Civil Rights

"The Civil Rights Movement: Major Events and Legacies." The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. N.p., 30 July 2012. Web. 07 Mar. 2017.

"Activists operated on the local, grassroots level as well, pressing for an end to school segregation. These bold protestors risked not only their jobs but also their lives. Homes and churches were burned, and attempts were made to kill African American organizers. Often the goal was equality between black and white schools, rather than racial integration, for many blacks were anxious to maintain their own black-run schools. By 1950, the NAACP's Legal Defense and Educational Fund, led by Thurgood Marshall, decided to battle racial segregation through the courts. The Fund's efforts led to the landmark 1954 ruling in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. Marshall exclaimed after the decision, "I was so happy I was numb."

"The Civil Rights Movement: Major Events and Legacies." The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. N.p., 30 July 2012. Web. 07 Mar. 2017.

"After the war, civil rights advocates welcomed further signs of liberal change. President Harry S. Truman, waging a Cold War against Communism, recognized that racism at home contradicted American claims to lead the "free world" against oppression."

Carson, Clayborne. "American Civil Rights Movement." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia

"Although American slaves were emancipated as a result of the Civil War and were then granted basic civil rights through the passage of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments to the U.S. Constitution, struggles to secure federal protection of these rights continued during the next century."

Crawford, Vicki. "Civil Rights Movement." The Reader's Companion to U.S. Women's History. Ed.

"Although the Brown decision outlawed segregated schools in 1954, it was not until years later that public schools in the South were forced to comply."

"The Civil Rights Movement: Major Events and Legacies." The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. N.p., 30 July 2012. Web. 07 Mar. 2017.

"Although the Civil War finally brought about the abolition of slavery, a harsh system of white supremacy persisted thereafter. In the early twentieth century, African Americans in the South and in many parts of nearby border states were banned from associating with whites in a host of institutions and public accommodations—schools, hospitals, old folks' homes, rest rooms, waiting rooms, railroad cars, hotels, restaurants, lunch counters, parks and beaches, swimming pools, libraries, concert halls, and movie theaters."

"The Civil Rights Movement: Major Events and Legacies." The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. N.p., 30 July 2012. Web. 07 Mar. 2017.

"Black and white liberal reformers struggled to ameliorate these oppressive practices, forming groups like the NAACP in 1909 and the National Urban League in 1911."

N.p., n.d. Web.

"Challenging the whole system of institutional racism was a difficult and dangerous task. However, in the 1940s and 1950s a coalition of interests attempted to do so. Broadly, they were made up of a younger generation of African Americans, along with white civil rights activists and elements of the federal government."

Center." The Civil Rights Movement: 1919-1960s, Freedom's Story, TeacherServe®, National Humanities Center. N.p., n.d. Web. 07 Mar. 2017.

"Elimination of segregation in public accommodations and the removal of "Whites Only" and "Colored Only" signs was no mean feat. Yet from the very first sit-in, Ella Baker, the grassroots leader whose activism dated from the 1930s and who was advisor to the students who founded the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), pointed out that the struggle was "concerned with something much bigger than a hamburger or even a giant-sized Coke." Far more was at stake for these activists than changing the hearts of whites."

"The Civil Rights Movement: Major Events and Legacies." The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. N.p., 30 July 2012. Web. 07 Mar. 2017.

"Hoping to woo black votes in the 1948 election, Truman ordered the desegregation of the armed forces and called for federal laws to advance civil rights. Congress rejected his appeals for legislation, but Truman's moves were noteworthy: No American president since Reconstruction had made such an effort."

"The Civil Rights Movement: Major Events and Legacies." The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. N.p., 30 July 2012. Web. 07 Mar. 2017.

"Some recreational areas posted signs, "Negroes and Dogs Not Allowed." Racial discrimination deprived Southern blacks of decent jobs and schools and of elementary rights of citizenship, including voting."

"The Civil Rights Movement: Major Events and Legacies." The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. N.p., 30 July 2012. Web. 07 Mar. 2017.

"The 1940s brought renewed efforts, however. In 1941, A. Philip Randolph threatened to stage an all-black March on Washington unless President Franklin D. Roosevelt acted to end racial discrimination in employment and racial segregation of the armed forces. Roosevelt agreed to a Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) to investigate employment practices. Although the FEPC had no real power, Randolph's highly visible advocacy of large-scale, direct-action protest was a sign of militant tactics to come."

Center." The Civil Rights Movement: 1919-1960s, Freedom's Story, TeacherServe®, National Humanities Center. N.p., n.d. Web. 07 Mar. 2017.

"The NAACP's anti-lynching campaign of the 1930s combined widespread publicity about the causes and costs of lynching, a successful drive to defeat Supreme Court nominee John J. Parker for his white supremacist and anti-union views and then defeat senators who voted for confirmation, and a skillful effort to lobby Congress and the Roosevelt administration to pass a federal anti-lynching law. Southern senators filibustered, but they could not prevent the formation of a national consensus against lynching; by 1938 the number of lynchings declined steeply."

Carson, Clayborne. "American Civil Rights Movement." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia

"Through nonviolent protest, the civil rights movement of the 1950s and '60s broke the pattern of public facilities' being segregated by "race" in the South and achieved the most important breakthrough in equal-rights legislation for African Americans since the Reconstruction period (1865-77)."

"The Civil Rights Movement: Major Events and Legacies." The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. N.p., 30 July 2012. Web. 07 Mar. 2017.

"White intimidation and violence, including lynching, remained an ever-present threat. Outside of the South, blacks had legal rights, but they suffered from widespread discrimination and from de facto residential and school segregation."

Carson, Clayborne. "American Civil Rights Movement." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia

"World War II made many whites aware if the fact that segregation undermined American claims to exert moral leadership worldwide, and informed public opinion became hostile to Jim Crow law."