Child Psych I-CLICKERS

symptoms of early pregancy

"morning sickness" (caused by surge in estrogen, usually lasts from weeks 6-12 but this can vary)

Piaget's Preoperational Period

(Piaget's second stage of cognitive development... occurs from the age 3-6 years)... children gain the ability to mentally represent "the semiotic function" (the understanding of signs and their functions and their realizations as symbols of interpretation) as well as ability to perform mental operations (such as 1+1 = 2) through memory... ego-centrism and semi-logical reasoning are also displayed in Piaget's Preoperational Period

John Bowlby's stages of attachment

(birth-2 mths) indiscriminate social responsiveness (2-7 mths) discriminate social responsiveness (8-24 mths) focused attachment & Stranger Anxiety (24 mths & on) goal-corrected partnership

teacher influence in socialt development

(teachers spend 9 hours a day with a child 4, 2) - teachers can be a huge influence on social-leaning)... Gender school is socially organized by girls and boys who fit chrysanthemum gener ayrptye_

Sensorimotor sub-stage 6 accomplishments & achievements

** thinking goes underground -- this is proven by... (1) deferred imitation (not mirrored behaviour, but thoughtful mental representation of observances and patterns of though which are later employed as a way in which to behave... unfortunately will sometimes play out along the lines of temper tantrums seen in the interactions among their peers) (2) language acquisition of words (an incredible feat for the young and plasticity but inexperienced mind... the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate. Language acquisition is one of the quintessential human traits, because non-humans do not communicate by using language) (3) pretend play (The process of pretending builds skills in many essential developmental areas. When your child engages in pretend (or dramatic) play, he is actively experimenting with the social and emotional roles of life. Through cooperative play, he learns how to take turns, share responsibility, and creatively problem-solve)

Binocular convergence is key in developing what skill related to vision?

**Binocular convergence - refers to the physiological angles that each of your eyes needs to rotate to focus on any given object Binocular convergence is a needed development to properly display depth perception.

Intermodal perception: sound correspondence experiment

- 4 1/2 month habitually preferred a picture where the bouncing object on screen was in time with a drumbeat - 2 1/2 month infant recognized when human mouth movement was not aligned with sound - showed how infants used intermodal perception in early developmental occurrences

Ethological theory (John Bowlby)

- A component of the ecological systems theory developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, the term microsystem describes the individuals, groups, and institutions that directly influence a child's development. Ecological systems theory proposes there are five environmental systems in which an individual will interact with over the course of their lifetime: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. The microsystem essentially is the things that are in the child's immediate surroundings and connections. Family, friends, peers, schools, religious groups, and neighborhoods are all part of the microsystem. - John Bowlby (1907-1990) was a British psychologist most known for the development of attachment theory. Bowlby defined attachment as a "lasting psychological connectedness between human beings." Along with Mary Ainsworth, Bowlby developed attachment theory which is an evolutionary based theory that suggests that infants are biologically predisposed to form attachments with primary caregivers in early life as a means to increase their likelihood of survival. This theory proposes that caregivers are used as a secure base by infants and this sense of security allows the child to explore and increase their knowledge about their environment.

Experimental observation: Kittens & depth perception (Blakemore & Cooper)

- A further experiment was done by Hubel and Wiesel to understood whether the ability to see is innate or acquired. The experiment is done by suturing one of the eyes of a newborn kitten and reopen it after a certain period. Surprisingly kittens with one eye deprived of vision for the first 3 month remain blind on that eye for their whole life. - Another cat experiment done by Blakemore and Cooper gave an even clearer result. Two special cylinders are made, one with only vertical stripes inside and the other with only horizontal stripes. Newborn kittens are placed in one of the cylinders the first few months. Kittens that only perceive vertical lines for the first few months of birth could only see vertical lines not horizontal lines for the rest of their life.

Habituation experiment (infant cognition)

- A word is repeated again and again to the infant until the infant's response to the word is 1/2 the time it originally was (and the infant is clearly bored) - then a new sound will be played and the infant will regain interest as this is something new that they have not been habituated to

Merzenich monkey experiment

- As a leading example, a monkey's hand, like the human hand, is linked to the brain by three main nerves (radial, medial and ulnar) that transmit electric signals to specific and adjacent areas of the brain. Viewed by magnetic resonance imaging, these areas "light up," indicating neuronal activity, in response to stimulation of the corresponding regions of the hand. Modifying or blocking the transmission of signals from hand to brain not only changes or shuts down the neuronal activity in that micro-region, but also leads to rearrangement of the linkages among the neurons themselves. - Merzenich's monkey experiments demonstrate that the mature brain rearranges itself in response to external stimuli. This finding would appear to provide an increasingly secure neurological basis for the common wisdom, "Use it or lose it." Why does one have to keep practicing a foreign language, or a physical skill? Because if the neurons that support it are left unused, they will be recruited by some other network.

Judy Dalouch (miniature objects & scale error)

- Babies sometimes forget their own size - the baby is taught to interact with the toy in one way, they cannot think how else to play with it (they know that they do not fit inside a tiny toy car, but what else could it possibly be good for? - children motorly programmed to interact one way with the environment... they cannot change their motor development on a whim)

London Cabbie Study

- Every black-cab driver in central London has to have "The Knowledge" - a memorized map of the capital, including some 25,000 streets and thousands of landmarks, right down to the order of theaters on Shaftesbury Avenue. - It's a brutal learning process that can take three to four years to complete, with a final test - the Knowledge of London Examination System - that often takes 12 attempts to pass. Even then, ultimately only half of the trainee cabbies ace the exam. - According to a report published in the journal Current Biology, successfully learning this mental atlas of London's spaghetti streets causes structural changes in the brain, affects memory and creates a greater volume of nerve cells in the brain's hippocampus - more neurons are said to form in the brains & hippocampus of London Cabbie drivers - however, the learning is specialized only, while the cab drivers are much superior at navigating the streets of London than the average individual, they prove notably worse at navigating unfamiliar spatial landscapes "the brain will adjust to fit the task at hand"

Harry Harlow (Behaviorist theory)

- Harry Harlow (1905 - 1981) is known for his experiments on maternal separation and social isolation of rhesus monkeys. His work emphasized the importance of care-giving and companionship as vital to normal social and cognitive development. - In his surrogate mother experiment, Harlow demonstrated the importance of contact comfort. Baby rhesus monkeys were separated from their mothers and given two surrogate mothers - one made out of wire, and another made of terry cloth. He found that the baby monkeys preferred to cling to the terry cloth surrogate even when food was provided by the wire surrogate. - In his social isolation experiments, he again separated baby rhesus monkeys from their mothers and subjected them to partial or total isolation of varying duration. He found that those who experienced partial isolation exhibited abnormal behaviors such as blank staring, going in circles, and self mutilation. Those who experienced total isolation exhibited severe psychological disturbance, and experienced emotional shock upon being released from isolation.

looking time studies

- In a preferential looking experiment, an infant is habituated to some stimulus or other—a visual display of interacting objects, for example. - Then the infant is shown a second stimulus that differs from the first in a specific manner. If the average infant looks longer at the second stimulus, this suggests that the infant can discriminate between the stimuli. - This method has been used extensively in cognitive science and developmental psychology to assess the character of infant's perceptual systems, and, by extension, innate cognitive faculties.

Held and Hein (1963 kittens)

- KITTEN CAROSUEL Ten pairs of kittens were used, each pair from a different litter. In each pair, one was 'active' (A) and one was 'passive' (P). During exposure to the visual environment, the kitten pair was attached to a freely-moving 'roundabout' which was propelled by the movements of kitten A because its body was firmly but flexibly attached to the apparatus. - Kitten P was also firmly attached to the roundabout but it was carried in a basket so could not control its own movement. Through a mechanical system, kitten B was moved in exactly the same way as kitten A. So if kitten A walked clockwise, moved to the edge, then back to the centre, then moved upwards and dropped down again, so did kitten P. - Neither kitten could see their own limbs although both could move their heads freely. The apparatus was housed in a cylinder with black, white and metal-coloured vertical strips on the walls inside. The centre of the roundabout, which was also striped, prevented the kittens from seeing each other. - All of the active kittens had developed a normal visually-guided paw placement response when they had spent 63 hours (21 sessions) or less in the apparatus, most by about 33 hours (11 sessions). After an equivalent length of time to their active littermate, no passive kitten had acquired a visually-guided paw placement response. The same pattern was seen with the blink response, which appeared at the same time as the visually-guided paw placement response. - The findings fit the idea that self-produced movement and concurrent visual feedback are essential for the development of visually-guided behaviour.

Children as passive learners

- Pavlov's Dogs: First proposed and studied by Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is one form of learning in which an organism "learns" through establishing associations between different events and stimuli. For example, when a neutral stimulus (such as a bell) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (such as food) which produces some involuntary bodily response all on its own (such as salivating), the neutral stimulus begins to trigger a response by the organism similar (some salivation) to that produced by the unconditioned stimulus. - Little Albert: Watson's most famous and controversial experiment is known as the Little Albert Experiment. Little Albert was an 11-month boy who was trained to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud sound. In time, the child began to cry and show signs of distress upon seeing the white rat even without the accompanying sound. This fear was generalized to other furry objects like a rabbit, a dog, and a Santa Claus mask. instrumental conditioning - instrumental conditioning, also known as Operant Conditioning, is the process of reinforcing a behavior by consistently giving positive or negative reinforcement - the goal being to increase the probability that the rewarded behavior will occur more frequently.

perceptual preferences

- Perceptual learning styles are the means by which learners extract information from their surroundings through the use of their five senses. Individuals have different "pathways" that are specific to them. When information enters that "pathway" the information is retained in short term memory.

