Child Psych- Exam #3

In the United States, approximately __________ percent of people are left-handed or mixed-dominance and __________ percent are right-handed.

12; 88

The earliest memories that adults can recall, on average, are from about age __________.

3½ years

When Luis brings his artwork home from school, his mother is excited to notice that for the first time it has his first name on top-and it was printed not by the teacher, but by Luis! From this information, we can infer that Luis is most likely __________ years old.

4 to 5

Studies reveal that hand preferences continue to strengthen, at least for highly skilled movements, through the age of __________.

6

__________ is a pattern in which small environmental effects of child behaviors become magnified across time or age, leading to larger environmental effects or larger changes in the child.

A developmental cascade

__________ is gross failure to provide for a child's basic physical, educational, or emotional needs.

Child neglect

__________ is an understanding that basic properties of substances, such as number, mass, and volume, remain the same after a transformation changes their appearance but not the amount of the substance.

Conservation

__________ refers to inhibiting the most typical action in a situation in order to activate a less typical and more adaptive action.

Effortful control

Mei is a Chinese child, Grace is a first-generation Chinese American child, and Elizabeth is a European American child. All three children are between ages 3 and 4½. Based on longitudinal studies of cultural variation in emotional understanding, which child is likely to have the highest degree of emotional knowledge?

Elizabeth

__________ is a set of print-related and oral language skills relevant to the process of eventually learning to read.

Emergent literacy

__________ is the ability to modulate one's emotional arousal depending on the situation.

Emotion regulation

__________ refers to the inner sense of being male or female.

Gender identity

Which statement about contemporary views of Piaget's work is true?

It is necessary to understand Piaget's theory in order to grasp current research.

Which of the following statements is true about maltreated children?

Maltreated children have fewer opportunities to interact with a responsive adult.

Fatimah moves around her preschool classroom with a great deal of freedom, choosing the activities that she wants to do. Her teachers do not direct her or interrupt her choice of activities. Fatimah is likely attending __________.

Montessori preschool

__________ refer(s) to standards emphasizing issues of harm, personal welfare, and individual rights.

Moral rules

__________ of adults occurs when children copy adults' actions that are irrelevant to the task at hand.

Overimitating

Which of the following gender and/or cultural differences have been found in children's autobiographical narratives?

Parents have more frequent conversations about past events with girls than with boys.

Kevin suffers from food insecurity, and he is likely to become an obese child. What accounts for the relationship between food insecurity and child obesity?

Parents in food-insecure families tend to buy fewer vegetables and more unhealthy treats when money is available.

Which is the correct developmental progression in the development of children's understanding of aspects of the theory of mind found by researchers?

People may have different desires about the same object; another person may hold false beliefs about the contents of a container when the child knows what is in the container; people may feel one emotion but display another.

__________ is playful fighting that involves positive emotions.

Rough-and-tumble play

Which of the following is proposed as a likely developmental cascade in maltreatment?

Stress leads to abnormal levels of cortisol, which can damage the brain.

__________ is the understanding that one object or action can stand for another.

Symbolic representation

Saanvi, a preschool girl, is often praised by her teacher for her drawings. According to research, why do preschool girls typically have better drawing skills compared to preschool boys?

The bones of the hands and wrists of girls are more mature than those of boys at this age.

Based on PET scanning studies, why are 4-year-olds likely to become engaged quickly when exploring a children's museum, but become mentally fatigued after a short time and want a snack?

Their brains are using energy at a very high rate, and they need to reenergize by resting and having a snack.

__________ is a theoretical perspective that views children as continually forming and testing ideas about how things work in the world around them.

Theory theory

Cicchetti and colleagues (2011) found that attachment-building and psychoeducational interventions with maltreated children increased the security of attachment compared to a community standard treatment control group. What effect did these interventions have on cortisol levels in maltreated children?

They essentially normalized cortisol levels.

__________ aggression becomes more common as children's language skills grow.

Verbal

Which statement is true about infectious disease?

Very few children die of infectious disease in the United States.

Which statement about Vygotsky's theory is accurate?

