CLA 520 ID Terms (Original)

third sacred war

"356 - 346 - This is a war fought between the Delphic Amphictyonic League (principally represented by Thebes but later by Philip II of Macedon) and the Phocians. The former denounced the latter for its cultivation of the sacred land (between Delphi and the coast) and imposed a heavy fine; however, the latter not only refused to pay but even used the accumulated treasures to fund a mercenary force. Although the Phocians suffered some major defeats, the war lasted a decade and both sides were on the brink of exhaustion. In the meantime, Philip II of Macedon increased his power in northern Greece and eventually allowed himself to impose a peaceful settlement on the war. Thus the war marked a major step in Macedon's rise to preeminence in ancient Greece.

demetrios of phaleron

"360 - 280 - An Attic orator and philosophical writer who studied under Theophrastus, but more importantly a statesman who the Macedonian king Cassander (see above) put in charge of Athens, where he oversaw some legal reforms. After Demetrios Poliorcetes (below) captured Piraeus, Demetrios of Phaleron was ousted from power and fled in exile, eventually ending up in Egypt as an advisor to Ptolemy I.

hyperides

"390/89 - 322 - Hyperides was an Attic orator and pupil of Isocrates and Plato, as well as a logographer that participated in many court cases. After the defeat of Chaeronea, H. attempted to organize any resistance possible to Philip II, and he was accused of paranomia (later acquitted) for freeing slaves as part of that process. H. was a staunch anti-Macedonian and broke with Demosthenes, especially over the deification of Alexander (H. against and D. for) and the repatriation of expatriates. After the Harpalus incident (wherein Harpalus escaped Athenian custody with a large amount of money), H. was one of the prosecuters of the case and caused Demosthenes to flee into exile. He supported Athens in its rebellion after Alexander's death, but fled after the Macedonian victory at Crannon, was captured by Antipater's men, and killed. Much of H.'s work is lost, although we have 71 possible titles: most of these being to the judicial genre. Those works we do have that belong to H. are dated to the last 14 years of his life (there are several orations, including one against Demosthenes, among a few other writings)."

hellenica

"430 - 354 - Xenophon's Hellēniká (7 books) overtly takes off from Thucydides' incomplete account of the Peloponnesian War to complete the narrative from 411-404 BCE (Book 1). It then continues down to the battle of Mantinea in 362 BCE (Book 7). Book 2 discusses Athen's oligarchic revolution (404) and eventual return to democracy. 3-7 focus on Spartan affairs. Commentators have traditionally remarked a) upon the way in which X.'s military experience shows in his narrative, b) that X.'s description of Sparta shows a sympathy to their cause, and c) that his capabilities as a historian are quite lacking (due to personal bias and interest in only certain events). We also have the Hellenica Oxyrhynchia which has been dated to the 4th century BCE and offers a different perspective on the events included in Books 1-2 of X.'s work. The author is disputed, but Crattipus of Athens is the ""least unlikely"" possibility. The work's format follows that of Thucydides (divisions of summers and winters) and describes the events of 411-395 BCE."

Mycale, battle of

"479 - Battle of Mycale - naval defeat of Persians by the Greeks in 479, to be read together with land battle of Plataea; together they ended the 2nd Persian invasion; happened at about the same time as Plataea; a fleet under the Spartan Leotychidas destroyed Persian ships off the Mycale peninsula near Miletus [info Hdt. 9,99-106]

Ionian revolt

"499 - 494 - Although the Greek poles in Ionia had been under Persian control since 546/5 BCE (and took part in certain opportunities offered by the empire, including employment), increased limitations on their affairs (including limited trade, higher taxes, and conscription) caused many cities to rebel under the leadership of Aristagoras (tyrant of Miletus who then gave up his tyranny) in 499 BCE. Athens and Eretria also provided support. In 498, the Milesians attacked and destroyed Sardes, leading to further revolts. Despite initial successes, the Persians attacked Miletus in 494 and defeated the Ionian fleet; Miletus was subsequently destroyed, and the rebels were punished severely. An important consequence of these events was the Increased emigration of Ionian Greeks to the western poleis. Herodotus 5 and 6 is our source for the Ionian Revolt. He focuses on the poleis' inability to act as a cohesive unit and trivializes their efforts, although scholars point out the initial success of the revolt."

miltiades

"555 - 489 - Miltiades - victor of the battle of Marathon, father of Cimon; born c. 555, died 489; Archon in 524/3, and member of the Aeropagus; 514/3 he joined Darius' Scythian campaign, was accused of treason on return, but acquitted and elected strategos in 490; became spokesman of uncompromising resistance to Persians and was strategos of the Athenians during the battle of Marathon; went on a pillaging expedition afterwards, was condemned to pay the costs for it, but died before he could - his son, Cimon, did. [all info in Herodot. 6]

hecataeus of miletus

"560 - 480 - Hecataeus is known as the first logographer (prose writer), although only fragments of his works remain. Traditionally (although this cannot be possible chronologically), he was a student of Anaximander; in any case, A.'s influence on H.'s work seems quite clear, as H. took on his cosmogony and map of the world. Overall, H. was an important writer of Greek geography and history. Works: H. improved on A.'s map of the world, wherein H. depicted the world as a circular disk surrounded by the Ocean and with two continents. The Earth was divided into four quadrants of equal size, and individual countries were also identified through geometric shapes. He also wrote the Periḗgēsis or Períodos gēs, which expanded on the map by relaying broader knowledge about the Earth and those who lived in its various regions. In addition, H. wrote a Genealogíai that attempted to structure the various stories of gods/heroes into a cohesive, chronological narrative. Other notes: H. attempted to advise against the Ionian Revolt, but his advice was ignored. H. was an important source and predecessor for Herodotus."

hoplon

"From hoplon is derived hoplítēs, which refers to foot soldiers armed with a round, wooden shield with a bronze rim 0.9 m in diameter (hoplon) with a center vambrace and handgrip on its edge. The nature of these shields required hoplites to be arranged in closed ranks four to eight men deep (movement was greatly restricted due to the size and weight of the shield) in which each hoplite used half of his shield to defend his neighbor. These tactics did best on solid ground. There is a substantial debate about whether the hoplite shield led to the creation of these unified fighting tactics or vice versa. Men became hoplites by purchasing their own equipment, and thus only those of a certain economic standing could achieve this status. Some scholars have argued that the use of hoplites increased solidarity in the polis and caused the earlier nobility to lose some of its prestige (as people with enough wealth could buy the proper equipment and reach the position of the hoplite). While archaeological evidence suggests that the weapons used by hoplites appear beginning in the late 8th century BCE, the hoplite fighting style seems to appear in the 7th century (in Sparta, before spreading to the rest of Greece). Greeks relied on this style of warfare with great success until the arrival of the Macedonians."

metoikoi

"Metics; immigrant foreigners who lived in a Greek city without possessing rights of citizenship; held a politically, but not necessarily a socially inferior status (e.g. Lysias, Aristotle); to be distinguished from xenoi - metics had certain legal advantages but also economic and social burdens (e.g. taxes and military service); excluded by the polis from agricultural activities and active more in areas of crafts, trade, and money-lending. Best attested in Athens (made up a third of the Athenian population in 313), and often targeted by prejudice (e.g. by Thirty tyrants).

helots

"While the details of their status are contested, scholars broadly agree that helots were communal slaves of Sparta. Helotia seems to have begin during the Dark Ages, with most helots coming from Messenia by the 8th/7th century. The taking of helots caused the Messenians to revolt numerous times, including in the early 7th century, 490 BCE, 465 BCE, and in 370/369 BCE (the last being successful). Of these, the helots themselves only took part in 465 BCE. The helots were treated poorly by the Spartans, with war being declared against them every year. Freedom could be gained, but only through an agreed public act by the Spartans. Freed helots were known as neodamṓdeis. The helots were generally charged with agricultural work, although they could also be used, for example, as hoplites or as household slaves. It is generally agreed that the helot institution was a fundamental reason for the development of Sparta's social and political systems (as the city constantly feared helot uprisings). While it is not entirely clear when the state of helotia ended (although Sparta's state of greatest power was lost after the 369 BCE revolt), some scholars have noted that the freeing of many helots by Cleomenes III (235-222 BC) and Nabis (207-192 BC) to defend Sparta against Macedonia and Rome led to the end of the institution."