René Spitz (Behaviorist theory)

- Spitz based his observations and experiments on psychoanalytic findings, developed by Freud. Some of Freud's ideas are still present in contemporary developmental thinking. Where Freud performed his famed psychoanalytic studies on adult subjects, Spitz based his ideas on his empirical research on infants. - In 1935, Spitz began research in the area of child development. He was one of the first researchers who used direct child observation as an experimental method—studying both healthy and unhealthy subjects. His greatest scientific contributions came from his studies of the effects of maternal and emotional deprivation on infants. Spitz & the pattern of grasping -Spitz noted three organizing principles in the psychological development of the child: 1) the smiling response, which appears at around three months old in the presence of an unspecified person 2) anxiety in the presence of a stranger, around the eighth month 3) semantic communication, in which the child learns how to be obstinate, which the psychoanalysts connect to the obsessional neurosis.

Collective monologue (Piaget)

- The Collective (Dual or Social) Monologue involves usually two or more children playing in close proximity. They may be playing different games and they may be commenting on them and they may be even taking turns in vocalizing, but the context of their speech is not correlated between each other. - Piaget notes that the incidence of Egocentric Speech slowly dies out between 2 and 7 years as that of Social Speech increases.

Face recognition- infants prefer a happy & non-inverted human face

- The development of face processing during infancy and childhood is one of the most extensively researched topics in perceptual development. - There is general agreement that faces processing begins at birth because newborns: prefer face-like stimuli to non-face stimuli; imitate another's facial movements; prefer familiar over unfamiliar faces, and attend to attractive over unattractive faces. - However, some of these preferences at birth may reflect newborns' general tendency to look at certain stimulus-general configurations that happen to be similar to faces

Sensorimotor Period (Piaget)

- The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages Piaget uses to define cognitive development. Piaget designated the first two years of an infants life as the sensorimotor stage. During this period, infants are busy discovering relationships between their bodies and the environment. - The first of Jean Piaget's stages (and also the shortest) but the most complex, with the most changes & developments occurring and the most substages

Ecological theory of Development

- Vygotsky... - Bronfenbrenner... Keywords: child, family, neighborhood, culture, time Study methods: Observation on the impact an environment has on a child

Carey & Bartlett fast mapping experiment

- after a child turns 5 years old they begin to gain new vocabulary at an alarming rate, learning nearly 1 new word per waking hour... this is the word naming explosion -Carey & Bartlett performed a "fast mapping" experiment to test the rapid vocabulary growth of children and their intuition into learning new words, in which they asked "not for the red tray but for the 'chronium' one, in which the 'chronium' tray was a weird green color) -most all of the children tested correctly identified the weird green tray as the chronium one -showed the potential for quick language acquisition and development, primarily through environmental hints and context clues

(overlaying) categories of categorical speech

- an innate property of auditory systems (the difference between R & L or B & P is clear to infants as young as 1 mth) -Categorical perception is a phenomenon of perception of distinct categories when there is a gradual change in a variable along a continuum. It was originally observed for auditory stimuli but now found to be applicable to other perceptual modalities Are our speech-sounds —/ba/, /da/, /ga/ —innate or learned? The first question we must answer about them is whether they are categorical categories at all, or merely arbitrary points along a continuum. It turns out that if one analyzes the sound spectrogram of ba and pa, for example, both are found to lie along an acoustic continuum called "voice-onset-time." With a technique similar to the one used in "morphing" visual images continuously into one another, it is possible to "morph" a /ba/ gradually into a /pa/ and beyond by gradually increasing the voicing parameter. - all distinctions between sounds just a continuum or a spectrum... but a really very clear one for most language speakers of their native language!

Nature and Nurture study of stress response in rats

- an interaction of "epigenetics" - glucocorticoids regulating the stress response in rats - if a rat is handled in infancy it is less stressed as an adult - rats are stroked with a paintbrush, rats more stroked become less stressed in adulthood -cross-fostered rats, the babies are swapped in utero (a difference between stressed pups and relaxed rat pups) - positive methylene change among rats

the object files system

- another number system which is precise and keeps track of small numbers of atoms in their absolute quantities - the object files system is not a ratio and cannot handle more than 3 objects (has strong limitations because representing number is generally ratio dependent)

Toy occupation & appearance preferences

- appear before the age of 3 - the rigid phase stares from age 4-5 25% girls demand pink 50% of boys insist that they not wear pink

Human contact & voice experiment with 4 1/2 week infants

- at 4 1/2 weeks, infants would coo during interaction with a human and follow the good human face with their eyes

attachment theory: the attachment figure

- attachment is not a needy dependence but a warm sociability - the child needs an attachment figure to act as a secure base from which to explore, a safe haven in scary or sickly scenarios - thermostat model: the parent as a homeostasis. steady figure in the life of an infant or young child

First words

- average first words occur between the 10-12 month - no words by 2 is a sign of autism, but can also be normally occurring - first words are often for beloved things (such as toys- bottle, boat & toy, - in the United states first words are often pets names, or words such as "no", or toys or objects belonging to the baby... almost always nouns or "things out there" -In Hong Kong & Beijing, more family outside of parents are first words, such as siblings or grandparents... almost always verbs or "relationships"

in the attachment theory experiments, parenting can predict secure attachment if the parent is:

- aware of the signals of the child - accurately interprets the child's needs - responds appropriately to meet the needs of the child - promptly responds to meet the needs of the child - open-minded awareness from the parents

Gibsonian Approach (Eleanor Gibson & the visual cliff)

- central to the ecological approach to perception - information-based rather than sensation-based - - analysis of the environment & affordances that the organism detects about it - Eleanor Jack Gibson was an American psychologist who focused on reading development and perceptual learning in infants and toddlers. - The "Visual Cliff" (1960) took place while she was still a research associate. Gibson partnered with Richard Walk, a Cornell professor, to do learning research with rats. Walk and Gibson constructed a visual cliff—a sheet of glass over patterned paper. On the 'near' side, the paper was directly beneath the glass, on the 'far' side the pattern was several feet below the glass. They expected that dark-reared rats would be more likely to walk indiscriminately on the near and far sides, since they had presumably failed to develop depth perception in the dark. However, the dark-reared rats chose the near side, and consistently avoided the far side. Gibson and Walk expanded on this research, testing a variety of animals (including goats) and experimenting with details the cliff apparatus. Next they tested 36 crawling babies on the cliff, using the presence of the babies' mothers to motivate the infants to move on the cliff. Despite the encouragement of their mothers, of the 27 babies who left the center of the cliff, only three crawled onto the glass of the deep side. The study with babies was published in Scientific American, covered in the popular press, and became one of psychology's more famous experiments.

Piaget adds ________________________ to the field of child psychology

- child actively constructs knowledge, the child as an active learner - the child learns through cognition (sensation and perception) rather than through observing others - the child as intrinsically motivated to learn

factors influencing the development of attachment theory

- child personality - parental relationship & genetics

Children & the "Goldilocks Effect"

- children choose stimuli which are just ahead of their developmental milestones, nothing to hard to accomplish, but nothing too easy to be stimulating (applies to toys and healthy food choices) - even chicks choose for themselves a balanced diet

fixed attachment relationship

- fixed originally, but can be changed later through conscious attention and active perception

The relationship between babbling noises and early speech

- french infants babble in french accents - deaf infants sign babble in similar ways to spoken babbles - the attempt to make proper use of the components of the language they will be using, a natural and normal component of language learning

cultural variations in attachment theory

- in the United States, the majority of children display secure attachment - in Germany, the majority of children appear insecure-avoidant - in Japan, most children are classified as insecure-resistant - in Israel, most children are insecure-resistant, but we are unsure why...

perception & action experiments (Karen Adolph)

- infant comes to understand what their environment can teach them through (1) intermodal perception & (2) motor action -children do not apply knowledge understood at one locomotive level to the next test 1 - "minding the gap" test 2 - "the visual cliff" test 3 - "navigating slopes"

6 Sensorimotor Substages

- modification of reflexes (0-1 mth) - primarily circular reactions (1 mth- 4 mths)- the baby discovers and interacts with its own body through actions such as grabbing feet, clicking tongue, sucking & cooing - secondary circular reactions (4 mths - 8 mths) - the baby begins to reach out to try and understand the wider world through grabbing things, mouthing objects, etc... - coordination of secondary schemes (8 mths- 1 year) - here we see the "A, not B error" and a difficulty distinguishing an action from an object - tertiary circular reactions (12 months- 18 months) the beginning of scientific observation, curiosity, and testing of hypothesis/adapting theory at an elementary but incredible level in the mind of the child...Manipulation focused on something -- repeatedly throwing toys from a chair... also the time of growing self-confidence from 14.5 months to 18 months and an increasing desire for independence to do adult-like things in a miniature fashion

factors that attachment styles have been shown to reliably predict later in life

- of the child: problem-solving ability, theory of mind, understanding of mental states & actions, social competence, amount of friends, empathy display, compliance with trends of society, self-esteem, independence, amount of agency, curiosity with novelty, ability to cope with novel & changing situations, persistence to cope with failure

Why do babies love parental figures?

