium, Rhodium, Selenium, Lithium, and Neodymium, Europium when excited with energy and in applying the photoelectric effect, is red, and thus can be used as red pigments and dyes, and is actually used, Europium Salts are used, for the red colors in television screens, and is good at exhibiting Phosphorescence and Fluorescence

Thorium (All Facts)

Most reactive of the Actinides, just exposing it to air makes it burn Used in camera glass lenses

Samarium (All Facts)

Radioactive isotopes of Samarium are used to date samples of rock from the moon considering their half lives in accordance with our moonrock Like Vanadium, its chemistry is largely known for having multiple oxidation states, and thus is used in many color products like dyes, hues, and pigments Neutron Absorber, used in nuclear power stations to stop them from exploding

Radium (All Facts)

Reactive metal which decays into Radon, is a brilliant white metal in pure form but exposed to air and Oxygen it turns black immediately, occurs naturally in the environment from the decay of Thorium and Uranium and Thorium and Uranium salts, Radium-226 has a stable half-life of about 1600 years, and is able to glow in the dark and was used as a glowing paint until discovery of its carcinogenic effects

Iron (All Facts)

· Chemicool · Iron is found in the form of Iron Oxide in Hemoglobin in the body, carrying Oxygen and linking and/or connecting the Respiratory and Circulatory Systems · Like Nickel, but in a much larger proportion, Iron comes from Meteorites since ancient times supposedly, containing over 90% of known meteorites · Like Nickel, Iron is supposedly flowing in our Earth's core and makes up about 34% of the Earth's Mass enough to make three planets of Mars along with the liquid Nickel at high temperatures, but also at high pressures making them liquid, and with the Nickel are the cause of Earth's magnetosphere through processes of convection · Unlike Nickel, Iron Oxide's color is responsible for Mars's red color we see · Iron corrodes very easily and is not a corrosion-resistant material, however it is much more abundant, Iron Oxide (Hematite Hydrate), and thus Iron artifacts are more valuable then gold or silver, 2 of the 4 precious metals, including Platinum and Palladium, and thus it also has a pretty much unknown history, and came from the same time Nickel in meteorites was dated, around 5000 BCE, and although so rare because the only source known was meteorites and they did not smelt at all yet, they considered Iron valuable, as a "gift from the sky" sort of thing, as the Ancient Egyptians called it "Ba-ne-pe" or "Metal of Heaven" · Thus, in ancient times too, Iron was 8 times more precious than gold or silver, according to Assyrian writings, and was used for ceremonies like gold and silver is today until the 1300-1200 BCE Iron Age in which Iron became cheaper and replaced gold, silver, and even bronze · Iron was also used as Lodestones, in Greece they were found in the same cities as Magnetitie in Magenta, Greece, where Hematite, Magnesium, and even Manganese was found, and were used as compasses because of their electromagnetic relationship with the Iron in Earth's core and overall magnetosphere · Molten Iron was easy to obtain, around 1000 BCE, and when melted and burned and smelted with charcoal, steel was first created (Iron and Carbon, Nickel and Chromium) · Ferrum in Latin comes from "iren" in Anglo-Saxon · Iron, like most Transition Metals, is essential for biological reasons (Hemoglobin and Platelets) and nutritional and anatomical reasons (deficiency in Iron leads to Brain Damage, Iron is naturally in your brain), and other transition metals as we have seen have this effect, including Manganese, Copper, Zinc, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, and Phosphorus · Unlike most metals, Iron in the form of Magnetitie applies zoologically, in which Magnetite is found in many animals who easily navigate their way through their environments because they have a so-called "magnetic sense" as explained by the Magnetite found in their bodies, but we have Hematite in our blood, so we don't have a magnetic sense, nor do many other animals, but bees and dolphins have been found to have it · The Hoba Meteorite contains about 83% Iron and is the largest meteorite in the world found in Hoba, Namibia, Africa · Iron is produced in the same way it used to be obtained and/or discovered by reduction of its Oxides with Reducing Agents like Carbon, Aluminum, and/or Silicon · 14 Iron atoms connect to form an alloys with Boron and Neodymium in NIB Magnets, used in computers, cell phones, medical equipment, toys, motors, wind turbines, and audio systems · Iron can also be produced by the reduction of Iron with Reducing Agents like Carbon and splitting of its ores, including Magnetitie, Hematite, and Taconite · A non-toxic, corrodible, gray, mostly soft, ductile, thermally and electrically conductive, extremely ferromagnetic, extremely reactive, transition metal · Iron reacts with Water and Air to produce Hematite and/or Magnetite and also reacts with the air to produce red-brown Iron Oxides, as it is reactive, and also very magnetic and is used to make most magnets, ordinary or scientific · Allotropes of the element include Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Iron, as Alpha is the most stable · Most Iron is used to make stainless steel, magnets, other alloys, and for its natural abundance in hemoglobin in blood · Thermite Reaction- Production of Iron as well with the Carbon Reducing Agent · Another Abundant Element as metal on the Earth, it forms about 6% of the Earth's Crust · The Core of the Earth is mostly made up of Iron, as well as Nickel at high temperatures and as are as liquids · Named after "Ferrum", the Latin Word which gives its symbol of "Fe" · Theorized to exist in many stars such as our sun since it is a heavy element and due to theories associated with the Big Bang · Exists mainly in the forms of Hematite and Magnetite, as being strongly magnetic as a material · Essential Element for Health like Sodium, Magnesium, Potassium, and Calcium · Also in a common form of blood called Hemoglobin in a very small amount · Oxidizes and Corrodes in the air to form rust in the presence of water, or moist air, air with a high concentration water vapor or water as a greenhouse gas present, since water traps heat based on its elements absorption spectra · Anyway, Iron Oxide (Hematite), is a mineral as well as an ore and oxide · Iron exists as steel when alloying with traces of Carbon, and is known as the Steel Alloy · This gives steel added strength, corrosion resistance, less brittleness, among other new properties

Tellurium (All Facts)

· Chemicool · Like most metalloids, Tellurium was discovered upon mineral study in the 17 or 1800's, in this case in the late 1700's by an Austro-Hungarian mineralogist by the name of Baron F "Muller" von Reichenstein, who through a series of mineral purification processes concluded he was dealing with a new and unusual element, after splitting it from its ore we now know today as Calaverite, a rare mineral of Gold Telluride · Muller sent his sample of this unknown element to Martin Klaproth, the famous German mineralogist and in 1798 he confirmed it was a new element, naming it Tellurium after the Latin word "Tellus" meaning "Earth" · JJ Berzelius is credited for considering it a metalloid, with properties similar to transition metals, however has compounds, applications, and smelly chemistry similar to Sulfur and Selenium, nonmetals themselves · Teratogenic substances are those that react to cause harm to developing embryos, and not only is Tellurium teratogenic but is very toxic, and also has a garlic-like odor, similar but even more smelly than that of sulfur or selenium · A toxic and teratogenic, rare, silvery-white, brittle, lustrous, semiconducting, photosensitive, photoelectric, photovoltaic metalloid, it exhibits different colors through its IV and VI (+4 and +6) Oxidation states, and reacts with the Oxygen in air, moist or not, to form Tellurium Dioxide, its most common oxidation state thus being +4 · Its flame test is a greenish-blue flame · As nonpolar covalent polyatomic free radical-containing whole ions, it exists in the same form as Sulfides, Sulfites, and Sulfates, with Tellurides, Tellurites, and Tellurates · Naturally, Tellurium exhibits Alpha Decay of larger isotopes more than any other element, and are of the lightest radioactive isotopes to particularly undergo Alpha Decay (releasing of Helium nuclei) · Tellurium is added at low levels to lead to decrease the corrosive chemical reaction of sulfuric acid in lead-acid batteries to improve the lead's strength, hardness, and the battery's endurance · Tellurium is a natural coloring and dyeing agent because of its blue-green color in ceramics, glasses, and other coatings and pigments · Because it is like every other metalloid, Silicon, Gallium, Germanium, Arsenic, Selenium, and Antimony, it is used as a semiconductor, in solar panels and photovoltaic cells, such as Cadmium Telluride salts, or Mercury Telluride · It can also be used as a catalyst, considering it is a metalloid with metal and nonmetal properties · It can also be used to vulcanize rubber, just like Sulfur and Selenium · While Tellurium is usually produced from multiple refinements of common ores being smelted such as electrolytic decomposition of copper, it can be obtained from smelting its most common ores such as Calaverite or Gold Telluride, or Sylvanite or Silver-Gold Telluride · Periodic Videos · If you touch Tellurium, it will biochemically convert into smelly, sweaty compounds, worse than that of normal sweat, and people will think you smell awful and stay away from you · Used in laser optics · Since Tellurium is the last of the three "smelly" elements, we're going to take a look at what makes things smell and the chemistry of the sense of smell · Thiols and Mercaptans, two different names for the same type of compound, are smelly compounds containing Sulfur

