Child Psych CH 11
Self Esteem
-One's overall evaluation of worth of self and feelings due to to this evaluation -Related to how satisfied people are with their lives and their overall outlook
By 18 to 20 Months of Age
Emerging recognition of the self becomes more directly apparent, when many children can look into a mirror and realize they are looking at themselves.
Attachment
Emotional bond with a specific person that endures across space and time
Identity foreclosure
premature commitment to an identity without adequate consideration of other options
Bowlby's Attachment Theory
-Influenced by ethological theories -Proposed that the attachment process between infant & caregiver is rooted in evolution and increases the infant's chance of survival. -The development & quality of infants' attachments are highly dependent on the nature of their experiences with caregivers. -Thought of the infant as competent & motivated, they use their caregiver as a secure base.
Interventions & Attachment
-Intervention studies in which parents in an experimental group are trained to be more sensitive in their caregiving. -Indicate sensitive parenting contributes to infants' and young children's security of attachment. -Demonstrate differences in mothers who went through the training.
Secure base
Refers to the idea that the presence of a trusted caregiver provides an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the child to explore the environment.
identity-achievement status
after a period of exploration, individual has achieved a coherent and consolidated identity base don personal decisions regarding occupation, ideology, and the like. individual believes that these decisions were made autonomously and is committed to them.
Identity Confusion
an incomplete and sometimes incoherent sense of self that often occurs in Erikson's stage of identity versus identity confusion.
identity-diffusion status
the individual does not have firm commitments regarding the issues in question and is not making progress toward developing them
foreclosure status
the individual has not engaged in any identity experimentation and has established a vocational or ideological identity based on the choices or values of others
Cultural Variations in Attachment
Infant behaviors in the Strange Situation are the same across many different cultures. Some interesting differences in Japanese infants--> all insecurely attached japanese infants were insecure/resistant, there were no insecure/avoidant infants.
The Self in Infancy
Infants have basic sense of self in the first months of life, more distinct at about 8 months.
Research on Identity Formation
Marcia (based on Erikson's work on identity formation), developed a method of classifying adolescents and young adults into one or more of four identity-status categories: Identity-diffusion status Foreclosure status Moratorium status Identity-achievement status
Ainsworth's Research
Purpose: to assess infant's attachment to primary caregivers Procedure: child exposed to various episodes. including two separations & reunions with caregiver & interactions with stranger when alone & when caregiver is in room. *Identified 4 attachment categories
Strange Situation
The procedure developed by Ainsworth to assess infant's attachment to their caregiver.
Attachment Theory
Theory based on John Bowlby's work that posits that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival.
Does Security of Attachment Have Long-Term Effects?
Yes. Children who were securely attached as infants are likely to learn to express their emotion in an appropriate way, have closer, more harmonious relationships with peers, more regulated and socially competent, etc.
Internal working model of attachment
the child's mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general that is constructed as a result of experiences with caregivers. the working model guides children's interactions with caregivers and other people in infancy and at older ages.
Identity vs Identity Confusion
the psychosocial stage of development, described by Erikson, that occurs during adolescence. During this stage, the adolescent or young adult either develops an identity or experiences an incomplete and sometimes incoherent sense of self.
Sexual Identity in Sexual-Minority Youth
-Young people who experience same-sex attractions and for whom the question of personal sexual identity is often confusing and painful -Disclose this information to others (i.e., "coming out") and are doing so at earlier ages than in previous cohorts -Estimated 2-4% of high school students in U.S.
Psychosocial moratorium
-a time-out during which the adolescent is not expected to take on adult roles and can instead pursue activities that may lead to self-discovery. -Erikson argued that it was important for adolescents to find the best identity for themselves, but it is only possible or acceptable in some cultures.