Leonidas (king)

"d. 485 - Agiad King of Sparta from c.490/89 to 480. He is noted for defending the gates of Thermopylae for three days against a numerically superior Persian force led by Xerxes. At most, Leonidas had 8,000 men under his command, but more faith was put in a blockade he arranged in an attempt to stop Greek communities from defecting to the Persians until more reinforcements arrived (Hdt.206). After the Persians were able to slip past Leonidas' position, the larger part of the army withdrew, but 300 Spartiates and 700 Thespians made a last stand. Leonidas' legend only began to grow after the Greek victories at Salamis and Plataea. (See: Hdt. 205-239 for the full report).

graphe paranomon

'prosecution for illegality,' in Athens, a lawsuit in which the defendant was accused of proposing an illegal (or in practice, an inexpedient) decree; A public indictment against the proposer of a new decree, charging that his proposal is unconstitutional. Many of these graphai are directed against honorary decrees, and the case is usually based on the claim that the honor is undeserved. This procedure could be employed against proposals both before and after they had been voted on by the ekklesia. It could be used for both nomoi and decrees, but in 403 BCE, this charge was formally distinguished for use against decrees.

aristeides

(538-468) "the Just". Strategos at Marathon and Plataea, opponenet of Themistocles' naval policy. Ostracized in 483/2: "I don't know the man, but it annoys me that he's always called 'the Just'"/.

artemisia

(early 5th C). Queen of Halicarnassus and ally of Xerxes in Persian Wars. Personally commanded small fleet at Artemision and Salamis. Praised by her countryman Herodotus, who depicts her as the only advisor to warn Xerxes against engaging at Salamis. The King on her conduct during the battle: "My men have become women, and my women men."

Aristagoras

(f. 500) Leader of Miletus and initiator of the Ionian Revolt. After uniting with the Persian satrap to support exiles from Naxos in reclaiming their city, the failure of the campaign left his position precarious. Rather than be stripped of his office, he stirred the Ionians to rebel, himself seeking aid from Sparta and Athens. When the revolt began to falter, he fled to Thrace.

Lefkandi

11th - 9th c. - The site of several settlements on Euboea including the late-bronze age site of Xeropolis and dark-age settlements dating between the 11th and 9th centuries BCE. Excavations at Lefkandi began in the 1960's and yielded the discoveries of three cemeteries and two burial groups. The finds at these sites, in particular the 10th-century Protogeometric finds from the cemetery at Toumba Hill, show remarkable wealth and goods of diverse origins. These finds suggest that the Euboean communities were active seagoers and traders in the dark ages and, on Boardman's conjecture, were the carriers of the Greek pottery that has been recovered from Al Mina.

second macedonian war

200 - 197 - After the end of the Second Punic War, Rome resumed the battle against Philip V and intervened in a conflict within the system of Hellenistic states, which had been caused by the death of Ptolemaeus IV and the resulting weakness of the Ptolemaic kingdom. The main motive was probably the intention to continue the war that had been interrupted by the peace of Phoenice with the aim to reduce Macedonia, like Carthage, to the status of a medium-sized power no longer able to wage large-scale war. Flamininus defeated Philip, then prevailed against Aetolian demands for the destruction of Macedonia in preserving it, but Philip was forced to give up all Greek possessions and pay reparations.

peace of naupaktos

217 - After the death of Antiochus III Doson of Macedon (who had curtailed Aetolian expansion in mainland Greece), private Aetolian raiders began once again to attack the Peloponnese. In response, Antiochus' Security Pact, now led by Philip V, declared war on the Aetolian League in 220 BCE. Summer 217 BCE, prompted by envoys from Rhodes and Ptolemy IV, the combatants convened in Naupaktos, resulting in this peace treaty, which granted all involved the lands which they currently held. In a famous (and disputed) passage of Polybius, Agelaus of Naupaktos warned those assembled of "the clouds now gathering in the west," calling for unity among all Greeks in light of the growing threat of the Romans (Pol 5.103-105).

chremonidean war

267-61 - A conflict between Macedon and a coalition of Greek forces including the city-states of Athens and Sparta as well as Ptolemy II. Anti-Macedonian aggression was spearheaded by the Athenian statesman and general Chremonides, who issued the Decree of Chremonides in 268, allying the anti-Macedonian factions against King Antigonus. By 265 the coalition was losing, and Antigonus defeated Spartan forces in a battle near Corinth, during which King Areus I of Sparta was killed. As a result, Athens was besieged, and after years the Athenians were finally starved into submission. Sending aid (anyhow too late) to Athens, Ptolemaic forces were defeated in the Battle of Cos, probably in 261 BCE, which ended the conflict.

ai khanoum

280 - Ai-Khanoum (Ay Khanum) was one of the primary cities of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, located in modern Afghanistan. Scholars have argued that Ai Khanoum was founded in the late 4th century BC, following the conquests of Alexander the Great (precisely, his campaign in Bactria in 329). Recent analysis now strongly suggests that the city was founded c. 280 BC by the Seleucid king Antiochus I.

battle of corupedion

281 - Last battle of the Diadochi (successors of Alexander the Great); fought between the armies of Lysimachus (who ruled Thrace, Asia Minor, and Macedon) and Seleucus I Nicator (who established the Seleucid Empire) at the Plain of Korupedion near Sardis in 281. Lysimachus put to death Agathocles, his first son, resulting from slander that he was consipring against the throne (the slander ; cities in Asia Minor revolted because of the deed, and Agathocles' widow fled to Seleucus in Antioch, who took the opportunity to invade Lysimachus' territory in Asia Minor. "Almost nothing is known about the campaign, but by February 281 Seleukos' army had already crossed Asia Minor and reached the area of Sardeis, where it met Lysimachos' troops at the plain known as Koroupedion" (Errington p. 62). Lysimachus was killed in the battle, Seleucus was welcomed in Asia Minor as King, but when he continued on to Europe to take Macedon, he was assasinated by Ptolemy Keraunos, who was proclaimed king by the Macedonians at Lysimacheia. With the death of Seleucid I Nicator, the last of the Diadochi was dead.

ptolemy III euergetes

284 - 221 - Born around 284, the son of P. II, in 246 P. ascended the throne of Egypt, whereupon the 3rd Syrian War (246-241) immediately broke out. (246 was a big year: he also married Berenice, the one who was the subject of Callimachus' famous poem). P. invaded Syria, and forced his way to Babylon, where the Persain people paid court to him. He was forced to retreat in 245: a war with Macedonia or internal unrest may have been reasons. A Seleucid attack on Egypt in 242/1 failed; in 241, a peace advantageous to P. was concluded and substantial tracts of Asia Minor remained Ptolemaic. In Greece, P. pursued an anti-Macedonian policy, firstly in coalition with the Achaeans, whose hēgemṓn; for the same reason, P. assisted in the liberation of Athens, where in 224/3, the Ptolemais phyle and the Berenicidae deme were founded. P. continued the path of the dynastic cult.

battle of ipsus

301 - Major battle in which Antigonus the One-Eyed (Monophthalmos, who ruled Asia Minor) and his son were defeated killed by Lysimachus (who ruled Thrace) and Seleucus I (who ruled Babylonia and Persia) in 301 BC; Antigonus died during the battle. The battle occured at Ipsus (precise location unknown), in Phrygia. Lysimachus and Seleucus divided his territories among themselves. "...the battle of Ipsos in west central Anatolia in 301 was seminal for the emergence of the long-term structure of the Hellenistic world that would last with only minor changes until the Roman conquest and occupation" (Errington, p. 36) and "Antigonos' defeat guaranteed that the separate political structures that had grown up within the Macedonian empire over the last wenty years, the leaders of which had combined to win the war, would survive it, strengthened and extended into the territories of the defeated" (Errington, p. 50).

ptolemy II Philadelphus

308 - 246 - P. was born in 308, the son of P. I and Berenice, in 282, P. was crowned Pharaoh (but he soon altered his regnal calendar to suggest that he had become co-regent in 285; this may have been to ward off other claimants, such as Ceraunus - not very philadelphos(. The subsequent cult of his father as Theòs Sōtḗr, and the Penteteric festival of the Ptolemaia served as remembrance and legitimization. Not only did P. found a cult for himself and his wife Arsinoë as Theoì Adelphoí (she was his sister! Probably no children though). Under P., the priesthood of Alexander became linked to the dynastic cult of the Ptolemies. Like his father, P. had expansionist ambitions in his foreign policy. In 280, he took advantage of the death of Seleucus I and took numerous positions in Asia Minor, mostly bloodlessly, also secured bases in Ethiopia (for gold and elephants) and extended his influence in Arabia. Various administrative policies he established resulted in strong revenues, which facilitated P.'s expansive foreign policies and enabled him to become the dynasty's first great builder.