- round & shiny eyes - moving figures - (presumably) loving actions

advice for the newly pregant

- seek OB/GYN care (best to begin even before pregnant) - take vitamin supplements (especially folic acid & vitamin B) - watch out for teratogens! - excercise regularly - limit baby's exposure to Phalates (through lotions, foods, perfumes, detergents & dryer sheets)

Merzenichi et al (1984)

- studies changes in the auditory cortex among rats - natural restoration of critical period plasticity in the juvenile and adult primary auditory cortex -the chronic exposure of juvenile or adult rats to moderate-level acoustic noise results in a broad reversal of maturational changes that mark the infant-to-adult progression in the primary auditory cortex. In time, noise exposure reinstates critical period plasticity. Cortical changes resulting from noise exposure are again reversed to reestablish a physically and functionally normal adult cortex, by returning animals to natural acoustic environments. These studies show that at least some of neurological changes believed to mark the transition from the infantile to the mature (adult) stage are, by their nature, reversible

syntax variation across languages

- syntax can vary through word, order, syntax, phonology, morphology, whatever...

taxonomic contrast

- the assumption that a word can only fit in one category rather than more than one (a giraffe can only be a giraffe and not an animal too)

Learning the past tense of linguistics

- the complicated past tense rules prove easier for children to learn than adults (presumably due to plasticity of the child's brain)

Piaget & the Object Permanence Error

- the failure of an infant to realize that objects still exist even when one lacks psychological contact with them... at the Sensorimotor stage the infant still does not yet mentally represent the permanence of objects - "out of sight, out of mind" - this is what gives the game "peekaboo" such a draw to the infant, the idea of a surprise realization which was previously hidden when obscured from view - not a question of reality (the object will always exist even if it is hidden out of the line of sight) but a question of the infant's interpretation - error frequent in children aged 4-8 months

false belief

- we all operate on the world around us as how it is now, but not as how we represent the world

Number counting in children... the "snacky task"

-Children from 7-10 mths old offered two crackers one cracker half and another large cracker broken in half (essentially two of the first half cracker)... -because they cannot think in terms of more than 2 objects children are confused by 3-4 correspondences or 1-4 correspondences

Unresponsive caregiver experiment (Johnson, Chen & Dweck, 2007).

-Given recent demonstrations of the abstractness and generality of infants' reasoning about agents, Dweck et. al. chose to test infants' expectations with displays of animated geometric characters, rather than actual people. Infants were habituated to a video of two animated ellipses enacting a separation event. The large ''mother'' and small ''child'' appeared together at the bottom of a steep incline, and then the mother traveled halfway up the incline to a small plateau. As the mother came to rest there, the child below began to cry, an event depicted by a slight pulsation and bouncing and an actual human infant cry. The animation then paused, allowing the participant to look at the scene as long as he or she desired. Once the participant looked away, the sequence was repeated until his or her visual attention to the event declined to half of its initial amount, as measured by the duration of the participant's looks. When an infant reached this criterion of habituation, each of two test outcomes was shown twice. Each test outcome opened with the mother still positioned halfway up the incline, as the child continued to cry. In the responsive outcome, the mother returned to the child. In the unresponsive outcome, the mother continued up the slope, away from the child. The order in which the outcomes were presented in counter-balance. -tests depth perception in children (& goats)

Piaget's stages of cognitive development (stage theories)

-Piaget as the most influential person in the field of child psychology (after BF Skinner) - his stages gave an excellent sense of what children experience through the development of infancy

Before children develop the ability to count, they must come to understand...

-a memorization of the random sequence of numbers (which takes a long time to internalize and memorize before the sequence can even begin to be understood) -the one-to-one correspondence of numbers (each object should be counted once and only once) -stable order (it does not matter which order you count the objects in... if you count each object only once you will always come out with the same number) -order irrelevance - it does not matter the order in which you count the objects, any object can represent any certain number -cardinal principle (the last number which you count is the final number that you end on and also the answer to how many objects you are being asked to identify. ** it takes children until about age 4-5 to truly understand counting and determining how many numbers of an object are represented because counting is hard!

Mozart Studies (1993 Rauscher et al)

-among college undergraduates - after listening to Mozart's sonata for two pianos for 10 minutes, college undergraduates showed significantly better spatial reasoning skills than after periods of listening to relaxation instructions designed to lower blood pressure or silence. The mean spatial IQ scores were 8 and 9 points higher after listening to the music than in the other two conditions. The enhancing effect did not extend beyond 10-15 minutes. The results were measured through the Stanford—Binet scale with tasks such as paper-cutting and folding procedures or pencil-and-paper maze tasks. However, Rauscher has stressed that the Mozart effect is limited to spatial-temporal reasoning and that there is no enhancement of general intelligence.

appearance vs. reality tasks

-apple/candle experiment - the apple is really a candle, it just looks like an apple, - 2 realities (1 is the candle, one is the apple) - bandaid box with crayons inside (does the child understand that they might not have assumed that there would be crayons Piaget's 3 Mountain Task (the child's persepctive vs. the Experimenter perspective) - do i see it right side up or upside down?

Rigidity of thought (ego-centric thought)

-can only think in one direction and cannot reverse operations (understand counting but not conservation of volume... will pitch a fit that a friend got two small cookies and they got one huge one)... can understand number (and can even separately understand volume, but cannot consider the two in unision simultanrously

Visual Perspective Task 1:

-card faces experimenter and child between them, child sees horse & experimenter sees elephants (what do you see? what do I see?) most 3 year olds fail...

Visual Perspective Task 1:

-card faces experimenter and child between them, child sees horse & experimenter sees elephants (what do you see? what do I see?) most 3 year olds fail...Visual Perspective Task 1 -children with autism do not pass until the age of 9 -longitudinal & microgentic tested

Romanian Orphanage

-children remained unaffected if returned to a normal environment (or "natural environment" by the age of 6 months

color perception:

-earliest infants only see shades of white, black and gray (until 2 months) - at 2 months, infants begin to perceive color - at 4 months, infants develop color preferences

the development of taste, touch & smell in the infant

-from birth, babies prefer sweet tastes to bitter or sour tastes - babies can become familiar with tastes in womb through amniotic fluid (babies from Indian mothers prefer curry flavored milk and babies whose mothers were instructed to drink sweet carrot juice, preferred even the scent of carrot -premature babies respond well to touch therapy

transfender

-higher average of female transgenders - if developed and supported early, less chance of negative outcomes - can affect emotional display, relational aggression, physical health, faster maturation, depression & eating disorders

child display of attachment style: insecure-avoidant attachment

-infant extremely distressed or ambivalent on leave of mother, avoids the parental figure upon return

child display of attachment style: insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment

-infant is distressed upon departure of mother but equally distressed upon her return, throws tantrum against holding, but still wants to be in his mother's arms, angry and distressed, will resist comfort in an ambivalent manner

child display of attachment style: secure attachment

-infant moderately sad on leave of mother, happy upon reunion, easily comforted

Infants display a non-verbal sensitivity to number

-infants as young as 6 mths can recognize and follow non-verbal number cues and correlate them with an approximate number system) ("approximate magnitudes" are noisy, inexact representations of number) instead, approximate number systems should be ratio dependent and based on a limited approximate number system (which improves with age) 6 mths - children can recognize a 1-2 ratio of approximate number system 9 mths - children can represent a 2-3 ratio of approximate number system adults- can represent 9-10 ratio of the approximate number system

How do infants acquire the ability to differentiate the sounds of their own language and categorize sounds into a hierarchy of the lexicon of their language (to the extend that a young mind is able)?

-infants perceive the language sounds and utterances sounding from around them and come to distinguish where one word ends and another begins... can then perceive individual sounds which are categorized as familiar and eventually come to have individual meanings themselves and are categorized into the lexicon on the language... unused sounds that the infant has no use for are erased from the database and therefore it is even more difficult for the adult brain to learn foreign (non-native) languages

pretend puzzle

-mother pretends that a banana is a phone -the parents begin to pretend wit the child at 7 months or earlier to understand mental representation & art -children understand pretend play very early on -sign of autism - no pretend play

Bowlby on attachment

-published a 3 volume set -attachment theory occurs between 8-12 months (when babies begin to crawl and walk and need to stay near their parents for safety reasons) -the infant needs the attachment figure to act as a secure base (from which to explore) and as a safe haven (of protection), the parent as a homeostatic thermostat of dynamic equilibrium... the internal working model of attachment in later life

Fisher et. al study in preschool classrooms

-research on classroom design - found that more in a classroom does not necessarily benefit child learning

Rene Baillargeon and object permanence

-testing Piaget's object permanence theory - testing infants at 5 1/2 months old (children cannot pass this test until after the 8 month mark) - a basic object permanence test - a rotating ramp which bends backwards until it hits a block and bounces back... infant is habituated to this image... ... until the ramp extends past the vanished block all the way down to the ground (the infant must be surprised in order to display object permanence and pass the test)... an "A not B" object permanence test results... infants at 3 1/2 mths - fail, not surprised infants at 5 1/2 mths, fail, not surprised infants 8-12+ mths, reliably pass test

Conservation of Liquids Task (Piaget)

-the conservation of liquids task is finally passed (the child must understand the the amount of water is equal when poured from a small wide glass to a tall narrow glass, the children must be able to mentally represent the activity and understand the conservation principle of equality -this is the stage of the "concrete operational error" in time, space, and quantity can be applied individually but not corporately... in a similar manner... number, volume & mass can be applied individually buy not corporately

A child has come to understand that number have a one-one correspondence. What does this term mean?

-the one-to-one correspondence of numbers is that (each object should be counted once and only once)

Piaget background...