Vygotsky's theory has obvious applications to education

DeLoache's concept of dual representation is the understanding that __________.

a symbol can be both a concrete object and a representation of a different concrete object

The most common chronic illness in early and middle childhood in the United States is __________.

asthma

From recent research, it seems that handedness begins to develop __________.

before the baby is born

The most common type of child maltreatment is __________.

child neglect

Deaf children and children with autism often have __________.

considerable delays in passing false-belief tests

Research studies show that bilinguals who successfully learn both of their languages are nevertheless slightly behind monolinguals in terms of __________.

development of receptive vocabulary and speed of word retrieval

Rachel has started to draw tadpole people. She is in the __________ stage of drawing.

early pictorial

The most common cause of emergency room visits for children ages 1 to 14 in the United States is __________.

falls

Between the ages of about 4 and 5, most children start to be able to attribute __________ to other people.

false beliefs

When children use __________, they quickly acquire an approximate meaning of a word from a few exposures to the word used in context.

fast mapping

Yen is Chinese. His mother shared with his entire family that he did not behave that day in preschool. By sharing Yen's misbehavior with the family, Yen's mother intends to make him __________.

feel guilty or ashamed

Researchers have found that modeling a preference for __________ provides a source of social learning for young children.

fruits and vegetables

Compared to children who master the concept later, children who master the cardinality concept by age 4 __________.

have an advantage three years later on grade-1 mathematics tasks such as addition and subtraction

Pam's mother physically abuses and psychologically maltreats her. From this information, it is likely that Pam and her mother __________.

have an insecure or disorganized attachment relationship

Becky, who just celebrated her third birthday, has trouble catching a ball if it is small. The reason for this is most likely __________.

immature visual-motor coordination among young children

All types of aggression are less frequent from 4 to 8 years of age, most likely due to __________.

improvements in effortful control and emotion regulation

In studies designed to establish causal influences of parenting on child behavior (Cowan & Cowan, 2002; Cowan et al., 2005), parents (not children) received intervention. Children showed benefits from __________.

improvements in the marital relationship and parenting practices

An analysis of 26 longitudinal studies by Lansford et al. (2012) found that mild spanking was about as effective as other discipline methods that did not use spanking, such as verbal reminders and time-outs. The researchers argued that past results showing an association of spanking with problem behavior in children __________.

included some families that used more severe spanking, and it is only in those families that negative outcomes of spanking are found

Four-year-old Michael pushes his 2-year-old sister away from his toy truck, and she falls and begins to cry. He proceeds to play calmly with the truck. His mother crouches down at his eye level and says, "You pushed Sarah. How do you think that makes her feel?" This parenting technique is known as __________.

inductive reasoning

Young children have difficulty with __________, which involve mastering aspects of language like tenses or creating the plural form of words.

inflections

Which of the following is a central aspect of executive functions?

inhibition of responses

Jason grabs a toy from Hayley's hand because he wants to play with it. Jason is demonstrating __________ aggression.

instrumental

A criticism of Vygotsky's theory is that it __________.

is hard to measure some of the key concepts

Lead exposure in young children __________.

is worsened in its effects by a poor diet

The highest rates of asthma are seen in __________ children.

low-SES

Bianca is a shy, nervous, and obedient child. According to a study by Hart, Atkins, and Fegley (2003), Bianca would be classified as a(n) __________ child.

overcontrolled

Tami explains some of the rules of the household to her son Louis, age 3, and when Louis breaks a rule, she reminds him gently of the rule. When he continues to violate the rule about cleaning up his toys, she shrugs and says to herself that he might be too young to understand. Tami then cleans up the toys herself. The parenting style that best fits her is __________.

permissive

The understanding that spoken words can be broken down into smaller sound-parts is called __________.

phonological awareness

In sub-Saharan Africa, __________ is/are the most frequent killer(s) of young children.

pneumonia and diarrhea

Amithi talks quietly to herself as she pretends to cut her doll's hair. "Cut the side," she says. "Here too." She cuts some more with her pretend scissors. "Cut the front," Amithi says. Amithi is using __________ to guide her actions and attention.

private speech

Gender __________ is the tendency for boys and girls to play in same-sex groups.

segregation

Although lead has been banned from gasoline for four decades, lead is still found in __________.

soil near streets with heavy traffic

Researchers found that parents in Taipei and Chicago brought up their children's misdeeds in little stories intended to teach the children moral values. The difference was that Chinese parents __________, whereas American parents __________.

sought to correct the child's behavior; wanted to promote the child's autonomy and self-esteem

When a child follows the __________ principle when counting, he or she always says number words in the same sequence, even if the order is initially wrong.

stable order

Which of the following is a risk factor in child maltreatment?

substance abuse

Helena counted five clouds in the sky. She understands that the number five represents the total number of clouds in the sky based on __________.

the cardinality principle

Lev Vygotsky called the gap between children's ability to solve a problem independently and their ability to solve it with the help of more capable partners __________.

the zone of proximal development

Low-income families who got their food from Supplemental Nutrition Centers in three cities were recruited, and a group of aggressive children was identified. They were assigned randomly to a program called the Family Check-Up, which was designed to prevent conduct problems in the children by improving parenting practices, enhancing marital relationships, and helping with child care and housing. The control group received only nutritional services. After two years in the program, children in the treatment group __________.

were less aggressive based on teacher ratings

Children tend to repeat new words they have just heard, making it likely the word will be used by adults in a slightly different way than before. This particular practice is thought by researchers to facilitate the learning of __________.

word meanings

By changing the number of items in Piaget's conservation test, subsequent researchers found that __________.

young children make fewer preoperational errors than Piaget thought

Joy, a mother, and Trey, a father, have three children. If they are like most couples, who is most likely to reinforce gender-typed behavior in their children?