gaugamela

331 BCE - Deciding battle in Alexander's invasion of Persia between Alexander and Darius III. Darius greatly outnumbered Alexander's forces but Alexander was able to outmaneuver Darius's chariots and forced Darius into retreat. The Macedonian victory effectively ended the Persian empire.

battle of issus

333 - The second of three major battles fought by Alexander against the Persians, a fundamental turning point in his campagain against Persia. Fought between the Hellenic League (led by Alexander the Great) against the Achaemenid Empire (led by Darius III) at the coastal plain of Issus in Cilicia in 333. The location, chosen by Alexander, prevented Darius III from putting to advantage his superior numbers since the coastal plain was narrow. The battle was fierce but Alexander thoroughly defeated Darius, who fled, leaving members of his family behind, whom Alexander treated well (Rhodes, p. 394). Darius allegedly offered terms to Alexander after the battle - an alliance and huge ransom for his family members - but Alexander refused. The battle is represented by the famous Alexander Mosaic from Pompeii. Result: Darius' army had been crippled; Alexander soon captured the royal treasury at Damascus, alleviating financial strains; Phoenicia and Egypt now stood open to Alexander and his army.

granicus

334 - First victory won by Alexander in her invasion of the Persian Empire. The Persian army occupied the bank of the Granicus River and Alexander sent his Companions into the river to attack. They were driven back and when the Persians pursued the retreating Macedonians, Alexander attacked with the rest of his Companions. The Persian cavalry fled, leaving the Greek mercenaries (who were fighting for Persia) at the mercy of Alexander's army. According to Arrian, Alexander only lost 115 men. Alexander's own life was saved by Cleitus the Black. This victory opened up Asia Minor to the Macedonian invasion. Battle tactics and troop movements in Rhodes, p. 404.

demetrios poliorcetes

336 - 283 - King of Macedon and member of the Antigonid Dynasty (he was the son of Antigonus I, who established the Antigonid dynsasty). Antigonus sent D. Poliorcetes to take Athens from Demetrios of Phaleron. After he accomplished this, the Athenians greeted Antigonus and Demetrios as theoi soteres. He fought with Ptolemy (and had a big victory over the Ptolemaic fleet at Salamis) and earned his sweet nickname Poliorcetes (city-besieger) from a year-long siege of Rhodes, which he unsuccessfully tried to get to defect from Ptolemy. Demetrios and Antigonus' rivals (Seleucus and Lysimachus) united against the Antigonids and defeated them at the Battle of Ipsus. With Antigonus dead, Demetrios lost most of Greece, but he recouped, reconciled with Seleucus, and eventually reconquered Athens. He became king of Macedon after killing Alexander V, son of Cassander. He tried to take back the empire that Antigonus had, but eventually had to surrender to Seleucus, who imprisoned him until his death. Important in the context of: post-Alexander Hellenistic kingship.

eucrates' law against tyranny

337/6 - "A law passed in 337/6 that 1) absolved anyone who killed any man who had taken part in setting up a tyranny and 2) warned the Council of the Areopagus that if Athens were overthrown, the Areopagus would not be allowed to convene. Likely passed as a reaction against measures taken by Demosthenes and the Areopagus that were perceived as undemocratic. [Described in Rhodes' textbook as the ""law threatening the Areopagus"" (p. 379); Eucrates is not mentioned.]"

chaeronea, battle of

338 - The decisive battle in the Macedonian conquest of Greece. Philip II defeated the combined forces of Greek city-states, including Athens and Thebes. Dissatisfaction with Macedonian control of Greece grew after 346, when Philip's success in the Third Sacred War brought peace to the northern Aegean, after a decade of conflict. In Athens, Demosthenes urged for resistance, and in 340 convinced the assembly to break the terms of their peace treaty with Philip, instigating conflict. Winning a decisive victory in this battle, Philip destroyed Athenian and Theban forces, and imposed a settlement on the Greek city states, which all accepted except Sparta: the League of Corinth. All its members were allies with each other and with Macedon.

League of Corinth

338/7 - The union of Greek states except Sparta created by Philip II after the battle of Chaeronea in 338. Part of the oath survives in an inscription, IG II^2 236. The terms of the treaty that created the league establish a koinê eirenê, stipulat loyalty from the Greek states to Philip and his descendants, and require league members to enforce these stipulations among each other. The structure of the league was a synhedrion led by a hegemon, Philip himself.

duris of samos

340 - 270 - Tyrant of Samos and author of various historical/literary works. His major work was a Macedonian history from 370-281 that doesn't survive, though he is assumed to be a source for later writers who do survive (e.g. Plutarch, Diodorus Siculus).

peace of philocrates

346 - Resolution of the conflict between Athens and Philip II of Macedon, which began after Philip captured Amphipolis in 357 BCE and ran concurrently with the third Sacred War. As early as 348 BCE the Athenian politician Philocrates proposed peace negotiations and was charged with a paranomon graphe for his troubles, although Demosthenes was able to defend him successfully. Public opinion shifted early 346 BCE, however, when Phalaikos returned to power in Phocis and broke off plans with Athens and Sparta to defend Thermopylae from Phillip. Philocrates eventually proposed a peace which, controversially, excluded Phocis (which Athens had supported) and Halus, a controversial solution for the Athenian League; further negotiations with Philip II led to a final version which protected 'Athens and its Allies.' In the wake of this agreement, unrest in Phocis allowed Philip II to take Thermopylae, gain control of central Greece, and force a resolution to the third Sacred War, moves which left Athens vulnerable to attack. Much of our evidence for the Peace of Philocrates comes from speeches of Demosthenes and Aeschines, and their conflicting rhetoric makes it difficult to disentangle the actual sequence of events.

timaeus of tauromenium

350 - 260 - Of Sicilian origin, he was the most important western Greek historian. He composed Olympionikai, which made it a common practice to date historical events by the years of Olympian Games; he also wrote a thirty-eight-book Sicilian history from mythical times down to the early thrid century BCE. But in fact the latter work is rather comprehensive because it dealt with the entire west including Carthage and was the first one to give an overall account of Roman history unitl 264 BCE. Meanwhile, Timaeus entertained a broad view of history, which included myth, ethnography, military affairs, politics, culture, religion and so on. He showed a marked patriotism for his native land and emphasized the west's contribution to the Greek culture. Yet he was criticized by Polybius (in his 12th book) for factual errors, harsh judgment and problematic methodology.

Cassander

353 - 297 - Son of Antipater, who sent C. to Alexander in Babylon as a hostage in his stead in 324. Alexander was openly hostile to him, and after the former's death, there were rumors that C. and his brother has poisoned him. Cassander was outraged when his father selected Polyperchon as his successor, so allied with Antigonus and Ptolemais against him. In 304, C. declared himself "king of the Macedonians," thus founding the short-lived Antipatrid dynasty. Plutarch writes that Cassander and his family were cursed by the gods for their abuses against Alexander.

hieronymous of cardia

360 - 260 - Hieronymus was a Greek historiographer and politician. He was active in the late 4th century serving under Eumenes, Antigonus Monophthalmus, Demetrius Poliorcetes, and Antongus Gonatas. He wrote a historical work (title disputed) that began with Alexander's death in 323 BCE and ran until Pyrrhus in 272 BCE. His discussion of the wars with Pyrrhus included the first archaiología of Rome in Greek literature. It is believed that the fact that he was present for many of the events his described influenced his work greatly, and he had a significant influence on later historians, including Diodorus, Arrian, and Plutarch.

lysimachus

361 - 281 - The son of a Macedonian nobleman and a stomatophylax of Alexander, but never attested as holding positions of command. After Alexander's death (323), Lysimachos was given Thrace as a satrapy, but Macedonian sovereignty had collapsed in Thrace during Alexander and restoring it occupied Lysimachos for the better part of twenty years. Lysimachos slowly gained more influence and territory in Greece, until the Battle of Ipsos in 301 where Lysimachos, Seleucus, and Cassander defeated Antigonos and Demetrios. Lysimachos emerged from Ipsos with a large portion of Antigonos' former kingdom (almost the entirety of Asia Minor) and a great deal more power and wealth. He used this wealth to recruit massive armies with which he often decisively and unscrupulously intervened in politics. He continued to increase his territory in Asia, Macedonia, and Thessaly. He lost his life and his kingdom in 281 after being defeated by Seleucus at the Battle of Korupedion.