... -Nativist biological theorist -One of the most influential and most critiqued psychologists ever to grace the field - 3 children who he published detailed observations on (Jacqueline, Lucien, Laurent) -Studied early imitation, human intellect, sensation and cognition -drew from the fields of imperialism, nativism & behaviorism One of the most important Figures in Psychological understanding of Childhood development in Jean Piaget. Let's take a look at some of his work and influences. His theories of cognitive development is a "stage theory" in that in each stage of development, children are faced with challenging situations which must deal with and overcome through increased mental abilities. Once the challenge is successfully dealt in that stage, the children can move on to the next stage of cognitive development. There are several key components of Piaget's theory of cognitive development:

Sometimes children do not realize that an object can fit into more than one category (than an Poodle can fit into the narrow category of dog and the broad category of animal, for instance) ... this is an example of

... a shortcoming with overaccomadation in categorization, which is common in children

What motivates children to walk?

... after all, crawling gets you there with fewer falls - a new experience - desire to imitate parents & adults around them - adults encourage the behaviour of walking - on feet children can cover 3x the distance in time which cancels out the risk of falling - children's desire to explore the world and its views (children can see more while walking) - travel broadens the mind GO MORE = SEE MORE = PLAY MORE = INTERACT MORE

The normally developed brain

... is provided with normal experiences in a normal environment

Perceptual adaptation refers to the

... the ability of the body to adapt to an environment by filtering out distractions. For example, someone who lives near a train can perceptually adapt such that they can ignore the train whistle in order to sleep at night. If someone came to visit, however, they would not have perceptually adapted to the train and would most likely not be able to sleep

3 types of reliability

1) Test-retest reliability 2) Inter-rater reliability 3) Inter-rater reliability

8 stages of the Strange Situation experiment (Mary Ainsworth)

1) the mother & child are together in room 2) the mother & child are joined by a stranger 3) the child is left alone with the stranger 4) the mother rejoins the child and the stranger 5) the stranger leaves the mother with the child 6) the child is left all alone 7) the stranger rejoins the child 8) the mother rejoins child, stranger leaves

The course of language development

1. modification of reflexes 2. primary circular reflexes 3. (6 months): babbling proper 4. (8 months): reduplicated babbling (ba, ba, ba...) 5. (12 months): combinations of different sounds in strings, first words can appear in babbling strings... nasal sounds before stop sounds

sucking reflex in testing habituation (early hearing experiment)

1. pregnant mother reads Cat in the Hat 2. infants tested after birth 3. faster sucking allows them to hear Cat in the Hat 4. infants who heard Cat in the Hat sucked accordingly Q: Is the mother's voice familiar from the first few days of lived experience or from the womb?... after all, babies can hear and develop sound preferences while still in the womb! **maybe not a call for prenatal education flashcards, however!

Formal Operational Stage Piaget

12-adulthood. Children develop the ability to think logically in the abstract. They develop deductive reasoning skills and are capable of achieving post-conventional moral reasoning... Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in the final sensorimotor substage. During this time, children begin to move towards understanding the world through mental operations rather than purely through actions.

Baby attempts to crawl...

17 times per hour

B. F. Skinner (Behaviorist) theory of language acquisition

1904-1990 Skinner & Behaviorist theory Parent reinforcement model - Language Behavior describes a behaviorist theory on how humans develop language. B.F. Skinner was a behaviorist who was interested in language acquisition in humans. He proposed that language, like any other skill, was gained by reinforcing responses from the environment. It's a process of building language skills on top of each other as a result from interacting with the environment. Desirable sounds made by infants are reinforced and these build on each other and eventually form the ability to speak languages.

months for ultrasound of baby

2 1/2 months 3 months 4 1/2 months 6 months

The progression of gender development

3 basic theories - Forming Categories of Masculine & Feminine - Social Interaction - Play Partner Preferences

Baby attempts to walk...

32 times per hour

When does the child reliably pass the false belief task?

4-+ years the child states that the object is correctly thought to be on the floor with the elephants "because that is where it is." 3 1/2 years the children are convinced that the object must be in the cupboard, where they know it to be... "because that is where it is"

face development in the fetus

5 1/2 weeks - 8 1/2 weeks

social "script"

A behavioral or social script is a series of behaviors, actions, and consequences that are expected in a particular situation or environment. Just like a movie script we know what to expect in many social settings. Individuals learn from past experiences and use these expectations to build scripts that make things easier for us cognitively.

sensitive period

A limited phase in an child's development that is the only time when certain behaviors can be learned.

conditioned head turn procedure

A procedure used to assess infants' abilities to discriminate stimuli. The infant is trained to expect a visual/auditory reward following a stimulus change. Then, the infants' conditioned expectation (indicated by their turning their heads to orient to the reward) serves as a measure of discrimination ability.

Which face would baby Peter favor of the choices of an upside-down human face, and inverted face, and a right side-up human face?

A right-side-up human face.

equilibirum

A stable situation after all disturbances or changes have worked themselves out... state of balance... assimilation = accommodation

Johnson & Newport (1989) grammar test experiment

A study with 57 adult Hungarian-speaking immigrants confirmed the hypothesis in the sense that very few adult immigrants scored within the range of child arrivals on a grammatical judgment test, and that the few who did had high levels of verbal analytical ability; this ability was not a significant predictor for childhood arrivals. This study replicates the findings of Johnson and Newport (1989)and provides an explanation for the apparent exceptions in their study. These findings lead to a re-conceptualization of the Critical Period Hypothesis: If the scope of this hypothesis is limited to implicit learning mechanisms, then it appears that there may be no exceptions to the age effects that the hypothesis seeks to explain.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

A theory made up of sensorimotor period, preoperational period, concrete operations, and formal operations expressed by Jean Piaget (1) The first stage of cognitive development is the sensorimotor stage. Lasting from birth to age two, infants at this stage learn new information through their own senses - seeing, touching, hearing things, and how their actions affect the objects around them. (2) From age two to seven, children start to learn new information and use symbols to represent ideas in their minds. This stage is known as the pre-operational stage, in which Piaget divides further into two sub-stages... The first sub-stage is called symbolic function where children are still unable to manipulate information in a logical way. They can use symbols to process information, which is evident in a role or pretend play, where children assign roles to objects or playmates...The latter stage, intuitive thought, occurs when children become very curious and begin to question on things they don't understand. This hints the beginning of primitive reasoning, where children realize that they know a lot of information and want to know what the information is all about (3) The concrete operational stage lasts from ages 7 and 11. At this stage, children are able to think logically, although still limited to simple mental operations and concrete events. (4) Piaget's final stage is the formal operational stage, which occurs from age 11 to around 15-20. Young people at this stage can process abstract concepts and use hypothetical-deductive reasoning in which a general idea is given and the consequent events are predicted based on that idea. Abstract thought is also evident at this stage.

Hawks develop keen vision in order to catch field mice to eat and are able to spot the vermin from midair - is this an example of assimilation or accommodation or adaptation?

Adaptation

Genotype

An organism's total genetic makeup, or allele combinations

voicing/voice onset time

Are our speech-sounds —/ba/, /da/, /ga/ —innate or learned? The first question we must answer about them is whether they are categorical categories at all, or merely arbitrary points along a continuum. It turns out that if one analyzes the sound spectrogram of ba and pa, for example, both are found to lie along an acoustic continuum called "voice-onset-time." With a technique similar to the one used in "morphing" visual images continuously into one another, it is possible to "morph" a /ba/ gradually into a /pa/ and beyond by gradually increasing the voicing parameter. - all distinctions between sounds just a continuum or a spectrum... but a really very clear one for most language speakers of their native language!

What two factors of parenting for authoritative parenting?

Authoritative parenting is high in warmth and high in control.

Janet Warner-head turn study (on language acquisition)

Babies are incredibly smart. During their first months, they can distinguish similar sounds (like /g/ and /k/) not only in their native language but in other languages as well. A study by Janet Werker, for example, found that while English-speaking adults cannot hear the difference between Hindi sounds /da/ and /Da/, English-learning infants could. Without having been taught the difference, they recognized the two sounds as different ones.

What is the memory capability of a typical infant?

Babies have representative memories, they do remember familiar faces and know when they are meeting someone new

social learning theory of language acquisition

Bandura (Boo-do doll) imitation and reward... despite parental nurturing of good behaviors and reinforcing them (idea of gender & theory)

What types of faces to all infants display an inherent preference for across cultures?

Beautiful faces of the same race as the infant

Why does (Bowlby's) strong attachment develop around 8-12 months?

Because this is the time when the child begins to explore the world through walking and crawling and it is necessary for the safety of the child that they should prefer to stay by their caregiver and be wary of strangers

Environmental Learning Theory

Behaviorism, Watson & Skinner... -Watson (Watson began teaching psychology at Johns Hopkins University in 1908. In 1913, he gave a seminal lecture at Columbia University titled "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It," which essentially detailed the behaviorist position. According to Watson, psychology should be the science of observable behavior, "Little Albert Experiment") -B. F. Skinner (Skinner considered free will an illusion and human action dependent on consequences of previous actions. If the consequences are bad, there is a high chance the action will not be repeated; if the consequences are good, the probability of the action being repeated becomes stronger. Skinner called this the principle of reinforcement. To strengthen behavior, Skinner used operant conditioning, and he considered the rate of response to be the most effective measure of response strength. To study operant conditioning, he invented the operant conditioning chamber, also known as the Skinner Box, and to measure rate he invented the cumulative recorder).

Which developmental school of thought considers actions of the child to be primarily influenced by the interactions of rewards and punishments?

Behaviourism

Enriched environments

Brains change with learning - a heavier brain has more neurons which are born through connections between material that the brain has learned and context behind newly required knowledge

30 million word gap

By the time a child is three years old, she / he will have heard the following number of words via interaction during 14 waking hours. Professional Family: 45 million words Working Class Family: 26 million Welfare Family: 13 million

When is categorical speech perception developed in the course of language acquisition of the child?