Trey is more likely to reinforce gender-typed behavior than Joy.

In young children, guilt differs from shame in that guilt seems to involve __________.

a child's realization that he or she has harmed or disappointed another person

A person's internal guidance system that regulates conduct without the need for external control is referred to as __________.

a conscience

When Carlos tries to solve the conservation of liquid task, he focuses only on the way the water in the glass looks instead of the volume of water. Carlos is using __________ to solve the conservation task.

a focus on appearances

Researchers found that Korean children performed better than British children on measures of inhibition and switching. The investigators attributed this to __________.

a greater emphasis in Korean culture on quietness, restraint, and waiting for one's turn

Fiona's parents meet her attempts to be independent with warmth and fairness. Fiona and her parents are demonstrating __________.

a mutually responsive orientation

Research on the impact of Sesame Street and other educational TV programs has shown that these programs have __________.

a positive impact on print-related, oral language, and number recognition skills

Young children have __________, a tendency to view themselves in a favorable or overly favorable light.

a positivity bias

Studies have shown that home visitation with mothers who are at high risk for child maltreatment results in __________.

a reduction in official cases of child maltreatment compared with a control group

Adele got a new toy for her brother. "Let's put it in a shoe box so he will think it is a pair of shoes!" she says. Adele is demonstrating __________.

a theory of mind

A common factor underlying some of the atypical behavior of children with both Tourette's syndrome and ADHD is __________.

abnormalities in the frontal lobe of the brain

When researchers asked children in grades 1 to 5 specific questions regarding how similar in behavior, appearance, and gender identity they were to boys or girls, they found that __________.

about 30 percent identified with both genders about equally

When making judgments about the personalities of other people, children are biased toward __________.

accepting positive behavior as an indicator of the person's personality

In the United States, the most common cause of injury or death for children under 5 is __________.

accidents

Researchers asked children to compare their personality traits to those of puppets. They found that children's judgments about their own personalities __________.

agreed well with their parents' ratings

According to dynamic systems theory, a child might get parts of the kicking motion, but the movements may be awkward for a time. In order for the full kicking motion to emerge in the child's behavior, __________.

all elements of the skill must develop and become coordinated together

Jennifer wants her toy bear to be tucked in with her at night, "Because he might get cold," she explains to her mother. This is an example of __________ in children's thought.

animism

In terms of discipline techniques, most social scientists and medical, legal, psychological, and educational professionals __________.

are against spanking

A researcher recorded conversations of 4-year-olds and parents at a zoo. She found that children took many opportunities to learn about animals as living things by __________.

asking an adult questions about biological processes

A study using a nationally representative sample of over 12,000 children found that children who were matched on a wide variety of demographic variables, but differed in amount of exposure to spanking, found that spanking was __________.

associated with increases in children's externalizing behavior

Children are more successful in learning the meaning of a word if they hear it once a day for several days than if they hear it five times in one day. This illustrates the importance of __________.

associative learning

Rolando is very controlling with his children-he expects them to comply immediately with every request he makes. He is also not very warm or responsive to his children. Rolando exemplifies __________ parenting.

authoritarian

Stan and his wife agree that children should always mind their parents with no questions asked. When their daughter ignores them, they immediately give her a light spanking and say loudly, "Now what did I ask you to do? Do it now!" The parenting style that best fits them is __________.

authoritarian

Baumrind (1967, 1971) found that children of __________ parents tended to be independent, self-reliant, cheerful, and cooperative with adults and other children.

authoritative

Kim is very warm and responsive to her daughter, but she also shows a high degree of control. Kim uses __________ parenting.

authoritative

Mia remembers her first day of preschool, including meeting her teacher. This type of memory is a(n) __________ memory.

autobiographical

Anthony has always liked to talk to his son, Deon, and did so even before Deon could talk back. He reads stories to the child, and sometimes even reads the newspaper out loud. Whenever Deon asks a question, Anthony tries to answer and to engage the boy in conversation. Compared to other children his age without the same experience, Deon's knowledge of words is likely to __________.

be more detailed

Studies of children who attended Head Start generally show __________.

benefits for language and academic skills that mostly fade by the end of grade 1

Brain development and motor practice are __________.

