Chp 4

since in english we do not contrast [t, tʰ, ʔ, ɾ], they are

allophones of a single phoneme /t/

method of phonology

assume phonetic transcriptions and make cross-linguistic generalizations for theorietical observations

how many environments must be included in a rule

at least one

can't say they're two dif phonemes, have to say they're allophones of the same phoneme??

bc the level of phoneme is the abstract one??

phonology

branch of linguistics interested in restrictions that we find among sounds; why a certain sound can appear in certain places; studies sounds in languages as part of a system; branch of cognitive science that studies how sound patterns are processed in the brain

schwa

can only be in unstressed positions

two criteria for 2 segments to be allophones of different phonemes

1) the segments do not appear in the same environment (complementary distribution) AND 2) the segments are phonetically similar

a pair of words is a minimal pair if

1) the words have different meanings AND 2) the words differ in only a single segment and are otherwise identical (ex. <map/nap>)

Rule template

A-->B/C-D: "A becomes B between C and D"

minimal pairs must have the same number of sounds

TRUE

optional rules

capture optionality. These rules can happen in a language's phonology, but there are no constraints that stipulate that this change is a necessity: "A->B/#__ (optional)" means that they're allophones of the same phoneme in free variation word-initially

2 segments are phonemes if

changing one with the other changes the meaning of a world; appear in the same environment

the two criteria for 2 segments to be allophones of the same phoneme

complementary distribution AND phonetic similarity

phoneme

contrastive segments

if two segs appear in at least one identical environment (meaning same preceding and following environment), they must belong to

different phonemes

allophones must appear in

different, non-overlapping (disjunctive?) environments

free variation

term used to refer to two sounds that occur in overlapping environments but cause no distinction in the meaning of their respective words

elsewhere allophone

the allophone that appears in all other places besides the one exception of where it cannot appear?

by convention, the phoneme is named after

the elsewhere allophone (but this is kind of confusing bc the title of the rule seems to be named after the specific allophone)

learnability experiments

train ppl on a fake language (process) and then ask them to produce/judge new forms

lab/experimental phonology

uses experimental method

allophones

when 2 segments are not contrastive but are phonetically similar; kind of like different shades of blue for us in english; each phoneme can have multiple allophone realizations

allophonic contrasts

when 2 segs appear in complementary distribution and are phonetically similar--> allophones of the same phoneme

phonemic contrasts

when 2 segs appear in saome evironment and form minimal pairs--> 2 dif phonemes

how to mark a voiceless segment

with a little circle directly below

how to formalize connection between allophones of the same phoneme

with rules! :) that map one to the other in a specific environment

how to represent word edges

#

how to mark stress

' before the stressed syllable

how are phonemes marked?

/ /

in the rule template, what do all the letters represent

A=elsewhere allophone B=the other allophone (specific allophone) C=segment before D=segment after

are all distinctions contrastive

NO

if seg A is an allphone of phoneme /X/ and seg B and contrasts with phoneme /X/, could segments A and B be allophones of the same phoneme?

NO (I think at least)

are [h] and engma allophones of the same phoneme since they appear in complementary distribution

NO b/c they are phonetically quite different!

does the rule contain square brackets?

NO! just the relevent segments

if two segments appear in complementary distribution, is this sufficient evidence that they are allophones of the same phoneme

NO!!! but it is a good clue that is could be true

do you always need to mark non-contrastive properties in a phonetic transcription?

NO, only sometimes you do it

minimal pair

PHONOLOGY A pair of words which differ in meaning when only one segment is changed. The differences can be either vowels or consonants.

do you always need to mark contrastive sounds in a phonetic transcription?

YES

is a single minimal pair sufficient evidence that 2 segments are not the same phoneme?

YES

is it sufficient to establish similarity across subsets of allophones with each allophone being similar to just at least one other allophone?

YES! for ex: [t, tʰ, ɾ] all alveolar while [t, tʰ, ɾ] are all voicless stops

how are allophones marked?

[ ]

the two parts each rule consists of

a name (Hebrew /v/ allophone) and the rule itself (b-->v/V--)

how to mark that something is velarized

a tilde through the letterr [ɫ]

what are the two different levels of phonological representation (thanks to structuralism)

abstract (phonemes) and concrete (allophones)

sonar consonants

all manners besides stops, fricatives, and affricates

structuralism

early 20thC, led to theory of allophones and phonemes, there are two different levels of representation

the rule must map the ____ allophone to the _____

elsewhere allo to the more restricted one

the phoneme is named after the

elsewhere allophone

methods of phonetics

experimental method; measuring physical properties of speech sounds, articulation, perception with audio recordings, special software, ultrasounds, etc

all langs have ____ number of phonemes

finite

if given a problem

first look for minimal pairs to determine if phonemic; then, if they are phonetically similar, look for the environments so you can look for a pattern

if two segs do not appear in complementary distribution but switching them out for each other doesn't change meaning of the word, they are

free variants

final devoicing

in many langs, word-final stops, fricatives, and affricates must be voiceless

optionality

in some positions and in some langs, segments may be realized variantly

contrast

key phonological concept related to the way human brain processes speech and language; refers to a substantial qualitative difference between 2 things which are typically in opposition or in close association; not all sound distinctions are contrastive

near minimal pair

like a min pair except that there's more than one difference between the 2 words with dif meanings; the additional difference has no apparent effect on teh 2 segments in question

segment

like a speech sound, but doesn't necessarily refer to a single unit fron a phonological point of view; a diphthong could be considered 2 speech sounds but a single segment

aspirations

marked w/ superscript h [tʰ]; increased duration between stops's release and the beginning of the following sound

syllabic consonants

marked with a , directly underneath

the metarules

must be as simple and general as possible must go general to specific must be consistent with the data (accurate!)

elicitation

native speakers are asked about forms in a language and data is collected

in english do we contrast [t], [tʰ], [ʔ], [ɾ]?

no

can segments ever overlap?

no (but speech sounds can have an affect on a dif sound; this is why they're dif)

does degree of similarity play the sole role in whether or not something is contrastive?

no; sounds can be contrastive in one language but not contrastive in another!

complementary distribution

non-overlapping environments

production experiments

participant given one form and then asked for a related form

perception experiments

participants asked if a word is well formed or in a nonce word could exist

the 2 distinctions among segments in world's languages: some contrasts are

phonemic, while others are allophone

do we compare minimal pairs based on phonetic content or orthography

phonetic content!!!

a minimal pair can be used to determine if the contrast between 2 segments is

phonetic? (whether they are two different phonemes)

is looking at recurrent sound patterns across languages phonetic or phonological? (ex. all languages have vowels)

phonology

distribution can be described in terms of

preceding or following environments (sometimes both, sometimes only one)

the environment refers to the

restricted allophone

when we refer to contrast we refer to contrast between

segments

stop means just oral unless

specified otherwise

obstruent consonants

stops, fricatives, affricates

environments can refer to

stress, syllable structure, voicelessness, vowels, consonants?

phonetics

subfield of linguistics interested mostly in articulatory and acoustic properties of sounds (how they're articulated, how they differ in acoustic properties)

how to mark that something is dental

subscript t̪

how to mark that something is palatized

superscript j [ mʲ ]

how to mark that something is a nasal vowel

superscript tilde [ẽ]