Categorical speech perception (the categorization of sounds of a language into distinct and more manageable categories on a hierarchical structure) is present from birth.

Ethological approach to developmental learning

Charles Darwin, adaptive behaviors, Natural selection & evolutionary study Keywords: organism, environment, adaptation, genes & natural selection, observation, adaptive, evolutionary sense, natural context Studied: in natural environments through quiet & nondisruptive observation, single case studies

endocrine disruptors

Chemical pollutants that have the potential to substitute for, or interfere with, natural hormones and the development of the fetus... - BPA (in water bottles, food containers, baby bottles, metal cans, thermal receipts, CD's/DVDs & water treatment pipes)... has been shown to cause increased risk for autism & ADHD for at least 3 generations -with prenatal exposure in humans, BPA can cause: asthma, anxiety, obesity & cancer - 93% of Americans have detectable BPA, 96% of women have detectable rates of BPA - Palates (flexible, durable, transparent plastics) found in pill coatings, cosmetics, dryer sheets, toys, fatty foods, baby lotions and baby toys & a whole sea of human-made substances... have been shown to cause problems in infant motor development... also cause the most common birth defect among baby boys (9%) in which the testicles fail to drop... can often cause infertility or testicular cancer -also Androgens

How do children possess the ability to so easily acquire language from interaction with the environment?

Chomsky argued for the existence of a universal grammar (or a linguistic theory developed by Noam Chomsky according to which all human languages are constructed on the same, abstract template, and that this explains why all normal speakers acquire their native language quickly and accurately)

What did Chomsky argue in relation to acquisition of language?

Chomsky's main line of argument was the B. F. Skinner's theory of of parental reinforcement of verbal behavior was wrong for the following (four) reasons... (1) the stimulus (language generalized & often mistaken, parents too often use the wrong words to describe things... parents as an imperfect model at best) (2) the reinforcement (parents do not correct children frequently enough or extend communication efforts upon every utterance of a child... behavior is not always reinforced and can be shut down negatively out of annoyance frequently enough) (3) the models (adults make so many grammatical mistakes that the model of speech is very imperfect) (4) the learner (the infant displays the uncanny ability to grammar very well, far beyond expectation in a mere imitation pattern)

What types of classrooms do children learn best in?

Classrooms with little decorations on the wall and extra added "supplements to learning" (see Fisher et. al study in preschool classrooms)

What is defined as the ability to perceive the relative distance of objects in one's visual field?

Depth perception

Band-aids in crayon box?

Does the child think that he one thought that Band-aids could have crayons stuffed inside the box= does the child think that he could have once thought differently about what was in the box than what he knows is in it now> What about his friend?

testing theory of mind in children

Does the child think that he one thought that Band-aids could have crayons stuffed inside the box= does the child think that he could have once thought differently about what was in the box than what he knows is in it now> What about his friend?

Greenough et. al. Study -

Experience-expectant processes appear to have evolved as a neural preparation for incorporating specific information: in many sensory systems, synaptic connections between nerve cells are overproduced, and a subsequent selection process occurs in which aspects of sensory experience determine the pattern of connections that remains. Experience-dependent information storage refers to incorporation of environmental information that is idiosyncratic, or unique to the individual, such as learning about one's specific physical environment or vocabulary. The neural basis of experience-dependent processes appears to involve active formation of new synaptic connections in response to the events providing the information to be stored. Although these processes probably do not occur entirely independently of one another in development, the categories offer a new view more in accord with neural mechanisms than were terms like "critical" or "sensitive period."

External (Predictive) Validity

External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other settings (ecological validity), other people (population validity) and over time (historical validity).

True or False: Children learn all the rules of Syntax at once and begin obeying grammar laws immediately?

False

What are the tests that are run upon children to see if they understand that someone else can have different, equally correct, viewpoints as their own becayuse they have not see somthing which I know)

False Belief tests

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov & his dogs)

First proposed and studied by Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is one form of learning in which an organism "learns" through establishing associations between different events and stimuli. For example, when a neutral stimulus (such as a bell) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (such as food) which produces some involuntary bodily response all on its own (such as salivating), the neutral stimulus begins to trigger a response by the organism similar (some salivation) to that produced by the unconditioned stimulus. In this way, the organism has "learned" that the neutral stimulus equals something good (just like the unconditioned stimulus).

Ethological theory: Konrad Lorenz Geese

Geese, chicks, and other baby birds that can walk around shortly after hatching, also show imprinting behaviour. Konrad Lorenz (1903 to 1989) was an Austrian scientist who studied animal behaviour. ... They followed him around and preferred to be near him even when they had grown into adult geese.

Kolberg's 3 stage process of self-identity

Gender identity (categorize self) 2.5 yrs Gender constancy (adult outcome) 3-4 years Gender constancy (cannot change) 6 yrs Gender schema theory (BEMS)

Parents also model gender normative behavior when assigning chores to children

Girls are always asked to do kitchen chores while boys are expected to take out 1 trash daily and all trash weekly, girls are asked about emotions at a art museum while boys are asked about exhibits at the scientist methof

Herb Simon

Herbert Alexander Simon (1916-2001) was an American economist and political scientist whose primary interest was decision-making within organizations and is best known for the theories of "bounded rationality" and the fields of cognitive science, computer science, public administration, management, and political science. He received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1978 and the Turing Award in 1975. His research was noted for its interdisciplinary nature and spanned across the many scientific/psychological fields.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment... there is no such thing as an absence of experience, only a different experience

audition

In humans and other vertebrates, hearing is performed primarily by the auditory system: mechanical waves, known as vibrations are detected by the ear and transduced into nerve impulses that are perceived by the brain (primarily in the temporal lobe). Like touch, audition requires sensitivity to the movement of molecules in the world outside the organism. Both hearing and touch are types of mechanosensation Keywords: cell localization (U shaped sound recognition development), sound intensity threshold

Head-first/head-last langauge

In linguistics, the head directionality is a proposed parameter that classifies languages according to whether they are head-initial (the head of a phrase precedes its complements) or head-final (the head follows its complements).

mental schema

In psychology and cognitive science, a schema describes a pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them.

A what stage of life do the brains of rats seem especially plascitic?

Infancy & Childhood (the earliest stages of life)

Internal (Predictive) Validity

Internal validity refers to whether the effects observed in a study are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not some other factor. In-other-words there is a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variable.

John Bowlby background

John Bowlby was a British psychologist, psychiatrist, and psychoanalyst, notable for his interest in child development and for his pioneering work in attachment theory... Bowlby was born in London with upper-middle-income family. He was the fourth of six children and was brought up by a nanny in the British fashion of his class at that time. The Bowlby family hired one nanny who was in charge of raising the children in a separate nursery in the house.Nanny Friend took care of the infants and generally had two other nursemaids to help her raise the children. As a result, Bowlby was raised primarily by nursemaid Minnie who acted as a mother figure to him and his sibling. A separation between Mary and her children was a theme found in all six of her children's lives as they were primarily raised by the nanny and nursemaids. Bowlby was extremely affected by the loss of his nursemaid Minnie as she acted as his mother substitute in a warm and nurturing way like a mother.This early loss of Bowlby's "mother-figure" fueled his interest later in life around what is now known as attachment theory.

John Watson

John Watson (1878 - 1958) is often called the Father of Behaviorism, which emphasizes objective and observable data such as people's behavior and reactions, as opposed to internal process that cannot be observed like mental states, or thought processes. Watson outlined that major features of Behaviorism in an article entitled "Psychology As The Behaviorist Views It," often referred to as the Behaviorist Manifesto. Watson's most famous and controversial experiment is known as the Little Albert Experiment. Little Albert was an 11-month boy who was trained to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud sound. In time, the child began to cry and show signs of distress upon seeing the white rat even without the accompanying sound. This fear was generalized to other furry objects like a rabbit, a dog, and a Santa Claus mask. Watson is credited for setting the stage for the rise of Behaviorism, which dominated the field of psychology until the 1950's.

imitation

Keywords: assimilation & accommodation - an advanced behavior whereby an individual observes and replicates another's behavior. Imitation is also a form of social learning that leads to the "development of traditions, and ultimately our culture. - may be impressively delays in children, showing their internalization and localization of the world around them

Pretend Play:

Keywords: assimilation & accommodation The process of pretending builds skills in many essential developmental areas. When your child engages in pretend (or dramatic) play, he is actively experimenting with the social and emotional roles of life. Through cooperative play, he learns how to take turns, share responsibility, and creatively problem-solve. Fantastical role-play to experimentally try out social roles in fantastically fun worlds!

inert knowledge

Learned information that could be applied to a wide range of situations but whose use is limited to restricted, often artificial, applications...information which one can express but not use. The process of understanding by learners does not happen to that extent where the knowledge can be used for effective problem-solving in realistic situations.

If a rat is handled in infancy is it more or less stressed in adulthood?