bidirectionally related

For most children, there is evidently a biological-behavioral interaction in which small differences in __________ lead young boys and girls to behave somewhat differently and to seek out different experiences.

brain organization at birth

In studies showing that children can connect concepts to behavior-and vice versa-when children ages 4 to 5 are told that a girl in a story is "unselfish," they __________.

can predict that she will share with other children

According to the NICHD Early Child Care study, language and cognitive skills are higher at age 3 to 4 years for children in __________ care compared to children in __________ care.

center-based; home-based

When Jared tries to solve the conservation of liquid task, he focuses only on the height of the water in the glass and ignores all other information that could help solve the problem. According to Piaget, Jared's error in solving the conservation task is a result of __________.

centration

According to Piaget's theory, the two typical errors in preschoolers' thinking are __________.

centration and focus on appearances

Although children under age 6 sometimes confuse appearance and reality, as Piaget said, studies by Flavell and others reveal that __________.

children as young as 3 can make appearance-reality distinctions under certain carefully designed experimental circumstances

The wug test, which uses nonsense words, is an excellent way to test whether a child has acquired a particular inflectional rule (such as the past tense or plural rule) because __________.

children must apply their knowledge of a rule to a nonsense word (such as turning wug into wugs to indicate use of the plural rule)

Huberto's father talks fairly often about familismo and respeto. Though Huberto is only 4, he knows what his father means. Familismo means being affectionate with the relatives, and respeto means being polite with them. In many Latino families, parenting stresses __________.

close family ties

Lead exposure in early childhood has long-term effects that cannot be brought down using mineral and nutritional treatments. What are those effects?

cognitive, attentional, and behavioral difficulties

A longitudinal study about what children know about living versus non-living things found that 3- and 4-year-olds __________.

confuse objects that can move (mobilized toys) with living things

According to the story of Sally and Anne in the text, about where Sally will look for the marble that Anne hid, 3-year-olds __________.

confuse what they know with what Sally knows

Leo, age 4, complains that his cookie is smaller than his sister's, age 8, even though they are the same size. She breaks his cookie in half and says, "There, now you have more!" Leo is satisfied. This suggests that Leo lacks understanding of __________.

conservation of area

Evidently there is __________ for handedness for the first two years.

considerable brain plasticity

Cain and Judith, both 3 years old, are playing house, which demonstrates __________ play.

cooperative pretend

Miller and Emmet are taking turns being astronauts and evil aliens. In __________, children take turns pretending to be something or someone.

cooperative pretend play

Analyses of MRI data from over 1,000 participants of the PING study showed that cortical thickness __________.

decreases between early childhood and middle childhood

When 3- to 4-year-old children are asked, "Who are you?" they tend to provide __________.

descriptions of physical attributes, preferences, and simple psychological concepts, such as nice and happy

Boys and girls at age 5 __________.

differ slightly, with boys being heavier and taller on the averag

Jani and Jessica are identical twins. In studies of identical twins, researchers have found __________ prosocial behavior and behavior problems.

differences based on the environments of identical twins in

From ages 3 to 7, Julian is highly aggressive-he gets into fights at school constantly, and he has been expelled from school several times. Based on longitudinal research, Julian is more likely than average to experience __________.

difficulties in social adjustment and academic achievement

Baumrind suggested that the typical Chinese parenting style may overlap with the __________.

directive (moderate warmth, high control) subgroup of authoritative parents

Many factors work together in motor development, according to __________.

dynamic systems theory

Synaptic density reaches a peak in __________ in language areas of the brain as well as the prefrontal cortex and then declines by adulthood due to pruning of unused synapses.

early childhood

Researchers assigned children to watch three types of television shows and examined the immediate effect on performance of executive function tasks. They found that __________.

educational programs and slow-paced cartoons produced higher executive function performance than fast-paced cartoons

"What is that?" Cleo asks."What?" her friend Shawntel says."That!" Cleo repeats. She is referring to a huge bird right outside the window."What?" repeats Shawntel, who is looking around the room, not outside.When Cleo saw the bird, she assumed that anyone else would see the same thing. She was demonstrating what Piaget called __________.

egocentrism

Cece assumes that everyone has the same point of view that she does. According to Piaget, Cece is demonstrating __________.

egocentrism

During lunchtime, Tavius and his friends plan what they will play during recess. Tavius and his friends are demonstrating __________ attention.

executive

Jayla is playing Simon Says, a game that requires keeping multiple rules in mind and only imitating actions of the game leader (such as putting your hand on your head) if it is preceded by the phrase, "Simon says." This game requires heavy reliance on __________.

executive functions

Kara's mother promises her that if she behaves well at the grocery store, Kara can have her favorite ice cream for dessert. At the store, Kara consciously controls her behavior so she can reach the goal of ice cream for dessert. Kara's strategy demonstrates __________.