ptolemy I Soter

367 - 282 - Founder of the dynasty of the Ptolemies. Purportedly descended from the Heraclidae, which allowed him to compete with the Antigonids and Seleucids, P. grew up as a page at the Macedonian royal court of Philip II and took part in most of the undertakings of Alexander the Great. In 323, P. proposed the partition of the satrapies, receiving Egypt. P. used Egypt's position, which he was always able to defend and secure with a ring of satellite possessions. From here, he conducted a policy that never restricted itself to the mere preservation of Egyptian sovereignty, but always pursued more extensive claims. He had to try here to satisfy both the Egyptian and Greek sections of the population. P. played on the prestige of Alexander the Great (he wrote a history of Alexander, which was heavily drawn upon by Arrianus). When P. died in 282 the succession was arranged in favor of P. II.

craterus

370 - 21 - One of Alexander's generals, and among the Diadachoi. Married the Persian princess Amastris at the festivities of Susa. In 322, Craterus aided Antipater in the Lamian War (against Athens), and married Antipater's daughter Phila. He was killed the next year in battle in Asia Minor.

perdiccas

370 - 320 - Macedonian aristocrat and commander under Alexander the Great during the second half of the 4th century BCE. After Alexander's death in 323 BCE, his officers convened in Babylon to decide his successor, and eventually appointed Perdiccas as regent for Alexander's infant son, effectively granting him rule in Macedonia. Though Alexander had wished to be buried in Egypt, Perdiccas believed this act would grant too much symbolic power to Ptolemy, and resisted; by 321 BCE, he had decided to bury Alexander in Macedonia, but Ptolemy intervened in Syria and conveyed the corpse to Egypt. His authority undermined, Perdiccas pursued Ptolemy with the royal Macedonian army, but a disastrous campaign led to a coup and Perdiccas' assassination by his own demoralized officers near Memphis.

Leuctra, Battle of

371 - Leuctra was a town and a plain located in Boeotia, although its exact location is no longer known. It rose to prominence in 371 BCE after Epaminondas led a Boeotian League army that defeated a Spartan army under the command of Cleombrotos I. This battle is of particular importance, because it was the start of the end of Spartan hegemony in the Greek world and the beginning of Theban supremacy, which would last until the Battle Chaeronea in 338.

King's Peace

377/6 - Also known as the Peace of Antalkidas, the King's Peace was brokered in 377/6 and more or less dictate by Artaxerxes II to the Greek poleis. This treaty placed an end to the Corinthian War, and we may understand it as a decisive moment in the early-fourth century poliadic scramble for hegemony. The terms stipulated Alkaemonid control over the Greek cities in Asia Minor, allowed Athens to retain control of Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros, and granted autonomy to the other poleis.

theopompus

378 - 320 - Theopompus of Chios was an important Greek historian in the fourth century BCE (378/7-d. after 320 BCE). His works include an epitome of Herodotus and a twelve-book Hellenica, which continues Thucydides' writing by narrating the events between 411 and 394. Because only trivial fragments of the latter survive, we cannot judge its overall quality but the following facts are clear: besides military and political affairs, he also showed an interest in ethnography, geography, cultural history, etc.; the sources include autopsy, personal research and experiences; it is more detailed than Xenophon's Hellenica; it is not identical with the so-called Hellenica of the Oxyrhynchus Historian. Believed to be a pupil of Isocrates, Theopompus was the main exponent of rhetorical historiography (alongside Ephorus).

Second Naval League

378-338/7 - Brill s.v. "Athenian League (Second)", aka Second Athenian Confederacy. Established to ward of Spartan imperialism, the charter (epigraphically preserved) promised the Athenians would refrain from fostering resentment as in the Delian league. Initially opular, but the spirit of the charter was not adhered to; from 371 (Leuctra), more focussed on promoting Athens than resisting Sparta, and some states left; more states left in 355 after the Social War; finally dissolved by Philip in 338/7.

theophrastus

381 - 287 - Peripatetic philosopher from Lesbos, studied in Athens with Plato and Aristotle. Travelled with Aristotle to Asia Minor and Macedon, then returned with him to Athens and became head of the Peripatetic school after Aristotle's death. Wrote prolifically on many subjects, of which the Characters is the most famous surviving work; like Aristotle, some of his work seems to have been known to Arabic scholars.

demosthenes

384 - 322 - Athenian statesman and orator, often regarded as the greatest of the Attic orators. He made a career as a speech writer (logoraphos) and then spoke in public trials. He gave a number of speeches on more public matters, and voiced staunch opposition to the growing power of Phillip II of Macedon, attempting to get Athens to form an alliance against Phillip. He wrote the Phillipics so that Cicero would have something to model his cooler and better Phillipics on. He was part of a delegation (along with his rival Aeschiens) to Pella sent to conclude a peace (the Peace of Philocrates). His "On the Peace" argues in grudging support of Athens' honoring the peace, which allowed Phillip to join the Amphictyonic League. After the death of Phillip, Demosthenes continued to be anti-Macedonian under Alexander. As a way of targeing Demosthenes, Aeschines brought charges against Ctesiphon for proposing that Demosthenes receive a gold crown for services to Athens. Demosthenes responded with his highly successful speech "On the Crown," in which he defended himself from, among other things, charges of bribery. Demosthenes was later exiled on different charges, though, but was recalled to Athens after the death of Alexander. Demosthenes' political career and oratorical corpus is a window into Athenian democratic politics at the end of the classical period.

battle of cnidus

394 - Sources: Xenophon Hellenica 4.3.10-12; Diod. Sic. XIV. 81. iv-vi. Part of the Corinthian War against Sparta; august of 394. A major naval battle off Cnidus; Persia and Athens (though really only Persia) against Spartan fleet by Agesilaus in Asia Minor. Conon commanded the ships under Pharnabazus; Pisander, Agesilau's brother-in-law and inexperienced, commanded the Spartan fleet and was killed in the battle. The battle was hard fought but ultimately the Spartan fleet was thoroughly defeated. Result: effectively ended Sparta's naval supremacy in the Aegean. Though it was really a Persian victory, Athens also considered it an Athenian success and honored Conon with a statue in the Agora (the first living person to be so honored at Athens). Sparta was no longer a naval superpower.

Laoi Basilikoi

3rd - 2nd c. - Legal term in Hellenistic monarchies for the indigenous inhabitants of the Hellenistic kingdoms under the direct control of the administration.

philopoemen

3rd - 2nd c. - Philopoemen was strategos of the Achaean League in the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries BCE, elected to this position in 208/7, 206/5, 201/200, 193/2, 190/189, 189/8, 187/6 and 183/2; his tenure in this position marks the highpoint of the League as a political power in mainland Greece. Principal among his victories was his defeat of Nabis of Sparta in 201 and again in 192 and his defeat of Sparta in 188. It seems that his overarching concern was to expand the power of the League; here, one can adduce his campaigns against Sparta and, further, his attempts to keep Messene in the League. Philopoemen was a proponent of the view that the Achaean League should not subordinate itself to Roman rule, and accordingly he was an ally of Lycortas, Polybius' father; this in part explains Polybius' advocacy in 146 for the position that the Romans should not tear down statues of Philopoemen, which were erected in many Greek cities. Philopoemen also served as a mercenary commander on Crete in 221-210 and in 199-193.

philip V

3rd - 2nd c. Son of Demetrius II (son of Antigonus Gonatas), preceded by Antigonus III Doson (his cousin), Philip V was king of Macedon (r. 221-179) during the First (214-205) and Second (200-197 BCE) Macedonian Wars against Rome. Like his rivals Ptolemy V and Antiochus III, Philip was young when he ascended the throne; the reigns of these kings were characterized by intense inter-kingdom warfare (e.g., Battle of Raphia in 217) and mark the beginning of the decline of the Hellenistic kingdoms and the rise of Rome as a power in the Eastern Mediterranean (e.g., Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197, Battle of Magnesia in 190). The outbreak of the Second Macedonian War was in part due to Philip's refusal to submit to the Roman senate's ultimatum that he should discontinue his wars of aggression; this ultimatum was issued on the assumption that Philip was conspiring with Antiochus III to invade and take control of the Ptolemaic kingdom. After his defeat at the Battle of Cynoscephalae, Philip became an ally of Rome, fighting on their side in the war against Antiochus III. However, at the end of his reign, Philip began to rebuild Macedonian army, putting in place the conditions that would give rise to the Third Macedonian War (171-168), which was waged by his son and successor, Perseus, the last ruler of the Antigonid dynasty.