Plutonium (All Facts)

· Discovered at Berkeley at the University of California in 1940, named after the discovery and planet itself of Pluto was reopened in existence to the public after the government hid it until 1946 · Very heavy, silvery metal in pure form, and is a rare radioactive element found in one in a trillionth parts of Uranium Ore, used mainly in Nuclear Reactors and Atomic Bombs, produced as a part of the Manhattan Project in World War II, and 1/3 energy of power plants comes from this element's radioactive properties, used in small amounts in RTG (Radioactive Thermoelectric Generators)

Lithium (All Facts)

· The lightest alkali metal, and very reactive, dark-colored, bright, shiny luster · Surprisingly used in Organic Chemistry which activates Carbon-Carbon bonds through complex chemical reactions · Lithium quickly reacts with Nitrogen from the air to form Lithium Nitride, a somewhat stable compound which is black and solid · Lighter than water because of its low density, it will also react with water like all the other elements to produce heat, Hydrogen Gas, and Lithium Hydroxide · Lithium is usually stored in oil to keep it from reacting with the air, since it reacts violently both with the air and with water, unlike Phosphorus · Smells a little bit like Ammonia, Lithium Nitride · There is a popular Nirvana song called Lithium by the way

Platinum (All Facts)

· Platinum · Periodic Videos · Platinum is probably a chemist's favorite catalyst · One of its most important catalytic reactions is it being used in the catalytic decomposition of Methanol, remember forms of decomposition like electrolysis, thermolysis, and photolysis include catalysis, and thus it produces Formaldehyde and the Platinum gets very hot and begins to burn in such a reaction · So, the methanol molecules hit the Platinum nodule in the solution, and begin to decompose because as the molecular structure of Methanol is being rearranged, its electrons are more easily being transmitted through the electrically conductive Platinum nodule and thus are distributed to their correct chemical or atomic places easily, and the Methanol thus forms an Oxide with the Oxygen present in the air much easier, and the Platinum is quite hot, but when Methanol is hot enough it turns to vapor and reacts with Oxygen due to the Platinum catalyst, which heated up before the Methanol vaporized and heated up as well · Used in certain chemical processes and is used for catalytic convertors · It is usually very thin · It is extremely expensive and rare · It is extremely inert and unreactive · A very dense element, 7 grams of Platinum is far less than 7 grams of Lithium · Platinum, Palladium, Osmium, Iridium, Ruthenium, and Rhodium are all the Noble Metals, because they're quite inert like the Noble Gases, and also are quite dense compared to the rest of the metals, and elements · Platinum is used as an electrode in electrochemical apparatuses such as batteries · Discovered in an electrochemical experiment involving bacteria, leading to the discovery of an anti-cancer drug that kills bacteria of cancer, in a certain compound of Platinum with 2 Nitrogen atoms and 2 Chlorine atoms, and they attack strands of DNA so they cannot split, and thus its cells cannot multiply, so it is used as an anti-cancer drug, the Nitrogen and Chlorine atoms synthetically found on the molecule are very reactive and want to return to their diatomic forms, and thus in doing so the molecule has already done its job at stopping the chromatin strands from splitting

TIn (All Facts)

· Tin is known to be the oldest metal ever discovered and used by humans archaeologically and radioactively, being found from objects like utensils to weapons dating back to 3500 BCE, and also are common in alloys of Brass, and the symbol and name comes from "Stannum" which in Latin translates today as "Tin" · Silvery-White Metal with a Highly Crystalline Structure · Found mainly in the mineral ore as an oxide, called Cassiterite · It is very Malleable and Ductile · It has more stable isotopes than any other element on the periodic table, consisting of 10 different kinds used for different purposes, and the two most common include Gray Tin or Alpha Tin, and White Tin or Beta Tin, in which Alpha is metal, and Beta is actually nonmetal, since Tin is considerably a metalloid, and the nonmetal exists at cold temperatures whereas the metal doesn't · Tin is also used in Tin Cans to resist corrosion from water and air because it is so stable and unreactive, Tin Cans are made of the Steel Ore and common associative ores with Tin in them as a protective layer · When a tin bar is bent, the crystal structure is disrupted in such a way that a soft crackling sound can be heard, known as the "Tin Cry" · Stannous Fluoride is tin used in Toothpaste to kind of coat your teeth as well to be less resistant to corrosion-producing materials like citric acid from orange juice, making the enamel more resistant to attacks from substances such as acids Periodic Videos Its abbreviation comes from the Latin derivation of the word of the element, "Stannum" Chemicool Tin is actually a metalloid, since it isn't electrically or thermally conductive, and acts more like Sodium or Magnesium than Copper or Zinc, and is just as reactive, in which Tin reacts with the air to produce Tin Dioxide, and in mineral form that is known as Cassiterite or Tin (IV) Oxide, and isn't used as a catalyst, however it is used in alloys including pewter, solder, and bronze (along with Copper), and most Tin Alloys are other transition metals with Tin as a coating Tin has a thorough history, with no known discoverer and an origin of that like Silver, Gold, Carbon, Antimony, and Arsenic, and through especially in the form of Bronze, as if you had a Bronze sword, compared to a Copper one, you would win any swordfight; the Bronze Age began during 3000 BCE and lasted all the way up until 1000 BCE, in which Tin was used at 10% with Copper at 90% in Bronze, Tin improves the wear cast, hardness, and weariness of Copper in Bronze Alloys The ancient Greeks obtained their tin as sea traders, and when on Islands, called the islands with Tin on them, the "Cassiterides", and this is where Tin Oxide Ore's name "Cassiterite" derives, and the element's etymology is described in the above section Tin's Salts are caustic, and Organotin Compounds are very toxic A non-toxic, silvery-white, soft, malleable, polishable, crystalline, oxygen-resistant, corrosion-resistant, air-resistant, water-resistant, it does react with Acids such as Muriatic Acid to produce Tin Chloride and Hydrogen Gas, as well as Bases such as Rubidium Hydroxide to produce Rubidium and Tin Hydroxide, and also reacts with Oxygen if exposed to produce a tarnished Tin Oxide, or in mineral form, Cassiterite; it exists in compounds and salts mostly in the divalent and tetravalent states, such as its tetravalent state in Tin Dioxide, and it has two allotropes, gray tin, and white tin Tin is used in coating the surface of other metals to prevent corrosion, and also to prevent corrosion of other materials and foods, and can be used together with Aluminum to prevent Aluminum from oxidizing, in Tinfoil Tin is used as an alloying agent in alloys like solder, pewter, bronze, cast iron, soft solder, and phosphor bronze Tin in the form of Tin Fluoride is used in some toothpastes, as it is a good source of Fluorine ions Tin in the form of Tin Chloride (produced from reacting it with Muriatic Acid) is used in dyes and dyeing textiles, as well as in silk Tin is produced from the reduction reaction of Cassiterite (Tiin Dioxide) by a Reducing Agent of Carbon to produce CO2, which can be driven off, and also produces Tin #50- Tin- Tin in Latin means "Stannum" and thus that is where "Sn" for its symbol comes from