executive functions

Researchers have found that children who use more private speech as they solve problems show higher levels of __________.

executive functions

The large-scale PING study found that the largest changes in brain structure (both cortical surface area and cortical thickness) occurred in the prefrontal cortex. Which cognitive functions that change rapidly in early childhood are most likely to be correlated with the brain changes?

executive functions

Coordination of small groups of muscles, such as those required for drawing or writing, fall under __________.

fine motor skills

Alberto is learning to kick. Seeing a soccer ball on the playground, he walks up to it and kicks it with a straight leg. The rest of his body does not seem to take part in the kick. Alberto appears to be in the __________ stage of learning to kick a ball.

first

Chandler's family often does not have access to nutritious food. Chandler's family experiences __________.

food insecurity

In the card-sorting task in which children first sort on the basis of shape and then have to shift to sorting on the basis of color (or vice versa), there is a transition in ability to switch rules between ages 3 and 4 years. Using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), researchers found that these behavioral improvements were associated with a rise in brain activity in the __________.

frontal lobes

Throwing and kicking are examples of __________ that form the foundation for movements integrated together in playing games and sports.

fundamental movement skills

In teaching Timor to make cookies, his father allows Timor to observe the process and then invites him to participate. This scenario illustrates __________.

guided participation

Researchers in the Family Life Project study of families in rural Appalachia and North Carolina found that executive functioning was lowest when children __________.

had high levels of cumulative risk

A study (Mischel & Ebbesen, 1970) placed 4-year-olds in front of a food treat and promised them a larger treat if they could resist the urge to eat the one already in front of them for five minutes. When these children were followed up at age 17 (Mischel, Shoda, & Rodriguez, 1989), those who had been better at holding out for the larger treat __________.

had higher SAT scores

Luna has three cats that she helps to care for at home. Based on this, we can expect that Luna will __________ compared to children who do not grow up with pets.

have a better understanding of animals' biological processes

Natalie, a girl, has classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia (C-CAH). If she is like other girls with C-CAH, then she will __________.

have a tendency to prefer masculine activities, toys, and playmates

According to DeLoache's research, children younger than 3 have trouble understanding that a small toy hidden in a scale model provides the information they need to search for a large version of the toy in a full-size room. Children below age 3 do not __________.

have dual representation

According to longitudinal studies in both the United States and China, preschoolers who __________ are more successful in social interactions with peers.

have higher than average emotional competence at 3 to 4 years of age and express more positive and fewer negative emotions with peers

In an experiment, children with a history of physical abuse spotted angry faces more quickly than did neglected or non-maltreated children. This is thought to occur because abused children __________.

have learned to detect anger from the caregiver as quickly as possible as a coping strategy

Many sleep problems of young children can best be addressed by __________.

having a consistent bedtime routine

Researchers found a correlation between more frequent nightmares in children and __________.

having more conflict with parents during the day

Typical Chinese parenting practices appear directive or authoritarian to American observers. However, they are normative in China and are associated with __________.

high academic competence

Compared to days that she gets to spend at home, when Katie spends her day in child care, her cortisol levels are __________ in the afternoon.

higher

Children who attend child care programs with warm, responsive caregivers and stimulating activities tend to score __________.

higher in early literacy and numeracy skills than children in less stimulating and responsive child care programs

Compared to children who did not participate in the High/Scope Perry preschool program, children who participated showed __________.

higher rates of employment and earnings

The "no-nonsense parenting" style found among some low-income, urban-dwelling African American families is associated with __________.

higher school achievement

Moderate- to high-quality child care is linked to __________.

increased social competence

Using MRI scans from over 1,000 children, adolescents, and young adults, the PING study showed that the surface area of the cortex __________.

increases between early childhood and middle childhood in areas involving executive functions, language, and memory

Exposure to secondhand smoke __________.

increases the risk for sudden infant death syndrome

When authoritarian parents in the United States try to control their children's behavior by means of psychological manipulation, this parenting style is associated with __________.

internalizing and externalizing problems in childhood and adolescence

The average growth rate of white matter __________.

is rapid in infancy, and then grows at a slower rate in early childhood through early adulthood

In keeping with gender schema theory, when researchers showed children items usually preferred by boys, items usually preferred by girls, and neutral items, the items the children remembered best a week later were __________.

items preferred by children of their own gender

Kaylona's parents help her figure out how she is feeling and why she feels that way. Kaylona's parents are helping her understand her emotions by __________.

labeling and providing explanations for emotions

Across cultures, boys tend to prefer __________, and girls tend to prefer __________.

large muscle activities; activities involving a social element and fine motor control