battle of cunaxa

401 - The battle between Cyrus and his elder brother Artaxerxes II, in 401 BC, at Cunaxa, a small town on the Euphrates near Bagdhad. Cyrus was attempting to overthrow his brother Artaxerxes II and take the Persian throne. Cyrus had hired a large Greek mercenary force (including Xenophon) of 10,000 men, marched them into Persia, and came upon Artaxerxes' army at Cunaxa. Though the Greeks routed the opposing forces, Cyrus was killed in the battle, leaving the Greek mercenaries to march out of Persia to the coast, the subject of Xenophon's famous Anabasis. Tissaphernes fought on Artaxerxes' side and after the battle treacherously killed the Greek commanders, which lead to Xenophon's role in the leadership.

the thirty

404/3 - Oligarchic body of thirty men who ruled Athens in 404/3 BCE at the end of the Peloponnesian War; most notably Critias and Theramenes (all thirty names in Xen. Hell. 2.3.2). Appointed at the urging of the Spartan Lysander to reform the consitution and rule the state in the interim. Obtaining the support of a Spartan garrison, they ruled despotically and killed many Athenians. The democrats in exile fought against them under Thrasybulus, and defeated them at the battle of Mounichia in the Piraeus in winter 404/3; Sparta attempted to reinforce the oligarchs, but soon the Spartan king Pausanias arranged a reconciliation and the restoration of the democracy. Surviving oligarchs established a semi-independent state in Eleusis, but in 401/0 it was reabsorbed into Athens. Sometimes termed Thirty Tyrants; Xenophon (the main source) uses the verb τυράννειν, but the phrase Thirty Tyrants is not found until Diodorus Siculus, possibly following Ephorus.

battle of aegospotami

405 - Final and decisive battle of the Peloponnesian War. Took place in 405 near Lampsacus and Aegospotami in the Hellespont. Two main sources: Xenophon Hellenica 2.1.22-30 and Diodorus Siculus 13.105-6; their accounts differ in details. According to Xenophon, for four days the Athenians challenged the Spartans (under Lysander) to a naval battle; on the fifth day, when the Athenians returned to their camp, the Spartan fleet took them by surprise at the beach while the Athenians were scattered foraging for food; Spartans captured c. 170 of the 180 ships of the Athenians on the beach without a battle. c. 3000 Athenian prisoners were executed. Conon escaped with only 9 ships. Result: Athens' navy was destroyed, cutting off the food supply to Athens. Athens was therefore forced to starve or surrender; she surrendered in 404.

mutilation of the herms

415 - Mutilation of the herms - summer 415 BC in Athens, shortly before the Sicilian expedition. All Herms [sculpture with a head, above a plain lower section, on which male genitals may be carved] were damaged in one night; perceived as a bad omen for the expedition. Investigation led to the discovery of another religiously heinous deed: the desecration of the Eleusinian Mysteries in the private houses of some rich citizens. Alcibiades, initiator of the Sicilian expedition, was accused of participating in both crimes. Now usually viewed as a purposeful raid of an oligarchic hetairia on traditional religion and the democratic order. [info Thuc. 6]

Delium (Battle of)

424 - Battle in the Peloponnesian War, 424 BCE, in Boeotia. Athens invaded Boeotia, allied to Sparta; Athenians defeated, two week siege, then Boeotions set fire to Athenian fortifications and the latter fled. Socrates and Alcibiades said to have fought in the battle.

dionysius I

430 - 367 - Tyrant of Syracuse (he probably used the term archon), who rose to power through military success. He fought with Carthage and tried to drive them out of Sicily, and also took over a number of Sicilian cities. In the Peloponnesian War, he sent mercenaries to help Sparta. He later became memorialized as an archetypal example of a tryrant who was obsesed with power.

archidamian war

431-421. Nickname for the first phase of the Peloponnesian War (from Archidamos II, Spartan king), called the "Ten Years War" by Thucydides. Characterized by multiple Spartan invasions of Attica and naval raids of the Peloponnese by Athens. Ended by the Peace of Nikias.

megarian decree

432 - A decree in 432 that excluded Megara from the harbors of the Athenian empire and the attic agora, thereby crippling Megara economically. At first, it was a more moderate reproach because of a dispute over sacred land on the frontier region of Eleusis and the harboring of runaway slaves (Thu, I.67), but after the Megarians killed the Athenian herald Anthemocritus then came the exclusion decree. This proved to be a major point of contention between Athens and Sparta as Megara was a key Spartan ally and another example of increasing Athenian boldness and hegemonic desires. It has been read by some as a deliberate provocation on the part of Pericles, who was vital in the decree's passing. As such, it is now seen as a major cause of the Peloponnesian War. Aristophanes twice mentioned it as a key cause (Acharn. 514-38; Peace 605-18), but Thucydides does not assign it the same level of importance as he does to the other disputes over Potidaea and Corcyra.

isocrates

436 - 338 - Isocrates was a logographer and teacher of rhetoric from Athens who was heavily influenced by his teacher Gorgias. Originally a logographer for financial reasons beginning 403 BCE, he eventually opened a school of rhetoric in Athens. Lycurgus, Theopompus, and Ephoros ranked among his pupils. Besides teaching, I. wrote many oratorical speeches for instruction. For Isocrates, 'good speaking' and 'good thinking' went hand in hand, and one needed both to conceive of proper thoughts and to enact them. We have 6 of I.'s speeches from his time as a logographer (mostly educational material), and 7 that have been described as dealing with his personal educational agenda. Remaining speeches are of a more political nature, two of which call for Phillip II to head a hegemony of the Greek poleis (these requests arose in part from I.'s idea of a cultural, rather than ethnic, Panhellenism). He also produced letters to Dionysius of Syracuse, the sons of Jason of Pherae, and Archidamus of Sparta with similar requests.

Thirty-Years Peace

446-432 - This is the agreement between Sparta and Athens reached in 446, which marks the end of the fifteen-year-or-so First Peloponnesian War. The exact term remains unknown except the following items (most of the evidence comes from the late 430s whe the main War was still going on): Athens agreed to cease from the recent land acquisition; armed attacks were renounced if the other side agreed to settle the conflict via arbitration; neutral poleis could decide which side to join; and there seems also to be a clause that stipulated autonomy while there is none that acknowledged the existence of the Athenian Empire. The Peace in fact lasted only till 432 BCE when Sparta declared war on Athens, which had been undermining the truce by imposing trade saction against the Spartan ally Megara and attacking Potidea, hence the second Poleponnesian War.

peace of callias

449 (based solely on 4th c. evidence) The Peace of Callias is a purported treaty established around 449 BC (after the battle of Cypriot Salamis; alternatively after Eurymedon, 469) between the Delian League (led by Athens) and Persia, ending the Greco-Persian Wars. It is unclear if it ever existed [Nino thinks it didn't]: we only have 4th c. evidence (Isoc., Demosth., Diodorus) and nothing in Thucydides or Herodotus; Theopompus already deemed it a fake - because the inscription used the Ionic alphabet, instituted 403. The peace was the first compromise treaty between Persia and a Greek city, and negotiated by Callias, an Athenian politician. It agreed on autonomy to the Ionian states in Asia Minor. Regardless of its genuineness, there seems to have been some agreement reached ending hostilities with Persia after 450/449, and these years are thus an important period for the transformation of the Delian League into the Athenian empire.