Titanium (All Facts)

· Titanium · Chemicool · In 1791, Beginning Geologist Reverend William Gregor found a black sand powder substance he concluded was mostly Magnetite or Iron (III) Oxide, but he decided he would make it react with certain substances and see if anything else would turn out since inside the mixture he found a "reddish brown Calx" in it · He dissolved it in Sulfuric Acid, and this powder turned yellow, and when he reacted it with other transition metals such as Iron or Tin, it turned purple undergoing a reduction reaction since it reacted with a transition metal, and thought he was dealing with a new metal which reacted in different ways · In 1795, German Chemist Martin Klaproth called this new metal he had confirmed in discovering in the same way Gregor did, and named it Titanium after the Titans, the Greek Gods or Sons of the Earth · Discovering the mineral in Rutile, which was a red color when he found it, he chemically reacted it with other substances and concluded it was identical to Gregor's mineral, however no had yet isolated and obtained it · In 1910, American metallurgist Matthew Hunter decomposed a salt we now call Titanium (IV) Chloride with a Sodium reducing Agent by Thermolysis at high temperatures and pressures in a cylinder, and produced Pure Titanium and Sodium Chloride salt · In 1936, the Kroll process was developed by Kroll and other scientists to isolate Pure Titanium using the same process as Hunter, only using a Magnesium reducing agent which proved more effective, producing Pure Titanium and Magnesium Chloride salt · Although Titanium is non-toxic, Titanium Halides, particularly Titanium Chlorides are toxic and unnatural · A light, hard, tough, silvery-white, lustrous, shiny, transition, (II) and (IV) metal, it has great strength and is also corrosion-resistant like Gold and Platinum, and has a lot more strength compared to its weight, and when heated at moderate temperatures, can be malleable and ductile, however at very high temperatures it reacts with nitrogen in the air to form Titanium Nitride · Titanium is insoluble in water, resistant to air, however still reacts with acids to produce Hydrogen Gas · Back then, Titanium was produced by reacting Titanium Chloride with Sodium and Magnesium Reducing Agents to obtain Pure Titanium, driving the salt off with a solvent · Nucleosynthetically, Calcium atoms fuse with excess Helium nuclei to form Titanium nuclei · Industrially, Titanium is still produced using the Kroll Process after splitting it from its ore or Ilmenite, the primary ore or Titania or Titanium (IV) Dioxide, and the Titanium Dioxide is first converted into Titanium (IV) Chloride through the complex chemical reaction shown below of Carbochlorination, condensed and purified by fractional distillation, and then reduced with molten Magnesium to obtain Pure Titanium in an Argon gas Shield environment to prevent any of the molten Magnesium from reacting spontaneously with the air · Titanium metal is used in producing Titanium-based alloys because of its many great properties it has a metal, including alloys of Titanium with metals like Manganese and Iron, and where strong, lightweight, temperature-resistant metals are needed for applications in airplanes, aerospace, and militaristic and commercial engines and machines, Titanium is there · Titanium takes 4,000 years to corrode by means of Oxidation from Oxygen in water, thus it is also used on the hulls of ships and in other sea-faring transportation materials · Titanium is used in and is made to produce Joint replacement implants, car hulls, drill bits, bicycles, golf clubs, watch cases, and laptop computers · Titanium in the form of Titanium Dioxide or Titania is one of the most common pigments, intensely white, with strong UV light absorption properties, and is used in white paint, food coloring, toothpaste, sunscreen, and some plastics that look white · Periodic Videos · Lightweight, but strong · In very low concentrations, it is used as additives for alloys · Quite abundant · Titanium Dioxide is found in many large deposits, such as in South Africa · However, production of Titanium from its oxide is hard since it is a very strong and stable compound, like most transition metal oxides · Used for components going into space · Light but Strong, and doesn't react with water, and with air it is very reactive but very stable once formed, so it can't rust, since it doesn't absorb moisture in the atmosphere · Titanium Dioxide is found all over the place, the walls are white with Titanium Dioxide, also known as Titania, a very cheap white pigment · To make it easier to produce Titanium from Titania other than using lots of heat energy and Aluminum, you can convert it by reacting it with Chlorine, in its +4 Oxidation state, 4 chlorine atoms are needed, makes the compound a little more reactive, and can convert Titanium Chloride into Titanium, provided it you can keep it cold, but at quite high temperatures with Oxygen it will burn · It is used for more valuable items as light and strong, since it is expensive, not as a metal since it is somewhat abundant, but in producing it from its Dioxide or Chloride, because it is tough and takes a lot of energy · Chemists also often use Titanium to perform high-pressure experiments because it is very light and strong, and can withstand pressure, especially since it isn't magnetic, and you can use them in magnetic fields under high pressure, since it is non-magnetic and thus can be subject to a magnetic fields, used where you need strength and not money, such as in hip implants · Titanium is also used as a catalyst, like all metals, because of their natural ability to transport electrons through them, from one place to another, since they do not hold onto their electrons strongly and thus have multiple oxidation states, so it is a good catalyst like all metals, specifically for making Polyethylene or simply plastic · And the reason Titanium was a good catalyst and supporter for Plastic Production, and still is today, is because it can withstand itself at extremely high pressures, and be subject to a magnetic field with no movement, so when Ethene is subjected to very high pressures it is polymerized and its molecules click together to form Polyethene or Polyethylene, and 1 gram of Titanium-Aluminum Alloy Catalyst is used to make 1 million grams of plastic · Theodore Gray · Titanium comes from the Greek God or Word, "Titan" meaning strength, as are many of Titanium's Alloys and Compounds, and for its use in jet engines, tools, and rockets · Like most transition metals, Titanium has multiple Oxidation States, thus giving it multiple ways of refracting light and producing certain lights and while in the 4+ Oxidation State, its most common form and color is white, such as in Titanium Dioxide, and thus can be used as a white pigment, and also leaves a white streak when scratched, so you will know if you have a titanium product if it leaves a streak of white, however if it doesn't, you don't have to worry about breaking a valuable object · Titanium is a nontoxic, nonallergenic, nonrusting metal and thus has various uses such as in artificial hip joints, dental implants, missiles, razors, rockets, jet engines, strong and hard alloys, golf clubs, body jewelry, and found as a White Pigment, the universal and most common of pigments, especially those that are White · Titanium in the form of Titanium Nitride is used for electric razor blades, drills, and milling bits · Titanium can be produced in a variety of ways like all common transition metals, by use of Reduction Agents and Electrolysis or Thermolysis smelting ore and mineral decomposition, so Titanium can be produced through hot wire Thermolysis decomposition of Titanium Iodide, or reduced in its White Pigment form with heat energy and Aluminum Powder, thus forming Titanium and Aluminum Oxide (Carbrorundum) · Titanium is also used to coat electrodes through electroplating · RSC Periodic Table · A hard, shiny, and strong as steel but less dense · Alloying Agent with Metals including Iron, Aluminum, and Molybdenum · Heat Resistant, Withstanding extreme temperatures and pressures · Used in Laptops, Bicycles, and Crutches · Corrosion Resistant, reacts with the air vigorously to form Titanium (IV) Oxide or Titanium Dioxide, however it doesn't react with water or moist air, therefore it can be replaced for anything useful that normally reacts with water, including metal applications for pipes in power plants and water turbine condensers, pipes in general, used in desalination plants and devices, protects the hulls of sea ships, and also used in submarines, and other structures exposed to sweater such as boats and yachts · Titanium metal connects well with bone, so it is mainly used as replacement joints, specifically with hip joints and in tooth implants · Titanium in the form of Titanium Dioxide is also used in solar observatories where heat radiation causes poor visibility to see stars, since it uniquely and easily reflects Infrared Light rather than absorb it, and is also used in sunscreen since it readily and easily reflects Infrared Light based on its molecular structure · 9th most abundant element on Earth · Present mostly in Igneous Rocks and their Sediments, Sedimentary Rocks as well · Present in the mineral ores of Ilmenite, Rutile, and Sphene · Titanium is produced by using a Reducing Agent through a Reduction Reaction, reducing Titanium (IV) Chloride with Magnesium through the "Chloride Process" producing Titanium and Magnesium Chloride