When children start learning their second language at age 5 to 9 years, they __________.

learn the second language as quickly as the first, but only when it is spoken across multiple contexts (school, home, and community)

The Abecedarian study, which provided full-day, year-round education to low-income African American children from 6 weeks to 5 years of age, __________.

led to higher attendance at four-year colleges, compared to the control group

Compared to older children, younger children are __________ able to resist doing something that their parents say is dangerous.

less

At first Alexandro's letters were just scribbles. Then he started lining up marks from left to right. When Alexandro learned to copy some letters, he put them down in random sequence. Finally, Alexandro started spelling out familiar words. This process is called __________.

letter knowledge

One consequence of having a theory of mind is that children become able to __________.

lie

When interviewed, children's concepts of a friend in early childhood is someone who __________.

likes and plays with the child, shares toys, and has fun with the child

Uninvolved parents are __________ in warmth/responsiveness and __________ in control.

low; low

Milo, age 3, needs reminders from his parents to follow safety rules when he plays outside. Milo's parents read an article about research on children and safety, and they know he needs these reminders because he __________.

may forget the rules or fail to think about the rules before acting

Oscar is extremely sick, and his parents will not take him to the doctor for treatment. Oscar is experiencing __________.

medical neglect

Reading stories to young children is thought to enhance __________ skills that are important to reading comprehension in school.

memory and language

Language development and therefore also social interaction can be temporarily affected by __________.

middle-ear inflammation or infection

Children learning two languages simultaneously __________.

mix sounds, words, and grammatical rules from both languages, both when they speak and when they comprehend

Children exhibiting higher rates of prosocial behavior tend to have parents who __________.

model prosocial behavior and coach their children in emotion regulation

Ivy has a sense of __________, or an understanding of right and wrong, and is able to act accordingly.

morality

Carlita is Mexican American, and she grew up in the United States. Elena is a Mexican American immigrant. Based on the findings of a study by Knight & Kagan (1977), Elena is likely to be __________ compared to Carlita.

more cooperative and prosocial

Parental income and education levels are related to children's receptive and expressive vocabulary at age 2 to 4 years. The differences among families may occur because parents with higher income and/or education levels __________.

more frequently play language games and talk about picture books with their children

Children who spend 20 or more hours per week in non-parental care between birth and 4½ years of age are __________ than children raised exclusively at home.

more likely to have problems with aggression and non-compliance in the early elementary school years

The earliest memories may be lost because infants encode information __________.

non-verbally

Injury and fatality rates are highest among Native American and African American children in part because __________.

of poverty, resulting in exposure to unsafe housing or unsafe neighborhood environments

"The ball falled down," young Justin says. His speech demonstrates a(n) __________.

overregularization error

Liling and Mei sit next to each other in preschool. Each is coloring a picture. They work independently and do not talk. Liling and Mei are engaged in __________ play.

parallel

The perpetrators of physical abuse and neglect of children are most often __________.

parents

A novel study with 4- to 6-year-olds that used fMRI to measure brain activity levels when children listen to stories found that __________.

parents who conversed with their children more during an experimental session tended to have children with higher activation in a region of the brain that includes Broca's area

One particular feature of the environment that is associated with earlier development of a theory of mind is __________.

participation in a lot of pretend play

Executive functions tend to predict success in school from about the age of 5 years, most likely because they include skills critical to __________.

paying attention and remembering instructions

People who commit sexual abuse are more often __________.

people with low self-esteem

In the work by Baumrind (1967, 1971) on parenting styles, children of __________ parents tended to be low in self-control and cooperativeness with peers and teachers.

permissive

Jordana enjoys playing rhyming games with her father. "I spy with my little eye, something that rhymes with bone," says her father. Jordana looks around. "Phone!" she says. These games are likely teaching Jordana __________.

phonological awareness

Dara's mother burns her with cigarettes. This illustrates which type of abuse?

physical abuse

Ross puts his scribbles in a deliberate location on his paper. Ross is in the __________ stage of drawing.

placement

Valerie has an older sister, Bella. In terms of Valerie's conversation skills, we can expect that Bella will __________.

play a role in developing Valerie's conversational skills

Angela is a maltreated child. Based on this information, we can expect that Angela also has __________.

poor emotion regulation

Jin-Liu, age 3, holds a crayon in her fist to draw a picture. Jin-Liu is using a __________.

power grip

Parents who use __________ to get their children to comply with rules are likely to have children who break rules when the parent is not around.

power-assertive techniques

Researchers have found that children more quickly learn to use a pencil if they had prior experience painting, stringing beads, and using scissors. A likely explanation is that __________.

practicing these activities helped the brain gain control over movements of small muscles in the fingers, hands, and wrists