Less stressed... a positive methyl change is seen among handled rats

Woodward UVA experiment

Lillard and Woodward UVA experiment asked children to hand then an unfamiliar 'whisk' after naming the object as a whisk 9 times in the past hour after a 20 minute time elapse to test results which were not immediate, most every child could correctly identify the whisk even though it had been unfamiliar to him only a few hours ago

Semi-logical reasoning

Logical reasoning is the process of using a rational, systematic series of steps based on sound mathematical procedures and given statements to arrive at a conclusion... -children understand the general idea of thoughts with out grasping the wider concepts or the specific details of the matter... same(ish) end-goal but a very different path to get there - a logcal correlation in the eyes of a child but missing some key understanings of the world and the human condition from the adult viewpoint

Developmental theories

Nature vs. Nurture, Social Learning Theory, Behaviorism, Cognitive Development, Ethological Approach

"native distinction" between sounds

Numerous findings suggest that non-native speech perception undergoes dramatic changes before the infant's first birthday. Yet the nature and cause of these changes remain uncertain. We evaluated the predictions of several theoretical accounts of developmental change in infants' perception of non-native consonant contrasts. Keywords: articulatory phonology, cross-language, infant speech perception, non-native consonants, perceptual assimilation

Parent play patterns with children reinforce gender stereotypes

Parents cuddle girls and rough/tumble play with boys, very different parental activity levels with children interaction across gender division lines

Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory

Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory. According to Piaget. His theory of cognitive development is a "stage theory" which has several stages of development, and in each stage of development, children are faced with challenging situations which they must deal with and overcome through increased mental abilities. Once the challenge is successfully dealt in that stage, the children can move on to the next stage of cognitive development. This is similar to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, but this is a cognitive theory...it's based on cognitive challenges and cognitive advancements by the child which allow them to overcome the challenges. After each new stage is reached, there is a plateau during which the child/person is able to think in new and more advanced ways. For example, an infant can't think in abstract terms like you can because you have reached a more advanced stage of cognitive development and a higher stage in Piaget's theory. Jean Piaget's principle that from infancy to adolescence, children progress through four qualitatively different stages of intellectual growth.

A child displays centration in the form of eco-centrism and semi-logical reasoning and cannot complete the conservation of liquid Piaget task - what stage of Piaget's cognitive development is the child in?

Piaget's Preoperational Period.

Pretending is a stage of development in what key developmental process of Child Psychology

Pretending leads to false-belief development

(primary & secondary) circular reactions)

Primary: continuous repetition of a body movement that is soothing (sucking thumb) Secondary: Manipulation focused on something -- repeatedly throwing toys from a chair

Student/Teacher Achievement Ratio (STAR)

Project STAR (Student-Teacher Achievement Ratio), randomly assigned teachers and students to three groups, "small" (13 to 17), "regular" (22 to 25) classes with a paid aide, and "regular" (22 to 25) classes with no aide. In total some 6,500 students in about 330 classrooms at approximately 80 schools participated... Using both standardized and curriculum based testing, the initial study concluded that small classes produced "substantial improvement in early learning and cognitive studies" with the effect about double for minority students. As this is considered the seminal study (in an area that has received much political attention) there have been many attempts to reinterpret the data.

self-report survey

Pros: quick results, directly from the source (no middle-man) Limitations: self-interested response bias, leading & selective questions, self-preserving or joking answers, speeding through the survey frequent

Meltzoff and Moore (1977) experiment

Q: When do children start to imitate? Meltzoff took hospital calls from newborn babies as soon as he could get into the hospital room to test them (as young as a 43-minute old child) - the child and Meltzoff were placed together in a dark room with the child looking at Meltzoff with the spotlight on his face, even at such a young age the babies had enough spacial knowledge of their own face to imitate his facial expressions such as sticking his tongue out

Moken, Burma & the Sea Gypsy children

Sea Gypsies - a generic term that applies to a number of peoples in southeast Asia... their babies learn to swim before they walk and learn to dive while they are still very young children. They have the extraordinary ability to hold their breath and see under water for a time that far exceeds the capability of an ordinary, healthy human. Because of the amount of time they spend diving for food, Moken children are able to see better underwater due to accommodation of their visual focus.

What was the takeaway of B. F. Skinner's box experiment?

Skinner reasoned that the food pellet served as a reinforcement of this behavior, causing it to be repeated. He called this form of learning operant conditioning since the organism directly influences, or operates on, the environment.

Children as active learners

Skinner's rat box: Beginning in the 1920s, Skinner conducted numerous experiments in order to explore and develop his theory. Many of his experiments involved the use of small animals such as rats and pigeons, as well as an enclosed chamber which came to be known as the 'Skinner box.' One version of the Skinner box was equipped with a lever that the animal could press in order to obtain food. In a typical experiment, a hungry rat would be placed inside the box and would wander around randomly until it accidentally pressed the lever. A food pellet would immediately be delivered to the animal. After a few trials, the random exploration would decrease while the rat's tendency to press the lever would increase. Skinner reasoned that the food pellet served as a reinforcer of this behavior, causing it to be repeated. He called this form of learning operant conditioning since the organism directly influences, or operates on, the environment. Keywords: Stimuli, Organism behaviors, rewards & punishments

social cognition theory

Social cognitive theory, used in psychology, education, and communication, holds that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences.

Claude Steele & the math classroom

Studied stereotype threat and women's math performance as well as under-performance of African-Americans in the classroom

2 major theories of language acquisition

The 2 major theories of language acquisition are as follows... (1) Skinner's Behaviorist model (parental reinforcement) & (2) Chomsky's Nativist model (universal grammar to aid language acquisition)

Concrete operational Piagetian Stage

The 3rd Piaget stage of cognitive development (age 6-12)... -the conservation of liquids task is finally passed (the child must understand the the amount of water is equal when poured from a small wide glass to a tall narrow glass, the children must be able to mentally represent the activity and understand the conservation principle of equality -this is the stage of the "concrete operational error" in time, space, and quantity can be applied individually but not corporately... in a similar manner... number, volume & mass can be applied individually buy not corporately

intermodal perception

The ability to relate and integrate information from two or more sensory modalities, such as vision and hearing... many examples (include color & world perception)

conscious attention

The amount of conscious attention given to the movement characteristics of a skill is reduced

experience & the developing brain: neuroplacisity

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life... especially during childhood

Chronosystem

The chronosystem is made up of the environmental events and transitions that occur throughout a child's life, including any sociohistorical events. The chronosystem is one of five systems in Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory.

Piaget "A not B" error

The difficulty for a child to depart from a strategy that has worked for them in the recent past because they associate that action with a reward, in spite of the correct answer being in clear view to both the experimenter and the infant - an inability to divorce the action from the object - The A-Not-B error, also known as a perspective error, is an error in the mental perception of objects seen in infants before the age of one year. By the time an infant is around 8 months old they are able to realize that objects that are hidden still exist and have not disappeared. This illustrates a child's ability to mentally represent objects in their mind. -This ability is called object permanence. This ability is fragile in infants and can be manipulated easily. Infants still under the age of one will commit the A-Not-B error. To test this reaction an object is hidden in the same location (location A) multiple times and the infant will find it each time, but once the infant sees the object hidden in a new location (location B) it will typically continue to look for the object in location A. Normally, the infant will begin to correctly search in location B by the time they reach the age of one.

Borac rat mind change study-

The effect of electromagnetic radiation on the rat brain: structural changes of electromagnetic waves in the frontal cortex, brain stem and cerebellum... study reveals brain functional changes during attention in rats

Phylogeny

The evolutionary history of a species or group of related species

What does the attachment of infants to primary caregivers tell us about the cognitive abilities of infants?

The fact that infants can develop the attachment as early as 8 months shows that the young infant displays an able & working memory and preference toward parents over strangers (hence the Stranger Anxiety that appears about the same time as the strong attachment).

Nature vs. Nurture dichotomy

The nature versus nurture debate involves whether human behavior is determined by the environment, either prenatal or during a person's life, or by a person's genes.

Behaviorism

The school of thought that stresses the need for psychology to be an objective science. In other words, that psychology should be a science based on observable (and only observable) events, not the unconscious or conscious mind. This perspective was first suggested and propagated by John Watson in 1913, who wanted psychology to study only observable behaviors and get away from the study of the conscious mind completely. Watson's primary rationale was that only observable events are verifiable and thus, are the only events that can be proven false. Keywords: nurture dichotomy, continuous perspective & classical conditioning, parental reinforcemant, parent rewarding

What is the second substage of Piaget's sensorimotor development period?

The secondary circuitry movement (in which the baby begins to reach out to try and understand the wider world through grabbing things, mouthing objects, etc. & the "A not B error occurs")

Sensory motor stages

The sensorimotor stage can be divided into six separate sub-stages that are characterized by the development of a new skill: -- Reflexes (0-1 month): During this substage, the child understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking. --Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months): This substage involves coordinating sensation and new schemas. For example, a child may suck his or her thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeat the action. These actions are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable. --Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months): During this substage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment. For example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his or her mouth. --Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months): During this substage, the child starts to show clearly intentional actions. The child may also combine schemas in order to achieve the desired effect. Children begin exploring the environment around them and will often imitate the observed behavior of others. The understanding of objects also begins during this time and children begin to recognize certain objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child might realize that a rattle will make a sound when shaken. --Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months): Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth substage. For example, a child may try out different sounds or actions as a way of getting attention from a caregiver. --Early Representational Thought (18-24 months): Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in the final sensorimotor substage. During this time, children begin to move towards understanding the world through mental operations rather than purely through actions.

When is the stepping reflex present in the development of the infant?

The stepping reflex is present in the infant from birth, but the infant's feet cannot support its body weight until about after about nine-twelve months.

What do all of the following show that the child's ability to do: (effectively use and interpret a basic map, draw a cat, find a toy in a room using a diagram, learn to sound out a word)?

This child is able to understand that symbols come to represent certain things in the real world, apply this knowledge and distinguish between the symbols and their real-world applications.