Vanadium (All Facts)

· Vanadium · Chemicool · In 1801, Vanadium was discovered by the Spanish scientist Andres Manuel del Rio who discovered it by extracting it from Thermolysis and smelting it from a Lead Ore, discovering a new metal he had never seen before (Lead Vanadate Chloride we now call it was the ore from which the Vanadium was extracted when it was heated) · He named the element Panchromium (in Greek, meaning all the colors) because of all the colors it made in solution, since he was ahead of his time and didn't know all the transition metals had various colors from various oxidation states in bonds due to various ionizations, he just investigated the metal's salts · In 1805, French chemist rejected this new Vanadium discovery (called Panchromium at the time) as an actual new metal element, with scientific evidence, and Rio was actually right, but his evidence backup wouldn't come until later · In 1830, Swedish Chemist Nils Gabriel Sefstrom, found the new metal in Swedish Iron ore and Frederic Wohler approved of its identity in the same year, however Sefstrom named it Vanadium after the Scandinavian word for beauty or "Vanadis" (also the Scandinavian Goddess of beauty) because of the multiple colored compounds it forms (based on its various oxidation states we investigate today) · In 1867, Vanadium was discovered through a Redox Chemical Reaction, specifically a Reduction Reaction using a Hydrogen Reducing Agent to react with Vanadium Chloride in solution, a common Vanadium salt, and thus drove off the Hydrochloric Acid produced, isolating the Vanadium, using Hydrogen rather than Carbon, Aluminum, or Silicon Reducing Agents, and the main mineral ore of Vanadium, Roscoelite, is named after him and his work · With Toxicity of Vanadium Compounds, a rule has been created in order to determine its toxicity: The Higher the Oxidation State of Vanadium, the Higher the Level of Toxicity, and therefore it is challenging to determine its toxicity · The reason so many transition metal compounds are colorful compounds and are used in dyes and pigments is based on a chemical and/or atomic property of transition metals, which pretty much determines most of their physical properties, in which they can have multiple oxidation states, in other words through metallic or ionic bonding, the actual atoms of the metal normally have 2 valence electrons in their outer shell in the same way Alkaline Earth metals do, and they have d orbitals thus all transition metals with d orbitals, being all the transition metals, have that area of probability in ionic forms, to have 1 valence electron naturally, 2 valence electrons, 3 valence electrons, and/or 4 valence electrons, and different metals have different combinations of oxidation states, or natural occurrences of valence electrons in its shells without ever actually becoming ionic since they already have some sort of electrical charge and want to cancel it with an anion or a naturally occurring negatively charged element · Thus, having multiple oxidation states means that if it does react with a more electronegative element to form an ionic bond, depending on the electronegativity difference and/or effective nuclear charge, more or the same electrons will go out of their shells, absorbing energy from the energy source which breaks and reforms the bonds to chemically react the transition metal with the anion, the reason transition metals are colored when reacting with anions is put that they have multiple oxidation states, and that Alkali and Alkaline Earth metals do not, so Transition Metals ionize after being heated to break its bonds and form bonds with the Oxygen or Sulfur or Chlorine or whatever the anion is, and thus electrically attracting to each other, the metal is ionized, wavelengths are emitted through photoelectric concepts explained in Part 7 Official Journal, and when bonding they are always a part of the molecule, stable with the anion, so after emitting or refracting such a color based on its emission spectra, it remains that color, and gives that physical property, that color, to the Oxide or Sulfide or whatever the compound may be, and so Chromium and Vanadium Oxides, Sulfides, and other compounds have many colors, and you can investigate the multiple oxidation states of Chromium as we will soon, and Vanadium as we will now · Vanadium's Oxidation States include +2 which is lavender purple, +3 which is green, +4 is blue, and Vanadium has a rare, poisonous, inadaptable +5 oxidation state, which is yellow, and you can see these colors not base don the energy you use to get the reaction going, but the chemicals you use to make them orientate into the specific oxidation state · A bright silvery white, soft, structurally strong, non-magnetic, corrosion-resistant transition metal · Therefore it doesn't react much with Acids to produce Hydrogen Gas and Salts, and also doesn't react with Alkalis or is there a Base or Acid within it, so it is pretty much useless in Acid-Base Chemistry · It isn't very reactive for that sense, and the way its oxide is chemically gives it Vanadium Pentoxide, which allows it not to be so reactive or involved with Acids, Bases, Salt Water, only the air for that matter, which makes the Pentoxide, and only at extremely high temperatures, like 6.5 times the boiling point of water · Vanadium is used for alloys, including steel, over 85% to give it Vanadium's unique properties, but not so much the color, and over 10% goes to Titanium alloys, adding different properties other than color such as heat resistance, toughness, and structural strength, the other 5% goes to making Ferrovanadium or Iron-Vanadium Alloys, which are also very special in their properties, Vanadium-Steel Alloys are used in Gears and Axles, while Titanium-Vanadium-Aluminum Alloys are used in Jet Engines, and finally Vanadium-Gallium Alloys in the form of tape is used in superconducting magnets and superconductors overall, Ford Model T Cars' chassis had a Vanadium-Steel Alloy in 1908 · Vanadium Pentoxide is used in ceramics and as a catalyst in the production of Sulfuric Acid · Found in over 65 different minerals and ores, it is smelted from ores, undergone in reduction reactions, used as a catalyst, and can be easily extracted from Fossil Fuel Deposits and in Aluminum Oxide Hydroxide (Bauxite) · Vanadium can also be produced by means of a Calcium Reducing Agent to its Pentoxide, making various Calcium Oxides, and leaving the Vanadium behind to isolate, use, and apply to · Periodic Videos · Vanadium can catch fire very easily and is very reactive with the air, but not with any other substance · You can mix a Zinc-Mercury Amalgam Solution, a liquid alloy because of the liquid properties of mercury combined with the Zinc, which are other oxidation stated elements which do not necessarily chemically react until redox points are reached, and some of the electrons in the Amalgam move over to the Vanadium, which is mostly ionized and colored, and as electrons begin moving since they are flowing freely in the amalgam like all metallic bonds, and are attracted to the positive charge of the Vanadium ions, this changes the Vanadium oxidation state as mixing allows for electrons to go through, however the Alloy itself is repelled positively with the positive Vanadium and thus they do not mix, but swirling the solution allows for flowing electrons to mix, changing the oxidation state of the Vanadium, and the color, and thus you can open the flask or tube up and let Oxygen get through, which reverses the Oxidation States, and thus allows for the electrons to be pulled back away from the Vanadium because of Oxygen's electronegativity and effective nuclear charge, and thus Vanadium Pentoxide, a very stable compound is formed, energy is given off in the form of heat, and the colors go from purple to yellow, instead of how they have been going from yellow to purple · Those Red Mushrooms with white spots you see in fairy tails, there are Vanadium Compounds, some of which are poisonous and it is theorized is found there because the mushroom plant itself produces toxins or poisons to ward off people or animals who may eat it · Theodore Gray · Vanadium is used in many alloys for various purposes because of its hardness, toughness, wear resistance, and its Emission Spectra indicates two interesting properties of Vanadium which are actually properties of most of the Transition Metals, not absorbing much heat and thus are all metals and solids at room temperature, and also makes most metals and their alloys heat resistant and also applied to pigments and dyes that aren't organic, simply because of the many emission spectrum lines or colors, and also due to the multiple oxidation states they have, which is the only concept not indicated by the Emission Spectra of Transition Metals · However Vanadium best exhibits these properties, for not only is it a solid metal with a much higher boiling point than most metals, but in its alloys it forms, they have much higher boiling points as a property from Vanadium, and also Vanadium and its alloys best exhibit their heat resistance and colorful inorganic pigments and uses of such pigments and colorful compounds because Vanadium has multiple Oxidation States, and a rare +5 Oxidation State, which happens to be yellow, and thus best exhibits these properties as a metal and in its alloys · Other Alloys with Vanadium's Properties include Ferrovanadium or Iron-Vanadium, which is a form of steel · Vanadium in the form of Vanadium Carbide are an alternative to the much harder tools and drilling bits of Tungsten Carbide, for Tungsten is harder, heavier, and also has a higher melting point, and Vanadium High Speed Steel can be used for drill and router bits, socket wrenches, pliers, and so on · Vanadium Impurities are also found in many Emeralds in the same way Chromium Impurities are found in Aluminum Oxide, which makes it Ruby, and thus Vanadium Impurities are found in Beryllium-Aluminum Silicate, which is naturally green, however that could be because of Vanadium's Oxidation State, which would take place of either the Beryllium or Aluminum, and thus emit a certain color to give the emerald a green tint although it somewhat clear · Vanadium in the form Lead Vanadate Chloride (Vanadinite) is one of its main ores and mineral forms · Vanadium is also added to Chromium to make Vanadium-Chromium Alloys, massively or commonly known to be used in wrenches