Gortyn Law Code

450 - Law code from Gortyn, Crete dealing extensively with family relations and inheritance. It also includes laws on property outside the household and on contracts, but does not include any criminal law or procedures. The code makes legal disntinctions between social classes. It was written in a Dorian dialect and was inscribed in boustrophedon; it is one of the most well preserved law codes that predates the Hellenistic period. In his article on Cretan literacy (AJA 1997 - we read it in Week 4), Whitley argues that the code was as much as symbol for the laws as something to be read by the general public.

pericles citizenship law

451/50 - This legislation, attributed to Pericles, mandated that both parents needed to be Athenian citizens for their child to be a citizen as well. Earlier, only the father needed to be an Athenian. Such a move restricted the material benefits of Athenian citizenship and eased anxieties about mixed marriages and the increasing population of foreigners in Athens. Primary sources are Aristotle's Athenian Constitution 26.4 and Plutarch's Pericles 37.3

lysias

459/8 - 380 - The son of a wealthy metic, Cephalos, left Athens at the age of 15 to settle in the PanHellenic colony of Thurii, where he is said to have studied rhetoric with Teisias. He returned to Athens where he was possibly a teacher of rhetoric, a logographer, and a paid composer of rhetorical works. He was very democratically minded and, therefore, targeted by the Thirty--he fled to Megara, but his fortune was mostly gone. There were 425 speeches attributed to Lysias in antiquity of which there are now 31 that are almost completely extant—all save for two are court speeches. These speeches are valuable as sources for history and politics along with the private and business life of Athens from 404 to 380. Apart from private matters (e.g. or. 1, 3, 4, 7, 24), there are many speeches where politics plays a central role (i.e. Against Eratosthenes or Against Agoratus).

Plataea, battle of

479 - Fought in 479, the Battle of Plataea was the last battle in mainland Greece in the Second Persian War (if one, following Herodotus, thinks that after 479 and especially the Battle of the Eurymedon River in 465 there was no Persian military presence in the Aegean). The Greek land forces were commanded by the Spartan regent Pausanias, the Persian forces by Mardonius (Xerxes had left Mardonius in charge, having withdrawn to Persia after the defeat of the Persians at Salamis). The Battle of Plataea allegedly occurred on the same day as the Battle of Mycale, but this may be explained away by reference to the historiographic tradition in which the Battle of Himera and the Battle of Salamis were synchronous. In light of this, we might say that the Battle of Plataea, as a conflict that occurred during the Persian Wars, was understood by later Greek historians as an event that united the Greek world.

battle of himera

480 - A battle fought at Himera (on the north coast of Sicily) by Gelon and Theron against the Carthaginians. Gelon was tyrant of Syracuse. Theron, tyrant of Acragas, captured Himera and deposed its tyrant, Terillus, who was a guest-friend of Hamilcar (a Carthaginian basileus). Hamilcar thus invaded Sicily with a Carthaginian army to get rid of Theron and Gelon and to restore Terillus, but Gelon and Theron prevailed, defeating the Carthaginians, and Hamilcar apparently immolated himself. Result: Gelon became "the virtual overlord of Sicily, and gave two generations of peace with Carthage. Gelon was now the accepted ruler of Syracuse..." (OCD, Gelon). It became a Sicilian tradition that the Battle of Himera occured on the same day as the battle of Salamis.

Marathon, battle of

490 - Marathon was a large paralia deme in the east of Attica. Marathon was the site of an important battle between Persian invaders and an Athenian and Plataean army under the command of Miltiades in 490. The Persian invasion was in response to Athenian support of Ionian Greeks during the Ionian Revolt. The Athenians and Plataeans soundly defeated the numerically superior Persians. This battle was of importance because it showed the Greeks that they could defeat the Persians even if they were outnumbered. It also foreshadowed and, to some extent, led to the much larger invasion of Greece a decade later by Xerxes.

ephorus of cyme

4th c. - Having lived c. 400-330, he was a contemporary of Theopompus. He was regarded as the founder of the genre of universal history. He was one of the main sources used by Diodorus Siculus for the period between 480 and 350.

epaminondas

4th c. - Most important Theban commander of the 1st half of the 4th cent. BC. In 371, he defeated a Spartan army at Leuctra "in one of the most pivotal battles in Greek history." Although he was unable to conquer Sparta, he did free Messenia from Spartan rulership and initiated the founding of a Messenian state, so that Sparta was decidedly weakened (Xen. Hell. 6,5,23-52; Diod. Sic. 15,62-66; Plut. Agesilaus 31-34,1; Paus. 9,14,5). He died in 362 in a battle fought at Mantinea.

philocrates

4th c. - Philocrates was an Athenian rhētōr, after whom the Peace of Philocrates of 346, between Athens and Philip II, was named. In 343, Hypereides brought an eisangelia against Philocrates, accusing him of bribery and treason in his conduct as envoy to Philip; Philocrates fled Athens and died in exile.

pelopidas

4th c. - Theban commander during the first half of the 4th century BCE. Exiled as a young man in 382 BCE, Pelopidas supposedly organized the resistance against the pro-Spartan Leontiades, liberated Thebes from his rule, and re-established the Boeotian League. For the remainder of his life, he served as a Boeotarch and commander of the 'Sacred Band.' Pelopidas led several significant battles against the tyrant Alexander of Pherae and died fighting him at the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 364 BCE.

oath of the founders of cyrene

4th century inscription presenting a 7th century oath - Oath of the founders of Cyrene - this oath is preserved on an inscription that dates to the 4th c. (in our readings, ML 8, Fornara 18); the inscription was a result of the grant of citizenship to Therans resident in Cyrene (Thera being the mother-city) - after that decree, the alleged 7th century decree, with original oath of the settlers, was inscribed; it provides us with an account of the foundation of Cyrene to be read alongside the two accounts in Herodot. (one Theran, one Cyrenean) - this is the only case in which we can piece together a detailed account of the early 7th c. foundations (this one is 630). Murray thinks it's a reasonable conflation of genuine documents with insertions (e.g. 'any of their fellow citizens who sails later to Libya is to share in citizenship and honor, and to be allotted unoccupied land'); the inscription broadly presents a typical foundation story: an expendable aristocrat as a leader (Battos), the decision to colonize made by Apollo; sons are chosen by lot, and there is a penalty for those who refuse to go.

thucydides son of melesias

500 - 433 - Son of Melesias and son-in-law of Cimon, he was an Athenian politician in the fifth century BCE. He was made by Plutarch as the leading conservative opponent of Pericles as he criticized both Athens' building program (saying that it strengthened democracy) and its offesive sea-league policy (though the target was the methods, not the cause). He was ostracized in 443 due to his inconsistent behavior, which marked the arrival of the era of Pericles. His role after his return from the exile (from 433) remains unknown.

cimon

510 - 450 - An Athenian statesmen and strategos of the first half of the 5th century BCE, in charge of many of the Delian League's most important military operations against Persia between 476 and 463 (notably his victory at Eurymedon ca. 466, after which he may have brokered peace with the Persians, which was then rejected by his domestic enemies). In 462 he urged that Athens support Sparta in quelling its helot revolt, but Sparta sent the Athenian hoplites home, suspicious of the force's 'revolutionary tendencies.' Discredited at home, and opposed to the reforms of the Aeropagus that had been decided in his absence, C. was ostracized. He may have tried to redeem himself by appearing to fight against the Spartans at the Battle of Tanagra in 458, but this is suspect. Finally returned to Athens ca. 451, where he helped negotiate a five-year peace agreement between Athens and Sparta. He died fighting against the Persians on Cyprus.

Kleomenes

520 - 490 - King of Sparta between around 520 and 490 BCE. Invaded Attica in 510, contributing to the overthrow of the Peisistratids; allied with Isagoras against Kleisthenes in Athens. Kleomenes had a conflictual relationship with his co-regent Demaratus, initially over Kleomenes' attempt to establish a satellite regime in Attica. Kleomenes eventually had Damaratus deposed by asserting his illegitimate birth; D. thereafter defected to the Achaemenid court. Herodotus 6.74 reports his madness and suicide.

themistocles

525 - 459 - Important Athenian politician in the time of the Persian Wars. May have fought at Marathon as strategos; ambitious and controversial, received many votes for ostracism in 480s but was not ostracised. How radically "democratic" his politics were is debated; he was instrumental in exanding the fleet in 483/2, financed from the new silver mines at Laurium. During the Persian invasion of 481, he manipulated the Delphic oracle into giving the "wooden walls" reply, which, he convinced the Athenians, meant the fleet. His fame declined after Salamis; hostile to Sparta, he was ostracised in the late 470s; eventually fled to Persia and died there. Controversial in his time and in scholarship.

Hippias of Athens

527/6 - 490 - Son of the Athenian tyrant Peisistratus; succeeded his father in 528/7, archon 527/6 (along with his brothers Hipparchus and Thessalus). Ruled moderately until murder of Hipparchus in 514, thereafter brutal. Left Athens after democratic revolution of 510, went into exile in Sigeion, then to Susa, where he was closely connected to the Persians. Accompanied Persian invasion in 490.