Aspects of language that facilitate communicative and social goals are known as __________.

pragmatics

When children tell jokes, it demonstrates the use of __________.

pragmatics

When it comes to food preferences, children __________.

prefer foods they are exposed to most often

Which of the following is the primary brain area involved in executive functions?

prefrontal cortex

Research indicates that children's math skills will benefit greatly if __________.

preschool teachers talk about numbers and provide them with experience in counting

"Here," Leon says as he hands a block to his friend Oliver. "That's a tiger."Oliver takes the block-the "tiger.""And this is a lion!" Leon adds as he picks up another block. "Let's see who is stronger, the tiger or the lion!"In this scenario, Leon and Oliver are engaged in __________.

pretend play

When children use objects to stand for other things or engage in imaginary actions such as pouring nonexistent tea from a cup, it is called __________.

pretend play

Three-year-old Hermione went to her grandparents' apartment with her mother, and now her mother is asking her to tell her father about the visit. When Hermione leaves out an important event, her mother prompts her. Which skill is Hermione and her mother working on?

producing accurate and complete narratives

Pomona always volunteers to help other children in the classroom. She is demonstrating __________.

prosocial behavior

Portia's mother constantly berates her, telling her she is worthless, will amount to nothing, and that she wishes Portia were never born. This illustrates which type of abuse?

psychological maltreatment

Maltreated children may have abnormal levels of cortisol. Along with adrenalin, the function of cortisol is to __________.

raise alertness and prepare the brain and body to respond to potential threats

The Abecedarian study, which provided a full-day, year-round educational program to low-income African American children from 6 weeks to 5 years of age, __________.

raised IQ values from around 8 months of age through 21 years of age

In the first 3 to 4 years, children learning two languages at the same time __________.

reach language milestones (such as putting two words together) at about the same time in the two languages as monolingual children

In response to Pietro hitting Brad in the face, Brad hits Pietro back. Brad hitting Pietro demonstrates __________ aggression.

reactive

Researchers who asked children to recall what happened to them at 3 to 4 years of age during Hurricane Andrew found that 6 years later, children __________ they had when interviewed at age 3 to 4.

recalled more than

High-quality, state-funded pre-K programs have the capacity to __________.

reduce special education placements

One strategy used by researchers to prevent maltreatment involves __________.

reducing stress on at-risk families

As a rule, parents tend to __________ gender-typed behavior.

reinforce

Girls tend to use __________ aggression more often than physical aggression.

relational

Hannah tells other children not to play with Gabrielle because "She's weird and she smells." Hannah is demonstrating __________ aggression.

relational

Chetna is a self-confident, outgoing, and emotionally stable child. According to Hart, Atkins, and Fegley (2003), Chetna would be classified as a(n) __________ child.

resilient

Hunter pet his new kitty roughly the first few times and got scratched. Today, when the cat walks up to Hunter, he pets her gently. Inez, Hunter's mother, says, "It's nice that you're petting the cat gently this time." Her reaction is an example of __________.

rewarding children for positive behavior that is inconsistent with previous negative behavior

When adults provide support for children's problem solving, and then gradually withdraw the support as the child becomes more competent, this is referred to by researchers as __________.

scaffolding

Monica draws straight and curved lines randomly over her paper. Monica is in the __________ stage of drawing.

scribble

Children tend to encode recurring events such as birthday parties and fast-food restaurants into a form of memory that includes the order of events, but not the specific details of any one event. This type of memory structure is called a(n) __________.

script

Erica can focus on the book that she is looking at, and she is not distracted by her brother running around the house. Erica is demonstrating __________.

selective attention

Kira has high __________, or an overall sense of self-worth.

self-esteem

Adelit moved with his parents from Senegal to Brooklyn when he was 5 years old. Adelit knew French from Senegal, but as soon as he got to Brooklyn, he started learning English. Children learning a second language after mastering the first language illustrates __________.

sequential bilingualism

Alex's father involves Alex in child prostitution. This constitutes __________.

sexual abuse

Researchers found that 3- to 5-year-old transgender children whose parents accepted their gender identity __________.

showed toy and playmate preferences that were in line with their expressed gender identity

In __________ play, children talk to each other and exchange toys or materials.

simple social

Subsequent researchers have found that children are less egocentric than Piaget claimed. They arrived at this conclusion by using __________.

simpler dioramas

Luis has been exposed to Spanish and English for his entire life. His experience illustrates __________.

simultaneous bilingualism

Kellogg's 20-year study of children's drawings from many countries classified them into __________ stages.

six universal

Joey appears to partially wake up, screaming and flailing in his bed. Joey is likely experiencing __________.

sleep terrors

School rules, game rules, and rules of politeness are all examples of __________.