Influences on Identity Formation
-approach parents take with their offspring -the larger social context and the historical context
Middle Teen Years
-begin to agonize over the contradictions in their behavior and characteristics -still do not have cognitive skills needed to integrate their recognition of these contradictions into a coherent conception of self. -as a consequence often feel confused about who they really are
By middle to late elementary school
-conceptions of self begin to become integrated and more broadly encompassing, reflecting cognitive advances in ability to use higher-order concepts. -older children can coordinate opposing self-representations that they would have found mutually exclusive at a younger age (smart and dumb). their self concepts are strongly influenced by the opinions of others so they are vulnerable to low self esteem.
By 30 Months of Age
Almost all children can recognize their own photograph.
Identity Achievement
An integration of various aspects of the self into a coherent whole that is stable over time and across events.
Erikson's Theory of Identity Formation
-Adolescent or young adult either develops an identity or experiences one of several negative outcomes. -Identity confusion -Identity foreclosure -Negative identity
Identity in Adolescence
-Adolescents must begin to develop a sense of personal identity that incorporates numerous aspects of self. -This personal identity includes values and goals about future, political and religious beliefs, and sometimes sexual identity
By 2 Years of Age
Can exhibit embarrassment and shame
Sources of Self Esteem
Heredity, others, school & neighborhood.
At Age 3 to 4
-Understand themselves in terms of concrete, observable characteristics related to physical attributes physical activities & abilities, social relationships, and psychological traits. -Self evaluations during the preschool years are unrealistically positive
Origins of Sexual Identity
-Timing: puberty is most likely time for youth to being experiencing feelings of sexual attraction to others -Biology & environment: most current theorist believe that whether those feelings are inspired by members of the other sex or one's own sex is based primarily on biological factors, although the environment may also be a contributing factor.
Boys vs Girls
-Appearance and social behavior have a larger effect on girls self esteem -Athletic and scholastic competence and conduct have a larger effect on boys self esteem
Adolescence
-Begin to think of themselves in terms of abstract characteristics that encompass a variety of concrete characteristics and behaviors -Conceive of themselves in terms of a variety of selves, depending on the context.
In Elementary School
-Children being to refine their self conceptions, partly because they increasingly engage in social comparison. -Self concepts increasingly based on others' evaluations of them, especially those of their peers
Others' Contributions to Self Esteem
-Children concerned with winning parent's love and approval by age 2. -Accepting parents tend to have children with high self esteem and self esteem is typically lower for children whose parents are rejecting. -Children's self esteem increasingly affected by peers -Adolescents increasingly evaluate themselves on their own internalized standards.
Self
-Conceptual system of thoughts and attitudes about oneself -Can include thoughts about own physical being, social roles and relationships, and "spiritual" or internal characteristics
School and Neighborhood
-Effect of school environment most apparent in the decline of self esteem from elementary school to junior high. -Living in poverty is associated with lower self esteem.
The Caregiver-Child Attachment Relationship
-Harry Harlow's experiment with the monkeys who were kept in isolation for 6 months. -Results suggested that "mother love" is essential to normal social & emotional development.
Late Adolescence & Early Adulthood
-Individual's conception of self becomes more integrated and less determined by what others think. -Also frequently reflect internalized values, beliefs, and standards.
Self Esteem in Minority Children
-Minority children more likely to live in impoverished neighborhoods and to fall victim to prejudice which leads to lower self esteem -After age 10 this can sometimes reverse, African American children tend to have higher self esteem possibly because of the emphasis on their ethnic identity.
Factors Associated with the Security of Children's Attachment
-Parental sensitivity is the most crucial parental factor. -One key aspect of parental sensitivity is consistently responsive caregiving. -Securely attached infants have mothers who respond warmly to their infants & are sensitive to their needs. -Insecure/resistant infants have mothers who are inconsistent in their early caregiving. Sometimes respond promptly, sometimes do not. -Insecure/avoidant infants have mothers who seem to be indifferent and emotionally unavailable, sometimes rejecting their baby's attempt at physical closeness. -disorganized/distressed infants have mothers who sometimes exhibit abusive, frightening, or disoriented behavior. may be dealing with unresolved loss or trauma.