Criteria for Judging experiments

Validity, Objectivity, Reliability, Replicabiltiy, Representative Development, Approximate Control Group (VORRRAC)

Piaget's chemistry problem

What colors do we mix to get the color yellow? - different cultures around the world gave very different answers, but all came up with a shade of yellow... showed that familiar materials are different for each individual child from each individual community... also, there is a spectrum of correct answers in the meaningful domain of the primary color "yellow"

What is the worst situation for a child living with divorced or near-divorced parents?

When the parents have an openly hostile relationship in high conflict with one another in the presence of the child, it is necessarily better to stay married for the sake of the child.

the "Looking Glass Self"

a boy baby is dressed in girls clothes and a girl baby is dressed in boy clothes and the experiment is conducted to see how people describe them (the infant dressed as a boy is described as curious and strong, and dressed up) while the girl is described as cute

category

a class of objects/entities held together through extension

mutual exclusivity

a concept that refers to an infant's assumption that any given object has only one name

precept

a general rule intended to regulate behavior or thought

the clinical interview

a interview with questions adjusted based on previous answers... pros: information directly from source limitations: leading questions can easily become frequent occurrences

Test-retest reliability

a method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions

theory

a set of ideas or beliefs aimed at an explanation (explains something that we do not know... not to prove or disprove).

paradigm shift

a shift from the background paradigm (the cultural line of thought... often Western thought & assumptions and its shift to a new world (ex: Ptolemaic geocentric theory to Copernican heliocentric theory... has consequences all the way down)

Social interaction (Macconey 1978)

a study of toddlers at play, found girls to be more passive when playing with boys, although the boys were equally aggressive when playing with boys.

Processes to aquire knowledge

action adaptation assimilation accomodation equilibrium

accomodation

adapting our current understandings (schema) to incorporate new information... child must accommodate & adjust motor schema and reflexes to adapt to a totally new & unfamiliar piece of information

data collection techniques:

allow for empirical observation and measurement... include self-report surveys & questionnaires

attachment

an enduring bond between a child and their primary caregiver (these strong, enduring & effective bonds occur in long-lasting patterns world-wide)

teratogen

an external agent that can cause damage or death during prenatal development... although the effect is all about the timing of exposure paired with the current development of organs in the embryo -environmental agents can damage prenatal development

sonogram

an image formed using reflected ultrasound waves to form a picture of an unborn baby... the picture quality has improved over time (at the same rate of improvement of horse ultrasound pictures)

How do we define a critical period?

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development (critical period is often used to refer to a critical period in the brain development of the fetus

critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development (often used to refer to a critical period in brain development in the fetus) ... example: there is greater synchronously firing neurons in the critical period of development

eye tracking of infants

applicability of eye tracking within the field of developmental research is broad, including studies of: - developmental progression in infants' allocation of attention and interest - visual perception related to understanding and recall - ability to recognize motion signals - development of control of action - social interaction characteristics - language acquisition

Siegler's Overlapping Wave Model

at any given age and within any given testing situation, children will use different strategies to solve the same problem... proposed in response to criticisms against traditional developmental theories, many different strategies would be available to a child for problem solving throughout development

Early vocabularies

average of 4 word vocabulary by age 10 months (but can range from 0-52 words)

What is the average age at which the baby announces his or her first word?

between 10-12 months typically

development of thumb-sucking reflex in fetus

between 9 weeks & 16 weeks

bilingual children

bilingual babies across the world are better at language learning than adults

cognitive abilities

capabilities related to the acquisition and application of knowledge in problem solving... ""the ability of an individual to perform the various mental activities most closely associated with learning and problem solving"

Play Preference Partners

children desire play partners who resmeble themselves (girls desire girl play partners, boys desire boy partners and would rather stick to playmates of their own gender that than a very interesting and tempting playmate from the other gender)

What 3 methods to children use to learn language?

children employ the methods of hearing, decipherable, and imitation in a effort to lean their native language

the time period of conception

conception time takes an average of 6 hours

Why do parents love babies?

cons: the high cost of babies, the grossness of babies, the marriage unhappiness that comes directly following the birth of the first child and lasts until the last child leaves home & the time commitment involved in raising a child - big heads - round features - large & high foreheads - wide-set eyes - round & puffy, high cheekbones - baby smiles - baby hiccups/laughs & baby humor - baby talk - toddling or falling toddlers - baby grasping hands **wait... people with baby faces are cuter? Even babies prefer to look at babies!

development of syntax

course of development - (18 months) - telegraphic speech "sit daddy" "bed me" - (18 mth-24 mth) - true sentences "want some more" - (36 months) 3-4 word sentences with complexity (articles, morphemes, cognitive complexity) - (3-5 years) - some over-regularization errors or over-applied rules "my feet, "i thoughted, etc.

infant deveopment of locomotion

crawling (8 months) walking (12 months)

deaths rates of zygotes

death at conception - 120% death at birth - 105% death by age 50 - 90% death by age 87 - 50%

impact of teratogens

depends on the age of the fetus

Describe the individual stages of the prespeech linguistic development of the child.

development of gestures → making adequate eye contact → sound repertoire between infant and caregiver → cooing → babbling → crying

Prespeech linguistic development of the child

development of gestures → making adequate eye contact → sound repertoire between infant and caregiver → cooing → babbling → crying

gametes

egg and sperm cells each carrying 23 chromosomes before merging to form a zygote

Intra-rater reliability

established if results are consistent when the same person rates the test on more than one occasion

The Child's Gender Schema... Forming Male & Female Cagories

evolutionary/biological: girls play with dolls from an evolutionary standpoint forming male/female categories: infant perceptions of gender faces, stronger preference for females provided in the minds of babies as mother leads to feeding and familiarity leads to liking)

development of the embryo

fertilization → zygote → embryo → baby

Cognitive Science

field of study that examines how humans and other animals acquire, process, store, and retrieve information... the study of how the human mind stores, processes, organizes, manipulates and uses information. This type of study is done through structured experiments.

perfect vision

for adults (20/20) (prefer colors red & white) for babies (21/20) (prefer colors black & white) *infants see best (even at a very young age) about a forearms away from their faces, or the distance from the face of the caregiver to the baby when held

regions of the brain to know (lobes etc.)

frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occupital lobe, cerebellum, temporal lobe & brain stem

Claude Steele

further hypothesized that at least part of the difference in IQ can be attributed to Stereotype Threat

stages of conception

germinal stage → conception - 2 weeks embryonic stage → 3 weeks - 8 weeks fetal stage → 8 weeks - birth at 38 weeks

Rosalie Rayner

graduate student of Watson and co-researcher for the famous Little Albert demonstration of classically conditioned emotion

Cognitive Development

how children represent the world sub-types of Cognitive development (nativism, Rousseau, Plato, John Locke-the child as a blank slate which is shaped and modeled by experience... assimilation & accommodation) Keywords: mind, perceptions, concepts, actions, processes, mental schema, ideas and scripts, social role, gender stereotype Study methods: observing the child, talking with the child & making inferences, structured interviews & observations

What are the aids in the stages of Pre-speech language acquisition?

imitation, statistical Learning, diagram learning, word learning, joint attention, and categorical relations

Inter-rater reliability

indicates how consistent scores are likely to be if the responses are scored by two or more raters using the same item, scale, or instrument

experimenting with infants: the challenges

infants can be... - moody - emotionally unstable - prone to fall asleep - often display rapid changes of state -young children cannot speak in experiments yet 50-60% of infant experiments must be disregarded due to infant mood, temper, or sensitivity

Counting & infants

infants cannot determine how many objects are in a set because counting is not a skill which infants hold -infants cannot determine how many objects through counting but they can display a nonverbal sensitivity to a number (not, however, of precise quantities)

Learning acquisition devices employed by children learning language to aid in language learning include...

innate language acquisition mechanisms in brain: - speech analyzing mechanisms (distinguish the plural from the past tense, etc). - learning words & ability to also figure out syntax - a universal grammar ( a shared deep structure of all the shared sounds of world languages to aid in the development of language) - transformational grammar (sets switches for the universal grammar... surface structure: actual words you hear or read, deep structure: underlying meaning, Problems with phrase structure grammar alone: ambiguous sentences)

A biology occurs in identity biol ethological e

innerspring sin the core of the arth suc has enlarged area of the brain and hormonal threatment of worry

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schema... child absorbs new information into grasping structure of ideas

experimental designs for data collection

longitudinal study: studying the change of one individual child over a long period of time... takes a lot of patience and a long time, sometimes people move away cross-sectional study: studies multiple children at different ages: 3 years old, 5 years old, 7 years old, etc.), compares children of different ages with one another to see how children develop over time microgenetic study: a short time frame with frequent observations (28 observations in 2 weeks for example) to see how individual changes, the time frame chosen is usually a crucial time of childhood development

common teratogens include...

mercury, cigarettes, alcohol, cat litter, radiation, narcotics & diseases

worldwide names for parental figures & findings

mother: mommy, mama, mama "nasal sounds" father: daddy, papa, baba "consonants" "m" nasal sounds are associated with feeding/nursing and the other important noticeable consonant sounds are dedicated to the important father figure

Why is it that the infant distinguishes "ma" with a more nasalized sound than the "pa" for father?

nursing limits the infant to more nasalized sounds

naturalistic observation

observing what happens in the real & natural world (think Jane Goodall with her chimps in their natural environment) limitations: observer bias, confirmation bias, observer presence can influence the situation, "correlation is not causation," neglects the possibility of third-factor involvement, rather hard to generalize these results to the real world, confounding variables, can be expensive to study in this way, ethical concerns over privacy and lack of authority of the experimenter

Holophrases

one-word utterances that stand for a whole phrase, whose meaning depends on the particular context in which they are used... often early speech mistakes ("mygoround" = "merrygoround"

children's errors in language aquisition

over-extension- the word "Lassie" does not apply to every dog that has ever existed, the word "chicken" does not apply to sausage, beef, or pork under-extension- the word mother can refer to more than one person, there are birds which are not pigeons, not all birds are pigeons mis-mapping - just the wrong word... fish will never be said as a "turtle"

Social Learning theorists on gender development

parents reinforce gender norms... Tom's pink room is not a frequent occurrence, nor is Sue's sports room

active perception

perception in which your mind selects, organizes, and interprets that which you sense

Biological Approach

pharmaceutical drugs... To use a biological approach means to concentrate solely on the physical manifestations of disease and the physical treatments of those conditions.