Darius I [the Great]

550 - 486 - Ruled the Achaemenid (Persian) Empire at its peak and greatly expanded it. Organized the empire into satrapies. Created new royal palaces at Susa and Persepolis. Squashed the Ionian Revolt and then invaded Greece, which was going well until the setback of the Battle of Marathon (490). Darius prepared for another invasion of Greece but died beforehand, leaving that for his son Xerxes to take care of.

cleisthenes (alcmaeonid)

570 - 500 - "The father of Athenian democracy," so considered (even in the 5th century) because he is attributed with having laid the foundation of Athenian democracy, in 508/7. Having ousted the tyrant Hippias, Cleisthenes competed for power with Isagoras, who won the upper hand on his appeal of the Alcmaeonid curse. Cleisthenes was expelled, but then recalled by the Athenians when Isagoras proved hostile to the boule. Back in Athens, Cleisthenes instituted reforms to the civic body: 10 new tribes, each comprised of three parts (trittyes). These trittyes comprised one or more of the 139 demes. Thus every Athenian citizen belonged to one demos and the larger unit to which it belonged. Each unit had its own officials and assemblies. Cleisthenes is also attributed with the introduction of ostracism.

Croesus

595 - 546 - King of Lydia, and last of the Mermnad dynasty. According to Herodotus he reigned for 14 years, and left a number of noteworthy dedications at Delphi. He resisted growing Persian power, and led campaigns against Cyrus the Great, against whom he fell in 547 or 546.

prohedria

5th - 4th c. - Prohedria was the privilege to sit in the front row in a theater. This honour was bestowed for various reasons; in Athens, for instance, we have evidence for the giving of this privilege to the descendants of the tyrannicides Harmodius and Aristogeiton, to proxenoi, and to esteemed citizens. We might view the institution of prohedria as evidence of the close connection in Greek (or, at least, Athenian) society between political life and the theater; in this connection, we might recall the Athenian tradition of parading orphans of citizens killed during the Peloponnesian War in the Odeon (or Theater of Dionysus?) and, further, the fact that one of the Athenian liturgies consisted in financing and training a chorus.

Laureion

5th - 4th c. Region in Attica known particularly for its rich silver mines. The historical significance of these mines lies most obviously in their having funded the construction of the Athenian navy on the proposal of Themistocles that then won the battle of Salamis. But the regular supply of silver to Athens through the fifth and fourth centuries also had a signficant long-term impact on the Athenian economy: since silver bullion was the metal base of coinage, the mines guaranteed Athens a regular supply of cash.

Ephialtes

5th c. - Athenian politician, who in the late 460s became Cimon's leading opponent. He appears to have been one of a group of Athenians who had a fundamental belief in the principles of democracy. It is likely that while Cimon and his hoplite army were away in Messenia, he was responsible for the transfer of politically significant judicial powers (possibly those affecting the control over officials and eisangelia cases) from the Areopagus to the council of five hundred and the jury courts ([Aristot.] Ath. Pol. 25; Plut. Cimon 15,2). Cimon attempted to have the reforms repealed, but was ostracized. Not long afterwards, Ephialtes was murdered (Ath. Pol. 25,4).

stoa poikile

5th c. BCE - Covered, semi-enclosed walkway erected in the fifth century BCE on N side of the Athenian agora, famous in antiquity for paintings and war spoils displayed in it. In the stoa poikile the philosopher Zeno of Citium (c. 334-262/1) taught philosophy; his school is named "Stoic" from the location. Was looted in 267 CE, again in 390s CE, probably destroyed in the fifth century CE. Excavated in the second half of the 20th century.

Gelon

5th century tyrant of Gela and Syracuse in Sicily. He succeeded Hippocrates in Gela in 491 and became involved in open-ended hostilities with Carthage. Gelon took control of Syracuse in 485 with the support of the landowning aristocracy who had been driven out of the city, leaving his brother Hieron in control of Gela. With an army of recruited mercenaries, Gelon conquered colonies of Euboea and Megara Hyblaea. He controlled the majority of east Sicily and was married to the daughter of Theron, tyrant of Acragas (Agrigento). He aided Theron when the Carthaginians invaded Sicily in 480 and was responsible for the decisive Greek victory at Himera.

hippias of elis

5th/4th c. - Hippias of Elis was a sophist, active at least until the early 4th century BCE. He appears in several of Plato's dialogues (two of which are named after him). Only one fragment of his work survives, although he was supposedly knowledgeable about a wide variety of subjects (including [from the Pauly] "arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, music, prosody, poetry, philology, rhetoric, 'archaeology', mnemonics and practical skills"). He seems to have been the first doxograph (one who records the beliefs of various philosophers), and he was also one of the first to see Homer as a predecessor of Thales.

peisistratus

600 - 527 - An Athenian aristocrat, Peisistratus led one of three territory-based political factions that emerged after Solon and gained populist support as a successful military leader in the conflict against Megara. Around 561 BCE, Peisistratus and his bodyguards occupied the Acropolis and took control of the government as tyrant. Exiled twice, he returned for good after foreign alliances allowed him to win the Battle of Pallene in 546 BCE and ruled until his death in 527 BCE. Peisistratus and his sons established Athens as a religious and cultural center through the patronage of major temples on the Acropolis and public festivals such as the Panathenaia. Herodotus and Aristotle's Athenian Constitution provide our main accounts of his life.

Kleisthenes of Sicyon

600 - 560 - Tyrant of Sikyon (in the Peloponnese, near Corinth) 600 - 560 BCE; grandfather, according to Herodotus, of Kleisthenes of Athens, though he doesn't supply the genealogical connections and it might be a case of association based on name and political activity. Organized a war with Argos, banned the rhapsodes from Sikyon because of the laudatory references to Argos in the Homeric epics, and reorganized the tribes of Sicyon which previously had Doric names. Herodotus reports this incident as an inspiration for Kleisthenes of Athens' reorganization of that city's tribes, in which the number jumped from 4 to 10, and testifies that Kleisthenes undertook this project to gain an advantage over his rival in civic politics Isagoras.

Cyrus [the Elder/Great]

600/576 - 530 - Founder of the Achaemenid empire, which embraced all the previous empires of the ancient Near East. Cyrus conquered the Median, Lydian, and Neo-Babylonian empires throughout the course of his ca. 30 year reign. He died in battle in 530, and was succeeded by his son Cambyses II, who further augmented the Achaemenid's territorial holdings by conquering Egypt, Nubia, and Cyrenaica.

naucratis

625 - ? Naucratis - port in Egypt, in the western Nile delta, attested in Herodotus book 2; an emporion/port of trade granted to the Greeks by the Egyptian king Amasis (Herodot. 2.178-9) but it already existed before the grant; it was the only place where Greeks were welcome in Egypt (again Her. 2.178-9); archeological record shows Greek presence from c. 625 onwards; town was founded not as a colony, but grew organically as a trading town, illustrated by the fact that Greek shrines were set up by multiple Greek poleis in common; the town probably exported corn in return for silver.

Solon

640 - 560 - Athenian lawgiver and poet. First rose to prominence around 600, successfully arguing for the conquest of Salamis; fragments of paraenetic poetry on the subject survive. Archon 594/3, he instigated deep structural reforms of the Athenian state. Later said to have left the polis after requiring the Athenians to abide by his reforms; the rest of his life is legend, including a visit to Croesus first mentioned by Hdt. Most important measure seisakhtheia; also ban on encroachment upon the person of the debtor (i.e. no debt-slavery), restrictions on land-acquisition, some provisions of family and inheritance law, restrictions on immigration: all apparently combatting a land shortage. Established census classes based on wealth, which (instead of lineage) determined eligibility for political offices. Also encouraged/required all Athenians to take sides in internal conflict, raising the stakes. The tradition that he reformed weights and measures is difficult to square with archaeological evidence. Regarded in antiquity as founder of democracy; how important his reforms were in this respect is debated. Author of iambic and elegiac poetry; most of what survives is connected to his political activity, which may reflect interests of quoting authors; fr. 13 W is longest surviving complete pre-Hellenistic elegy. Main sources: frr. of S.'s poetry, Aristotelian Ath. Pol., Plutarch's life of S.

cypselus

657-27 - First tyrant of Corinth. He followed the Bacchiadae, an aristocratic ruling group, and instituted the first tyrannis in Greece. A mythic etiology held that his mother secreted him in a beehive when he was an infant, since a positive Delphic oracle had prophesied his overthrow of the Bacchiadae. Another oracle was supposed to have predicted his reception in Delphi with royal honors.