Chlorine (All Facts)

· Chlorine · Named after the Greek word "Chloros" meaning "pale green", (Chlorophyll is Green), it was discovered in 1774 by Karl William Scheele and first produced as an isolated gas, and Sir Humphrey Davy confirmed this new gas was Chlorine in 1811 · Combines with any element, even Noble Gases, second most electronegative element, other than that of Fluorine, and even Oxygen · Is used commercially as a bleaching substance and as a disinfectant or "chlorination" of water · Also found in Sodium Chloride and Calcium Chloride · Chlorine is used to purify or "chlorinate" water by killing off harmful bacteria · Today, Chlorine can be applied in compounds and used as Paper Products, Textiles, Petroleum Products, Medicines, Disinfectants, Pesticides, Foods, Paints, and Plastics like PVC and other Polymers as overall as well as other chemicals · Discovered, isolated, and produced in 1774 by the Swedish Chemist Carl William Scheele, Chlorine is the second closest reactive element to that of Fluorine as atomic number 17, and a halogen nonmetal · He discovered it by this chemical reaction · Reacting Potassium Permanganate with Hydrochloric Acid produces Chlorine Gas as well as Manganese Chloride, Potassium Chloride, and Water · Reacting Pyrolusite (Manganese Dioxide) with Hydrochloric Acid produces Chlorine Gas as well as Water and Manganese Chloride salts o The chemical reaction in which Chlorine can be isolated: § 2 K MnO4 + 16 HCl → 2 MnCl2 + 5 Cl2 + 2 KCl + 8 H2O o The chemical reaction in which Chlorine can be isolated: MnO2 + 4 H Cl (aq) -> MnCl2 + Cl2 (g) + 2 H2O · A greenish-yellow gas, heavier than Fluorine, very toxic and very poisonous gas in diatomic form · Used in World War I as a chemical weapon of poison · Chlorine Gas is quite heavy and dense so it will naturally sink to the bottom of any flask and turn its color, below what seems to be nothing but air · It can react with water to form Hydrochloric Acid, as all nonmetals react with water to form acids, and also forms Oxygen gas and Chlorine Gas corrodes things very easily, an effective weapon in war · The British Army created huge armies of "gas soldiers" who were really plainly trained chemists who were sent out to handle these cylinders of gas · The sea and ocean contain huge deposits of chlorine, mainly in the form of chlorites, chlorates, halites, and sodium chloride or table salt · Famous for the Sodium Chloride reaction · Famous for the Aluminum Trifluoride reaction which produces a bright yellow glue which consumes and oxidizes all the Aluminum in the reaction, Fluorine as well as Oxygen are two of the most powerful Oxidizing Agents · Prehistoric deposits of salt in prehistoric lakes, extracted from salt in oceans as it is mainly found in oceans, and right above sea level or land in the air · Also made from Sodium Chloride solution by Electrolysis processes and the energy produced in this process were once used by the British to power a few homes! · Chlorine is used and applied to making the plastic of popular polymer of PVC · Chlorine reacts with all sorts of metals like Aluminum to make Aluminum Trichloride (official aluminum salt), Sodium to make Sodium Chloride, Magnesium to make Magnesium Chloride (highly soluble in water), Iron to make Iron Chloride, Potassium to make Potassium Chloride (driveway/snowsalt), Copper to make Copper or Cupric Chloride, Zinc to make Zinc Chloride, and so on, Lead doesn't react with Chlorine though · In the manufacture of Chlorates, Polyvinyl Chloride Polymer (PVC), illegal Tetrachlorides of Carbon (CFC's) · The first chain reaction discovered was not a nuclear reaction; it was a chemical chain reaction. Max Bodenstein, who saw a mixture of chlorine, discovered it in 1913 and hydrogen gases explode when triggered by light. The chain reaction mechanism was fully explained in 1918 by Walther Nernst. · Chlorine is not only abundant in our oceans; it is the sixth most abundant element in Earth's crust. · Exposure to small amounts of chlorine, even for a short time, can be deadly · Occurs in Carnallite and Sylvite Minerals as well · Used not only as Oxidizing Agent but as Bleaching Agent and Disinfecting Agent and Sanitizing Agent as well as being used for textile processing · Bleaches work because · Disinfecting Agents work because · 3rd highest electronegativity, just behind Oxygen and Fluorine · 2nd lightest Halogen · Humphrey Davy was the one scientist who confirmed that Chlorine was not an oxide of some kind and that it was a singular, unique element, and during his time many thought chlorine contained oxygen and that fluorine contained oxygen because of how reactive both of the elements were and how soon they were to become distinguished as both being very reactive, but he tried advocating that they were different and did so when trying to react it with Charcoal or Carbon, which should have formed Carbon Dioxide Gas, but in his experiments did not so he concluded it couldn't have contained Oxygen and was its own gas · In reactions with Phosphorus and Ammonia, it also did not effect the substances as Oxygen normally would as Davy pointed out, and even used a battery to try to attract the Oxygen to a certain electrode on the battery and was the scientist most famous for producing and isolating alkali and alkaline earth metals using Electrolysis, so he also was able to name the element after the Greek word "Chloros" meaning "pale or yellow-green" although I personally would've called it "Davium" or "Humphrium" because this guy is the coolest and most underrated chemist of all time · 2nd most abundant halogen, 21st most abundant element in the Earth's crust · Since bleaches remove color by oxidation, reactive elements such as Chlorine are commonly used as Agents in Bleaching Products, and the smell of Chlorine is a lot like that of Bleaches such as Clorox, and Chlorine containing bleaches have lots of oxidizing agents as well · Chlorine can also be liquefied and solidified, Chloride ions have no color and thus are used as bleaches to remove color · Chlorine is applied to being used in swimming pools as a bacterial disinfectant and sanitizing agent · Chlorine is best know for being used in bleaches, specifically in compounds such as Sodium Hypochlorite and is soluble which means it dissolves in water to form a solution called bleach and is distinct from Chlorine as we just mentioned · Compounds of Chlorine with other halogens as well as many Chlorine Oxides are colored, however organic compounds of Chlorine with other Carbons are colorless such as with CC's · Chlorine Gas normally oxidizes, burns, and combusts Hydrocarbon Fuels · Halite, Sylvite, and Carnallite are the principles minerals and ores of Chlorine · The name "halogen", meaning "salt producer", was originally used for chlorine in 1811 by Johann SC Schweigger · We already went over its isotopes, Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-37, as well as its occurrence that it is common in 3 minerals, many waters like the Dead Sea in the form of salts, and was not created in the Big Bang but by complex nucleosynthesis processes · Found in Hydrochloric Acid, or Stomach Acid to dissolve complex compounds and also be neutralized by bases like Baking Soda · Its rich and multiple production reactions also span towards the rich chemistry and compounds it can form, especially in contact with Oxygen unlike that of Fluorine · Chlorine reacts with Hydrogen to produce Hydrochloric Acid or Muriatic Acid which is a Strong Acid which is mainly used to dissolve steel or metal like Iron, and also use as the basis (in chemical reactions) for Organic and Inorganic Compounds containing Chlorine (like CFC's (Organic) or PVC (Inorganic)) · Chlorine reacts with itself to produce Chlorine Gas · Chlorine reacts with Oxygen to produce Hypochlorite Ions, which are most likely found in the oxidizing and bleaching agent such as Sodium Hypochlorite and Calcium Hypochlorite which are used as Bleaching Agents · Chlorine reacts with 2 Oxygen atoms to produce Chlorite Ions, which are most likely found in Sodium Chlorite, and also Chlorine reacts with the Oxygen Gas of air to produce Chlorine Dioxide and is used as an Oxidizing Agent · Chlorine reacts with 3 Oxygen atoms to produce Chlorate Ions, which are most likely found in Potassium Chlorate and is used as a Bleaching Agent, and in Chloric Acid · Chlorine reacts with 4 Oxygen atoms to produce Perchlorate Ions, which are most likely found in Magnesium Perchlorate, which is, you guessed it, used as an Oxidizing Agent, as well as a "Gas Drying" agent, and in Perchloric Acid · Now knowing Oxidizing an Bleaching Agents are chemically common among chlorine compounds, we can acknowledge the work of three different chemists who developed Chlorine Bleaches and Applications · As a bleaching agent, Chlorine is used in many different compounds, particularly in Sodium Hypochlorite, which is produced by putting Chlorine Gas in a solution of Sodium Carbonate, and thus creates Bleach, or Sodium Hypochlorite and the resulting liquid is a weak solution as this was discovered by French Chemist Claude Berthelot in 1785 · As a bleaching agent, Chlorine could "chlorinate" or react with all these Oxygen atom quantities, as well as itself and with Hydrogen and metals, be they alkali, alkaline, or inner transition metals, and can also react with Oxygen as an overall ion and then react with metals, such as in Sodium Hypochlorite, and as such it could react with Calcium Oxide as a Hypochlorite Ion to produce Calcium Hypochlorite to make a bleaching powder when in its anhydrous form, as this was discovered by Scottish Chemist Charles Tennant a little later after 1785 · One method that was discovered to produce Sodium Hypochlorite was by the process of the electrolysis of brine or a solution of Sodium Chloride not to produce Sodium Hydroxide and Hydrogen Chloride or Hydrochloric Acid, but to produce Sodium Hydroxide, but Chlorine and Hydrogen Gas separate, driving off the Hydrogen Gas so Sodium Hydroxide and Chlorine Gas remained, and then putting the Chlorine Gas into Sodium Hydroxide as a solution of Sodium Hypochlorite, and Potassium or Calcium Hydroxide could also be used, driving out the Hydrogen Gas produced to form Potassium or Calcium Hypochlorite, this is known as the Chloroalkali Process and it was discovered by ES Smith whose origin to the world is unknown and which the company of Hooker Chemicals closely resembled the Hooker Process, industrially initiated in 1892 who are to this day responsible for Sodium Hypochlorite Production, Sodium Chloride and Water are possible byproducts · Chlorine gas was first introduced as a weapon on April 22, 1915, at the Battle of Ypres by the German Army, and the effects of this weapon on the allies were disastrous because gas masks had not been mass distributed and were tricky to get on quickly · Chlorine reacts with metals to produce various Chlorides with no specific applications, including Zinc Chloride, Copper Chloride, Iron Chloride, and Silver Chloride (which is used in photography) · Chlorine is produced mainly by the Chloroalkali Process, in which certain electrolysis of brine produces not Sodium Hydroxide and Hydrochloric Acid, but Sodium Hydroxide, and further electrolysis of aqueous Hydrochloric Acid, producing Chlorine and Hydrogen Gas in which the Hydrogen Gas is driven off, and the Chlorine Gas can be obtained · Chlorine can also be produced when Manganese Dioxide (Pyrolusite) reacts with Hydrochloric Acid as shown above · Chlorine can also be produced when Potassium Permanganate reacts with Hydrochloric Acid as shown above · Chlorine can also be produced when Oxygen reacts with Hydrochloric Acid, producing Chlorine Gas and Water in discrete proportions but requires a catalyst since Hydrochloric Acid (Muriatic or Gastric) doesn't spontaneously react and combust in air nor in your stomach, it is a very slow reaction which is over with by the time it begins to do you harm