Heredity
-Physical appearance and athletic ability -Genetically based intellectual abilities & aspects of personality
Culture and Self Esteem
-Self esteem scores tend to be lower in East Asian cultures than in Western cultures -Appear to be fundamental differences in meaning of self esteem: Asian cultures self esteem related to contributions to the overall group or society, Western cultures self esteem related to individual accomplishments and self promotion.
Consequences of Coming Out
-Sexual Minority Youth: do not typically disclose same sex preferences to peers or siblings until about 16 1/2 to 19 years of age. -Do not tell parents until a year or two later, if at all. -If they do reveal sexuality to their parents, usually tell their mothers first.
Early Adolescence
-Thinking about self is characterized by several forms of egocentrism -Personal fable: involves beliefs in the uniqueness of one's own feelings and thoughts -imaginary audience: the belief that everyone else is focused on the adolescent's appearance and behavior.
The Process of Coming Out-
-first recognition: initial realization that one is somewhat different from others -test & exploration: the individual may feel ambivalent about his or her same-sex attractions but eventually has limited sexual contact with gays or lesbians and starts to feel alienated from heterosexuality. -identity acceptance: preference for social and sexual interaction with other sexual minority individuals and the person's coming to feel more positive about his or her sexual identity and disclosing it for the first time to heterosexuals. -final step-->identity integration: gay, lesbian, and bisexual individuals firmly view themselves as such, feel pride in themselves and their particular sexual community, and publicly come out to many people. Often arrival at this milestone is accompanied by anger over society's prejudice against members of sexual minorities.
Bowlby's 4 phases
1. preattachment (birth to age 6 weeks): the infant produces innate signals, most notably crying, that summons caregivers, and the infant is comforted by the ensuing interaction. 2. attachment-in-the-making (6 weeks to 6-8 months): infants being to respond preferentially to familiar people. typically they smile, laugh, or babble more frequently in the presence of their primary caregiver and are more easily soothed by that person. Bowlby saw this phase as a time when infants form expectations about how their caregivers will respond to their needs and accordingly do or do not develop a sense of trust in them. 3. clear-cut attachment (6-8 months to 1.5 yrs): infants actively seek contact with their regular caregivers. they happily greet their mother when she appears and may exhibit anxiety or distress when she departs. for the majority of children, the mother now serves as a secure base, facilitating the infant's exploration and mastery of the environment 4. reciprocal relationships (1.5 to 2 yrs & on): final phase. toddlers rapidly increasing cognitive and language abilities enable them to understand their parent's feelings, goals, and motives and to use this understanding to organize their efforts to be near their parents. as a result, more mutually regulated relationships gradually emerge as child takes increasingly active role in developing a working partnership with parents. separation distress declines.
Secure Attachment
A pattern of attachment in which infants or young children have a high-quality, relatively unambivalent relationship with their attachment figure. In the Strange Situation, a securely attached infant may be upset when the caregiver leaves but may be happy to see the caregiver return, recovering quickly from any distress. When children are securely attached, they can use caregivers as a secure base for exploration.
Insecure Attachment
A pattern of attachment in which infants or young children have a less positive attachment to their caregiver than do securely attached children. Insecurely attached children can be classified as insecure/resistant (ambivalent), insecure/avoidant, or disorganized/disoriented.
Sexual Orientation
A person's preference in regard to males or females as objects of erotic feelings.
Insecure/Resistant (Ambivalent)
A type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than exploring their environment. In the Strange Situation, insecure/resistant infants tend to get very upset when the caregiver leaves them alone in the room. When their caregiver returns, they are not easily comforted and both seek comfort and resist efforts by the caregiver to comfort them.
Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment
A type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the Strange Situation. Their behavior is often confused or even contradictory, and they often appear dazed or disoriented.
Insecure/Avoident Attachment
A type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children seem somewhat indifferent towards their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver. In the Strange Situation, they seem indifferent toward their caregiver before they leave the room and indifferent or avoidant when they return. If the infant gets upset when left alone, he or she is as easily comforted by a stranger as by a parent.
Negative Identity
identity that stands in opposition to what is valued by people around the adolescent.
moratorium status
individual is exploring various occupational and ideological choices and has not yet made a clear commitment to them