Premack & Woodruff (1978)

picture of a man leaning outstretched toward his phone, grasping it -will the chimp realize that the man wants the phone, will the teenagers? Does the chimpanzee have theory of mind? -As to the mental states the chimpanzee may infer, consider those inferred by our own species, for example, purpose or intention, as well as knowledge, belief, thinking, doubt, guessing, pretending, liking, and so forth. To determine whether or not the chimpanzee infers states of this kind, we showed an adult chimpanzee a series of videotaped scenes of a human actor struggling with a variety of problems. Some problems were simple, involving inaccessible food - bananas vertically or horizontally out of reach, behind a box, and so forth - as in the original Kohler problems; others were more complex, involving an actor unable to extricate himself from a locked cage, shivering because of a malfunctioning heater, or unable to play a phonograph because it was unplugged. With each videotape the chimpanzee was given several photographs, one a solution to the problem, such as a stick for the inaccessible bananas, a key for the locked up actor, a lit wick for the malfunctioning heater. The chimpanzee's consistent choice of the correct photographs can be understood by assuming that the animal recognized the videotape as representing a problem, understood the actor's purpose, and chose alternatives compatible with that purpose. -What gives evidence of the theory of mind? The "false belief" test to test the theory of find?

EEG/ERP

recordings of the electrical frequencies and intensities of the living brain, typically recorded over relatively long periods

implicit understanding

represent an unspoken compact between the partners about the relationship and each other

questionarre data

self-report filled out for the child by a teacher or parent... Pros: quick results, directly from the source (no middle-man) Limitations: self-interested response bias, leading & selective questions, self-preserving or joking answers, speeding through the survey frequent

overaccomadate in categorization

sometimes children fail to understand that... - more objects fit into broader categories than narrower categories - the class inclusion principle of categorizing big groups and subgroups

speech sounds

speech sounds across languages (phoneme count varies wildly) - english (45 phonemes) - polynesian (11 phonemes) - bush africa (8 phonemes)

experimenter: "Can you give me [Number]?"

stages sequence 1:1 of child correspondence (children quickly learn numbers 1-3 & sometimes 4) (children have bridged a larger gap of knowledge after they leave able to count to the number 5 and come to understand the cardinal principle (AND TO ALWAYS BEGIN COUNTING WITH ONE OBJECT AND WORK YOUR WAY ORDERLY THROUGH EVERY OBJECT BEFORE FINISHING)

explicit understanding

stated compacts and agreements

Freudian Theory

talk therapy, the infamous couch, the patient talked through situation to find out what went wrong in their childhood... quite lovely :(

Rene Spitz: Post WWII

the "psycho-genetic disease of infancy," or when children are raised as unhappy orphans following the killings of the war... challenged previous understanding of theory of attachment

Stereotype Threat

the anxiety that influences members of a group concerned that their performance on a test will confirm a negative stereotype

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived... the failure of an infant to realize that objects still exist even when one lacks psychological contact with them... the ability to mentally represent the permanence of objects - not a question of reality (the object will always exist even if it is hidden out of the line of sight) but a question of the infant's interpretation

Paradigm

the background in which theories exist... "a set of assumptions, values, concepts, and practices that constitute a way of viewing reality"

continuous vs discontinuous dichotomy

the caterpillar develops in discontinuous growth: from caterpillar to chrysalis to butterfly a tree develops in continuous growth: from seed to sprout to small tree to medium tree to tall tree to taller tree

testing theory of mind in children

the classic false belief test in children (Maxi put down his chocolate and felt it in the room, the mother hid the chocolate in the cupboard... where will Maxi look for it? The ground- chocolate truly in the cupboard but Maxi thought it was on the floor-can the child take the perspective of Maxi?

Ontogeny

the development of a child over time... the process by which an individual changes in the course of its lifetime - that is, grows up and grows old

Ontology

the evolution of an individual human

validity

the extent to which a test/experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

phylogenetic continuity

the idea that because of our common evolutionary history, humans share many characteristics, behaviors, and developmental processes with other animals, especially mammals *common links between humans and our friends the mice*

semantic development

the learning of the system for expressing meaning in a language, including word learning... the social cognitive theory of language Inquisition

cognition

the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Articulation

the physical production of particular speech sounds... really, really difficult for the child to master & learn... often children have trouble articulating and take speech therapy (hard words: "car," "blanket" & "ran"... the mistakes are telling)

language acquisition

the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate... how infants learn their own language and how to communicate fluently with all those around them

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

ethological evolutionary development

the psychological study of the evolutionary development of the animal being over time

What is meant by the "semantics" of a language?

the semantics of a language refers to the meanings of its words... the branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning... the meaning of a word, phrase, sentence, or text

Phenotype

the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment

Semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning

Phonetics

the study and classification of speech sounds... the learning of pronunciation... this learning continues until preschool - articulation is a difficult process! (in "metalinguistic awareness" children address their own struggles with pronunciation)

Piagetian egocentrism

the tendency of a child to wrongly assume the everyone surely must see the world as they themselves do - the child cannot perform the mental operation of taking into consideration a view that is not their own, assumes that everyone sees the world as he or she does, are incapable of seeing another's point of view -evidenced by the three mountains tasks, in which children cannot imagine that an experiment from the opposite side of an display cannot see the mountain geography arranged in exactly the same way that they themselves see it inclined

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished... Albert Bandura's view that people learn by imitation, the Bo-do doll experiment... began a step away from behaviorism... A model based on the cultural influence on the child Keywords: behaviors, organisms, stimuli, responses & rewards

fNIRS (functional near-infrared spectroscopy)

the use of near-infrared spectroscopy for the purpose of functional neuroimaging. Using fNIRS, brain activity is measured through thermodynamic responses associated with neuron behaviour

the development of the infant mind in theory and developmental research

the world as a "blooming, buzzing confusion"→ the infant mind as a tabula rusa (blank slate) → behaviorist tradition introduces the notion of lack of motor skills rather than lack of thought

Noam Chomsky (Nativist) on language acquisition

theory contrasts to proposed Behaviorist/Skinner model... proves Skinner wrong on 4 points... (1) the stimulus (language generalized & often mistaken, parents too often use the wrong words to describe things... parents as an imperfect model at best) (2) the reinforcement (parents do not correct children frequently enough or extend communication efforts upon every utterance of a child... behavior is not always reinforced and can be shut down negatively out of annoyance frequently enough) (3) the models (adults make so many grammatical mistakes that the model of speech is very imperfect) (4) the learner (the infant displays the uncanny ability to grammar very well, far beyond expectation in a mere imitation pattern) Instead, Chomsky proposed a language theory which included a universal grammar (the potential for the child to learn every sound of every langue) which aided children in language development

in the case of same-sex parents or a single parent...

there is no ideal to which the ask myself to conform to ... and the time... * women are also underrepresented on social media

At what age is it that a child will begin passing the Carey & Bartlett (discussion,... also Email or the UVA Woodward study) tests on language acquisition?

these tests will surely be passed by the age of 4-5 years old

Chomsky's transformational grammar

transformational grammar (sets switches for the universal grammar... surface structure: actual words you hear or read, deep structure: underlying meaning, Problems with phrase structure grammar alone: ambiguous sentences)

Sensorimotor schemes

transition stage between sensorimotor stage and preoperational period in Piaget's stages of cognitive development - the applications of sensorimotor ideas to later periods of development & the wider world - thinking still ego-centric, has not get "gone underground"...**see flashcard below

Objectivity

treating facts without influence from personal feelings or prejudices... such as computer grading

Chomsky's universal grammar

universal grammar... a shared deep structure of all the shared sounds of world languages to aid in the development of language

infant development of vision acuity

vision immature at birth (not fully mature until 6 yrs old)... Keywords: infant fixation of vision → jumpy "saccade" vision → binocular convergence, two eye visions converge and depth perception is achived → visual acuity and proficency

Protoconversations

vocal interactions between mothers and infants that resemble the verbal exchanges of more mature conversations... An interaction between an adult (typically a mother) and baby, that includes words, sounds and gestures, that attempts to convey meaning before the onset of language in the child.

The average baby

weight: 8.12 pounds height: 21" labor time: 12 hours weight gain of mother: 35 lbs delivery timespan: baby delivered a couple of weeks early (before 38 weeks)

Replicability

when a study's findings are able to be duplicated, ideally by independent investigators

Kids labeling of Gender Stereotypes

young children are quick to match a boy with a hammer and a girl with a cooking pot, and girls prefer dolls with lipstick to girls without however, so humorous misconceptions can occur... "everyone has a penis, only girls wear berets"

development of zygote

zygote → embryo → cell division → cell migration → cell differentiation (genes turn on & off) → apoptosis (programmed cell death)

perceptual adaptation subcategories:

↪vision ↪audition ↪other senses ↪intermodal perception ↪perception & adaptation