Osmium (All Facts)

Periodic Videos A precious, "platinum group" metal Osmium Tetroxide can be evaporated easily, and thus smells, and has a strange smell Used in organic chemistry to react with Carbon-Carbon Double Bonds, Osmium is quite unreactive, although it isn't corrosion-resistant, so it is stored under a Shield Gas like Argon Chemicool In 1803, in London, Osmium was discovered by Smithson Tennant, famous for correctly asserting that diamond is Pure Carbon In the same year at the same time using the same methods, William Wollaston discovered Palladium and Rhodium, and Smithson Tennant discovered Osmium and Iridium Using the same geochemical purification and refinement processes and extractions of isolating Platinum from Platinum ores and dissolving it in Aqua Regia to produce a black, flaky, metallic, powdered precipitate distinguished to have different properties than any other metal, most people though it was graphite, but Tennant knew Carbon really well and knew this precipitate wasn't graphite but a new element Like Wollaston's series of chemical reactions involving Rhodium isolated from Rhodium Sodium Production, Tennant treated the powder to both an alkali specific to Sodium Hydroxide, and an acid specific to Hydrochloric Acid, and added water and heated both the solution with Sodium Hydroxide, and the solution with Hydrochloric Acid, and after many attempts, the alkaline solution contained Osmium, and the acidic solution contained Iridium, and that his how both elements were discovered, and he produced Osmium Tetroxide soon after isolating the Osmium, although it isn't that reactive, he must have had Oxygen present in his apparatus, or in his series of chemical reactions, a chemical contained the Oxygen, and this he named Osmium after the Greek word "Osme" meaning "smell" because its oxide had an unusual odor Although Osmium is non-toxic, its Oxide forms a quite pungent odor and can also cause skin, lung, and eye damage A rare, non-toxic, lustrous, hard, brittle, bluish-whitely colored, "platinum group", transition metal, it is the densest of all metals (and elements), and thus is in 1st place for density of all metals (and elements), and Osmium also has the highest melting point (and pressure of vaporization) of the "Platinum Group" Metals Osmium is used in alloys to produce very hard, dense alloys such as in "pacemaker" electrodes and their production, surgical implants, replacement heart valves, and in alloys with Platinum for various other surgical replacements and implants and other very hard alloys Osmium in the form of Osmium Tetroxide is used in Microscopy and Forensics, as a stain for fatty tissue Osmium is produced from geochemical purification and refinement processes and extractions from Nickel Ores, and also found in natural alloy-ores of Osmium and Iridium like the so-called Osmiridium

Cerium (All Facts)

When striking it, it sparkles, only other element that can do that is Iron, and that is because tiny pieces are falling off and quickly oxidizing in the air, being the second most reactive Lanthanide, it can fall apart quite easily as well, very tiny sizes of it are knocked off, and the surface area is high because it is small, so it has a large surface compared to its volume, and so it reacts with Oxygen very rapidly and heats up and burns into flame, nanometers of Cerium, and thus are formed into Cerium Oxide Used for staining glass Cerium Oxide is an additive to fuel to make it burn better and get more power Cerium Oxide can also be made from heating Cerium with water at high temperatures Used in permanent magnets like Neodymium Used in Organic Synthesis and Organic Chemistry because it is so reactive, second of the most reactive lanthanides