social conventional rules

Vygotsky viewed __________ play as one of the primary contributors to the development of executive functioning.

sociodramatic

Nan, Lena, and Axel want to put on a play about a book their teacher read to them. Through __________, the children plan and assign roles to each other and act out the main plot of the book.

sociodramatic play

The most common type of sleep problem among young children is __________.

stalling before bedtime

Compared to parents in Western cultures, parents in Eastern cultures, such as China, traditionally view emotions in children as something to be __________.

suppressed

Maeko's mother is impressed with how fast her daughter seems to be growing up. Maeko is drawing a castle, and she sticks with the task much longer than she would have a year ago. Maeko is demonstrating __________.

sustained attention

In Piaget's theory, pretend play is possible due to __________.

symbolic representation

Hadley stubs her toe and falls down on the playground. Her friend Hanna comes over and hugs her while they sit together. Hanna is demonstrating __________, a feeling of concern or sorrow for another person.

sympathy

Researchers designed a rigged marble-rolling game in which the child or an experimenter "accidentally" knocked down a tower built by another experimenter, inducing either guilty or sympathetic reactions on the part of the child. The findings showed that 2-year-olds responded prosocially on the basis of __________ alone and 3-year-olds responded more on the basis of __________.

sympathy; guilt

When children put two words together to make a simple sentence, it is called __________ speech.

telegraphic

Marie takes her four children, ages 4, 9, 12, and 14 years, to the museum. If they are typical of children of their age, energy usage by the brain (in terms of consumption of glucose) is most likely highest in which child?

the 4-year-old

William's parents want him to develop autonomy and self-esteem, and so they emphasize this in childrearing. Based on this information, William likely lives in __________.

the United States

Children who demonstrate resilience in response to maltreatment show __________.

the ability to bounce back from stress and maltreatment

Between 3 and 5 years of age, Ananya is increasingly able to coordinate her left and right hands in tasks such as eating, building with blocks, and reading and copying printed letters. This is most likely due to growth of white matter tracts in which area of the brain?

the corpus callosum

Camilla's mother is watching an animal video show with her, and says, "That deer has magnificent antlers." Camilla may not immediately know what "magnificent" means but she will know it is an adjective (i.e., it refers to a property of antlers). This illustrates which aspect of learning word meanings?

the importance of syntactic context to learning word meanings

The prefrontal cortex includes areas of the brain that are __________.

the most evolutionarily recent

An important principle of counting, __________, is to assign a single number to each object.

the one-to-one principle

For Piaget, __________ is a stage in which children's thinking is marked by an absence of logical mental operations.

the preoperational period

Research reveals that the "epidemic" of asthma diagnoses among children living in the inner city in the past two decades is largely due to __________.

the presence of allergens and other lung irritants within homes

Research has suggested that children pass the false belief test at __________.

the same approximate age regardless of culture

DeLoache and colleagues convinced children that an "incredible shrinking machine" had reduced the size of a full-size room and now it looked the size of a model room. They hid an object in the model room and reversed the "shrinking machine." They asked children to search in the now full-size room for the larger version of the object. The 2½-year-olds who did not search correctly in the standard scale-model experiments now searched for the object. The researchers' explanation for the finding is that __________.

the shrunken room was no longer a symbol, so the problem of thinking about dual representations was not present in this experiment

The ability to understand that other people have different thoughts and beliefs than one's own demonstrates __________.

theory of mind

When follow-up interventions were made in the Head Start REDI program, __________.

there was a reduction in aggressive and disruptive behavior

Aidan, age 6, holds a pencil with his thumb, index finger, and middle finger, with his closer to the tip than to the end. Aidan is using a(n) __________.

tripod grip

Jodi is asked what a female or male doll likes to do, and she responds that the girl doll likes dressing up and the boy doll likes playing with trucks and trains. Jodi has a typical 3- to 4-year-old's knowledge of gender __________.

typing

Maltreatment is most common in children __________.

under 4 years of age

Noah is a disobedient, impulsive, and highly emotional child. According to Hart, Atkins, and Fegley (2003), Noah would be classified as a(n) __________ child.

undercontrolled

The studies of egocentrism and visual perspective taking by Flavell and by Moll and colleagues revealed that contrary to Piaget's data from the three-mountain problem, children __________.

understand level 1 and level 2 perspective taking as well as a third skill, perspective confronting, by about age 4½

In extreme cases, the behavior of __________ parents may represent neglect or abuse.

uninvolved

The advantage of being bilingual for executive functions is thought to occur because __________.

using more than one language gives children opportunities to develop flexibility and control over their mental processes

Prevention efforts for maltreatment have been shown to be most effective __________.

with younger children