Arsenic (All Facts)

· 33- Arsenic · Chemicool · Arsenic, in the form of Arsenic Sulfide, has a long history, and Greek philosopher Aristotle in the 400's was the first to refer to it as "sandarach", Greek historian Olympiodorus of Thebes in the 500's had roasted arsenic sulfide in the presence of oxygen to produce white arsenic, or Arsenic Oxide. Albertus Magnus in the 1200's stated it was a metal, with metallic nature, and also stated how to produce arsenic by itself, by heating Arsenic Sulfide with soap, and were confirmed by Johann Schroeder in 1649 as the best methods of obtaining Arsenic, other than what would soon come as industrial production of the metalloid · The name derives from the Greek word "Arsenikos" meaning potent, since it is a poison · While Arsenic by itself is a little dangerous, Arsenic Hydride and Arsenic Oxide are just compounds you want to avoid all together even as a chemist, absorbed easily, and are very highly toxic and carcinogenic · Arsenic has a few different forms o The most common is Gray Arsenic, with the metallic luster, and the best of the forms for conducting electricity, only it is a semiconducting metal o The second most common is White Arsenic, a compound of Arsenic, Arsenic Oxide, prepared by heating Arsenic Sulfide (orpiment) in the presence of Oxygen o The third most common is Yellow Arsenic, an allotrope of Arsenic, it is a poor electrical conductor, has no metallic look, made by cooling gray arsenic gas in the air to a liquid o The least common is Black Arsenic, made by cooling Arsenic vapor at the boiling point of water, it is glassy but brittle and a poor electrical conductor · Although historically known and best used for but banned now as a poison, like we said before it is used in the electronics and semiconductor industry like Silicon, Gallium, and Germanium, like in the form of Gallium Arsenide, used as a semiconductor, in lasers and laser diodes, and in LEDs · Despite its extreme toxicity, less than a ten thousandth of a percent is essential for physiological growth · Most Arsenic can be produced as a by-product of processing and refining metals from the Copper Family in the Transition Metals, since it is mostly found in those types or kinds of minerals and ores · Periodic Videos · Arsenic in the form of Copper Arsenate was used a green dye and pigments for wallpaper and walls overall because there were no others known · Arsenic is poisonous, and although pure arsenic is somewhat toxic, it can react with mold to produce a lethally toxic compound which is compatible and can kill us directly, probably formed due to heat in people's homes and keeping the windows closed allowing the sun to be absorbed and make it hot and soon moldy · Famous as a poison · Applies as transistors, medication for livestock, banned in US for additive to chickenfeed · .

Indium (All Facts)

· A soft metal that melts at 150 degrees Celsius · Forms complexes with Organic Ligands · Used in Solder Alloys, as a Solder for soldering metals together · Expensive · Indium is used as a catalyst and in alloys like most transition metals · Indium Oxide is very transparent and reflective of light, used in LCD and other technological surfaces to see it · Many of Indium's salts are purple, as recognized by the name, named after "Indigo" which is the color of most Indium Salts, as well as purple or "violet"

Gold (All Facts)

· An attractive, valuable metal, it is the money standard used in most countries and throughout history, formed in bars and ingots, measured in grams and carats, used for accounting and storage purposes, its chemical symbol derives from the word for Gold in Greek or "Aurum" · It is very ductile and malleable and is very soft, happening to be one of the most ductile and malleable metal, as well as softest metal among those in pure, stable, elemental form · It is also an excellent conductor of heat and electricity · It reflects infrared radiation/light well which is used also for certain purposes · Normally Yellow in Color, but may look black or gray in ore form, and red or purple in divided form · May be formed into a foil to help shield spacecraft from the sun's heat, to help shield skyscrapers from the sun's heat as well and from oxidation with the air · In order to be made stronger because of its softness, it can be formed through the creation of gold-based alloys to make it stronger, and the purity or amount of gold used in these alloys is measured by the carat unit - in Latin means "Aurum" and thus that is where "Au" for its symbol comes from

Germanium (All Facts)

· Chemicool · As named eka-Silicon, properties and reactions put forth being correctly predicted in 1869 when the founder and creator of the Periodic Table, Mendeleev noticed the gap between Silicon and Tin, and predicted Germanium, just like Scandium and Gallium, and the two things that Scandium, Gallium, and Germanium all have in common is geographical dedications, Scandium after Scandinavia, Gallium after France, Germanium after Germany, and were all predicted by Mendeleev starting with Gallium, then Germanium, and then Scandium, and he extraordinarily was able to prove 2 distinct features of Germanium better than any of his other predictions, including its Density and Atomic Weight · Germanium was discovered and isolated in 1886 by German chemist Clemens Winkler, who in examining a mineral sample of a silver ore from a silver mine of course, the mineral was quite rare, Argyrodite, a Silver ore, contained many elements, and he was able to identify another element he had never seen before, naming it Germanium after the country for which the discoverer found it in, another historical common trend of these 3 elements- Scandium, Gallium, and Germanium · Sharing a history similar to Scandium involving Mendeleev's correct prediction of properties and its periodic position, sharing a language similar to Gallium deriving and being named after and for Germany, as well as being similar to Gallium in sharing some of the same properties, as well as Hydrogen as discussed in the Gallium doc, and as its main applicative use in the semiconducting industry, its main difference is its higher melting point · A non-toxic, lustrous, hard, gray-white, crystalline and brittle, semiconducting, infrared-transparent and infrared reflective, semi-metallic metalloid, it shares properties similar to Hydrogen in Water, and Gallium, expanding as it freezes, and having strong cohesive forces as a liquid, and its oxide salt is also infrared transparent, and is used for applications associated with optics · Its most common application is of which it and its salts are used, like Gallium, Selenium, Arsenic, Silicon, and Bismuth, used as a semiconductor, and uniquely used in the electronics industry in infrared spectroscopes, cameras, and detectors, since it reflects all infrared light really well, and absorbs most other forms of light, and also in transistors and integrated circuits · It shares properties of the nonmetals in which case it is a poor electrical conductor, and thus is used as a semiconductor and in the electronics industry often, but shares properties of the metals in which case it is used in alloys as an alloying agent and as a catalyst · Germanium is toxic to some bacteria, but not to animals, so it is used as an fungicide sometimes for some of its compounds · Germanium is challenging to produce, extracted from impure coal ashes and refining of impure metal, its main ore is only 7% Germanium, as Germanite · Periodic Videos · Is also very transparent to Infrared Light and thus reflects low frequency lights enough as a property, like most alkali and alkaline salts, to be used in lasers and other electronics

Chromium (All Facts)

· Chromium · Chemicool · In 1780, French Chemist Nicolas L Vauquelin recognized, discovered, and isolated Chromium metal, discovering in a mineral sample he found a certain salt, "Siberian Red Lead" as it was called, now known today as Chromium-containing Crocoite or Lead Chromate · He boiled the crushed Lead Chromate mineral with Potassium Carbonate in water after various attempts at isolating the metal, and finally he found it in producing Lead Carbonate, Potassium Salt, and Chromic Acid, dissolved the Potassium Salt in the chromic acid in his apparatus · In 1781, a year later, he had isolated the metal, removing the Lead from the mineral sample by reacting the Lead Chromate with Hydrochloric Acid, obtaining an oxide by evaporation, and heating the Chromium Oxide to obtain the Chromium · Chromium was named after the Greek word "Chroma" meaning color because it forms a variety of colorful mineral and chemical compounds · Hexavalent allotropes of Chromium are toxic, all others are not · Chromium is a silver, lustrous, hard, transition metal, which can take a very thorough polishing, and is odorless, tasteless, and malleable, but not ductile · Chromium metal corrodes or burns with the air to form a protective Oxide coating or layering after being heated to form Chromium Oxide, which just happens to be a beautiful green · Chromium is used in stainless steel and other alloys, and Chromium electroplating is used on Cars and Bicycles · Chromium is usually used as a catalyst and reducing agent · Chromium compounds are mostly valued for all the lively green, red, orange, and yellow pigments they make · Back then, Chromium was produced in various ways · Nucleosynthetically, Chromium is produced from Helium and Titanium nuclei fusing together · Industrially, Chromium is produced by thermolytically splitting its primary ore Chromite, or Iron-Chromium (II) Oxide · Commercially, Chromium is produced by oxidizing Chromite Ore to Chromium (III) Oxide, and then obtained by heating it and using a reducing agent, metals like Aluminum and Silicon to produce Carbrorundum (Aluminum Oxide) or Sand (Silicon Dioxide), and pure Chromium metal · Periodic Videos · Very lustrous, beautiful, shiny metal, used in alloys to make alloys brighter, shinier and is best used to electroplate certain materials and is primarily added to steel, plating bumpers · You can also have a bumpy-surfaced chromium metal, in which it absorbs a lot of the light, and thus doesn't reflect it as shiny very much · Theodore Gray · .

Cobalt (All Facts)

· Cobalt · Chemicool · Discovered and isolated from "blue glass" by George Brandt in 1735 and again in 1741, from the production and observations made of the blue-green glass · Cobalt derives from the word "kobold" which in German means "Goblin" or "Elf" or "spirit which lives in caves and mines and hunts" in Germanic Mythology · Most cobalt compounds are toxic if ingested, but if breathed they are not, and if touched they are moderately toxic · A bluish-white, lustrous, hard, brittle, chemically reactive, magnetic, ferromagnetic transition metal, it can stay magnetic up until 1120 degrees, its "Curie Point" as they call it · Used in alloys for corrosion and wear-resistant properties, used in Batteries and Electrodes, and for Electroplating uses · Cobalt Salts are used Pigments and for making the colors of blue and green in glass and ceramics · Cobalt-60 is used in cancer treatment to ionize Cancer cells produced most likely from a more harmful, deadly, cancerous form of radiation · Cobalt is found in Vitamin B-12, and thus is essential to life and is also a part of many enzymes and biochemical reactions · Cobalt can be produced from its ores, including its main ore Cobaltite (Cobalt-Arsenic Sulfide), Erythrite (Cobalt Arsenate Hydrate), Skutterudite (Cobalt-Nickel Arsenide), and Glaucodot (Cobalt-Iron-Arsenic Sulfide), and is found as a by-product in mining for Iron and Nickel, since it so closely organized to them as such on the Periodic Table · Cobalt-59 is its most common and stable isotope · Periodic Videos · Very good catalyst for doing catalytic reactions · Forms compounds like Oxides which are blue and used as blue pigments · Like Iron and Nickel, it is very magnetic, and is the second best ferromagnetic metal · Loudspeakers and TV set magnets contain Cobalt and need to use them because the magnetic force field from larger magnets could affect the electron guns from the Cathode Rays and the colors placed onto the Phosphor would be all messed up, so you need just the right magnetic quantity, so although it has a large surface area, Cobalt Magnets come in very small sizes compared to that of Iron · Mined and produced by being split from its ores in Katanga, Africa, a province in the DR of Congo, there was a war there in the 70's so they stopped mining Cobalt and thus Color TV sets stopped for quite some time in the US · Malleable

Mercury (All Facts)

· Commonly known as "quicksilver" since it is a liquid at room temperature at about 75 degrees Fahrenheit and has high surface tension and viscosity, and thus spreads out quicker than melting normal silver but still spreads slowly · Great conductor of electricity, but poor conductor of heat · Mostly found in the Mercury-based Mercury-Sulfide Ore called Cinnabar · Mostly used in thermometers, barometers, manometers, and lab vacuum pumps, which are all used to measure temperature and pressure · It is in limited use today because along with lead, many of the compounds it forms have high toxicities to that of humans, causing damage to the nervous and immune systems · Mercury Alloys are often referred to as Amalgams and are usually alloyed with Gold, Silver, Tin, and Copper · Silver-Mercury Amalgams are used in dentistry, and often contain small amounts of Tin and Copper · Strong and durable, they were used to fill tooth cavities, and sometimes gold was added to the 4-element alloy to make it soft enough to fit, until better technologies were invented - in Greek means "Hydrargyrum" and thus that is where "Hg" for its symbol comes from, in English this word means "liquid silver" and is also known in English as "quicksilver" for its mobile properties as a metal liquid at room temperature, although poisonous

Polonium (All Facts)

· Discovered by Pierre and Marie Curie in 1898, named after the country of Poland where Marie Curie grew up, although she worked on isolating it in France · It is a very rare natural element found in trillionth amounts of Uranium Ores · It is mainly used as a source of neutrons when it is bombarded with, and has over 25 known isotopes, with Polonium-210 decays into Lead-206 and produces a lot of energy of over 140 watts per gram of Polonium-210 decaying! · Beryllium Nuclei and decomposes until many neutrons · It is used to eliminating static electricity in machinery and removing dust from photographic films · Crucial material and used as a trigger for the center of atomic bombs · Very short half-life, 138 days

Cadmium (All Facts)

· In the Zinc and Mercury, Transition Metal group · Cadmium in the form of Cadmium Sulfide is known as a yellow and orange dye and glaze used in cast iron pots you might find in your kitchen, and used to color pipes in streets used to organize the functions of the gases in the pipes, and are so strongly fixed into the pipes that their not very toxic, however Zinc in large amounts is toxic, and Cadmium and Mercury are toxic nonetheless · Cadmium Salts are also used in batteries, for it is electrically conductive

Nickel (All Facts)

· Nickel · Chemicool · Nickel is an ancient metal, deriving back from its origins in Meteorites along with certain proportions of iron, followed closely in abundance compared to that of Iron, and date as far back as 5000 BCE · In 1754, Axel Cronstedt isolated Nickel by means of a Charcoal-Carbon like Reducing Agent which reduced the Nickel and oxidized the Carbon, being from "Kupernickel" which is German for "Goblin's Copper" since they tried mining a new compound to get copper but they found no copper and represented the problem with a mythological scenario of goblin enemies in their mines, and thus isolated the Nickel and named the element Nickel short from the German word "Kupernickel" and never again were goblins seen, for the Nickel came out now · Like Nickel, George Brandt who discovered Cobalt had isolated and named Cobalt to ward off myths miners created from their frustrations in extracting Cobalt and Nickel from their Arsenide compounds, and both had to do with isolating them scientifically to myth bust the goblins involvement · A hard, silvery-white, ductile, malleable, tarnish-resistant, high-polishable, ferromagnetic, thermally and electrically conductive transition metal, its Anide formations, or compounds are generally blue and green · Most Nickel is used for Corrosion and Tarnish-Resistant properties in alloys such as Stainless Steel, used to make most coins including the "Nickel" but not the penny or gold note, used for burglar-proof vaults and armor plating · Nickel is also used in magnets · Nickel is also used to make Nickel-Cadmium Standard Weston Cell Batteries, and Nickel-Metal Halide Batteries · Nickel can be produced from splitting its mineral ores which include Pentlandite and Pyrrhotite (Nickel-Iron Sulfides), Garnierite (Nickel-Magnesium Silicate), Millerite (Nickel Sulfide), and Niccolite (Nickel Arsenide), and by means of Reduction through Reducing Agents like Carbon, Silicon, and Aluminum · Nickel can be produced by the Mond Process using Nickel Carbonyl Gas to purify it to Nickel · Reaction of nickel metal with nitric acid producing nickel nitrate and brown nitrogen dioxide gas. For some reason the video says nickel nitrate is blue. It is in fact green, as you can see. · Live Science · Periodic Videos · Nickel is an allergen · Found in Canada · Nickel boils at room temperature, used in the Electroplating Industry, such as Iron and Steel and Chromium, plated the insides of Tin