proskynesis

6th - 4th c. - Proskynesis was the Persian practice of blowing a kiss to (and perhaps also prostrating oneself before) the king to communicate deference. A part of the frieze from the Apadana at Persepolis may depict this practice. Alexander the Great attempted to make this practice a part of the ceremonies of his court; this was a point of contention at his court, as this sort of reverence was in Greek culture reserved for the honouring of gods.

council of 400

6th c. - Solon established the Council of 400 in his 6th-century legal reforms. The group comprised 100 members from each of the four traditional tribes. The council was to deliberate before the people, and decide on all issues before they were brought to the Assembly (Sol. 19.1). (The "Council of 400" could also refer to "the four hundred," the name given to the short-lived Athenian oligarchy that resulted from the coup of 411).

nestor's cup

735 - 720 - nestor's cup - late geometric kotyle/skyphos, 735-720; one of the first Greek inscriptions, and one of the first pieces of datable evidence for the existence of the Greek alphabet; three lines, 1 might be a iambic trimester, 2 and 3 are hexameters: 'nestor had a cup from which it was good to drink; but the man who drinks from this cup will at once be gripped by fair-garlanded Aphrodite's desire'; the inscription presupposes the oral epic tradition (e.g. epithet of Aphrodite), and the vessel might be linked to sympotic culture in the Homeric era.

cylon

7th c. - Athenian aristocrat, and victor in the Olympian games of 640. In 632 he and his followers occupied the Acropolis, seeking to establish a tyrannical regime. The people did not offer their support, and the senior officials met the group with violence. Cylon probably escaped, but his supporters, despite seeking asylum at the statue of Athenia Polias, were killed. The archon Megacles, who led the slaughter, was blamed for the breech of asylum, and his family, the Alcmaeonidae, cursed.

dike phonou/Draco's Law

7th c. - Draco was an Athenian lawmaker who, according to tradition, was the first to put Athens' laws in writing. The laws had notoriously severe penalties (they were . . . Draconian), and Solon later repealed most of them but kept Draco's homicide law (dike phonou = charge of homicide). An inscription of 409/408 claims to preserve Draco's homicide law. Modern scholars express skepticism over the biographical details of Draco and over whether his homicide law was really preserved unchanged, but he was an important figure in Athenian tradition.

hektemoroi

7th c. - Hektemoroi were impoverished tenants on Attic agricultural land whose poor situation represented a significant part of the crises targeted by Solon. Modern researchers believe the h. had to give 1/6 of their yield as rent (and thus agree with Plutarch). The date when this rent/tax was established is unclear, as is the size of the h. group before S.'s reforms. In light of the relatively mild rent the h. paid, the economic crisis to which the h. were related may have been caused by population growth or to problems with the soil (due to constant farming) rather than the burden of their rent. It has also been suggested that it was the debt-bondage of the h. that was the true issue. Note: the term does not appear in Solon's texts despite being connected to his reforms later on. It is therefore unclear how the rank of h. was phased out (whether it was a specific move S. instituted or a later result of S.'s reforms more generally).

great rhetra

7th c. - Rhetra - Spartan word for decree; According to Plutarch, the Great Rhetra was the oracle from Delphi with which Lycurgus established the government of the Spartan state (Plut. Vit. Lyc. 6): "So eager was Lycurgus for the establishment of this form of government, that he obtained an oracle from Delphi about it, which they call a 'rhetra.' And this is the way it runs: When though has built a temple to Zeus Syllanius and Athena Syllania, divided the people in phylai, and divided them into obai and established a gerousia of thirty including the archagetai, then from time to time 'appellazein' between Babyka and Knakion, and there introduce and repeal measures; but the Demos must have the decision and the power." It formed the core of the Spartan Constitution.

Lelantine War

8th c. - A decades-long conflict between the Euboaean cities of Chalcis and Eretria over the Lelantine plain (site of Lefkandi). Archilochus and Thucydides provide literary evidence for the conflict: Archilochus writes (fr. 3 West) that the weapons of the conflict were swords rather than bows, which suggests that the war belongs to an early period in the development of the hoplite phalanx. Thucydides (1.15) claims that this was the only major conflict in Greece between the Trojan and Atheno-Peloponnesian wars. and that Greek poleis beyond those immediately involved took part in the conflict.

pithekoussai

8th c. - An island off the Campanian coast, Pithekoussai was a settlement founded either by Chalcidians (according to Livy: 8.22.6) or Chalcidians and Eretrians (according to Strabo: 5.4.9) sometime in the early 8th century (according to the archaeological evidence, ca. 770 BCE: see Hall [2014] pp.102-103), and therefore was contemporaneous with Al Mina. The traditional view is that Pithekoussai, like Al Mina, was an emporion rather than an apoikia, but the archaeological evidence from the Valle di San Montano cemetery may speak against this view: men and women of all age groups are represented in this cemetery. Nevertheless, Cretan, East Greek, and Phoenician pottery found on Pithekoussai may indicate either that the island had an important place in pan-Mediterranean trade and/or that Greeks from different poleis and Phoenicians inhabited the island. The 'Cup of Nestor' (c. 735-720), which preserves a three-line inscription in the Euboean alphabet, was found on Pithekoussai, and accordingly may lend credence to the view that island was settled by Euboeans (though the cup itself may be a Rhodian product).

pheidon of argos

9th c. - Pheidon is identified by Herodotus, Ephorus, and Aristotle as a tyrant, but it is not clear when or whether he reigned: the date of his reign ranges from the 9th to 6th centuries BCE. He is associated with the introduction of coinage (specifically, silver coinage on Aegina) and a new system of weights and measures, but since the name Pheidon literally means 'miser' and, further, since this system was sparing in comparison to the Solonian system, we might suspect that Pheidon was a figure invented to give this new system an inventor (see Hall [2014] pp.163-4). He is also associated with expansion of the Argive state - which, according to Herodotus (1.81.2), included the annexation of Cythera and other neighbouring islands - and is said to have proclaimed himself as a descendant of Heracles, via Temenus.

jason of pherae

? - 370 Jason of Pherae was a tyrant in Thessaly in the early 4th century BCE. After succeeding Lycophron (who was possibly his father) as tyrant in 390 BCE, Jason was initially an ally to Thebes (which was undergoing rocky relations with its ally Athens). Jason spread his control through all of Thessaly and became the area's commander (tagos), despite pleas from the tyrant of Pharsalus, Polydamas, for the Spartans to intervene and stop his rise. After Thebes defeated Sparta at Leuctra in 371, Jason feared the growth of Theban power and arranged a truce between the Thebans and Spartans. He was murdered at the Pythian games in 370 BCE due to being a threat to Thebes' growing power, and his killers were celebrated as tyrannicides. According to the sources, including Xenophon and Isocrates, Jason had hoped to bring all of Greece under his control and to launch a campaign against Persia.

Krypteia

A Spartan institution about which the literary sources show considerable disagreement. It seems to have been, at any rate, a training practice for Spartan soldiers. Plato Laws 633b-c writes that the krypteia was a practice of training soldiers under harsh conditions with minimal equipment. Plutarch at Lycurgus 28 on the other hand reports that the krypteia involved equipping soldiers with a sword and little food and instructing them to hide by day and murder Helots by night.

amphictyones

A league of neighboring ancient Greek states sharing a common religious center or shrine, the most famous being the Delphic Amphictyony which had religious authority and the power to pronounce punishments against offenders.

ostracism

A procedure in Athens (probably also elsewhere) that permitted expulsion of a man from the country for ten years without having been convicted of an offence, but his property was not confiscated; introduced by Cleisthenes (508/7 BC), but not applied until 488/7 (Ath Pol); the ekklesia decided on whether to carry out an ostracism once a year; the name of a man whom he wanted to see banished was written on a potsherd. If a total of 6,000 votes had been cast, the candidate with the highest number of votes would be banished. Between 487 and 415 BC, about 13 men were ostracised, amongst them Themistocles, Cimon, and Thucydides. Ostracism was employed to settle the rivalries between political leaders. It stopped after 415, probably because it was unreliable as a method for this.

thētes

A synonym for hired labors, thetes were the lowest social class of free men in a Greek polis. It is said that at Athens, Solon grouped those who earned less than 200 medimnoi of corn (or the equivalent in other produces) from their own land annually into this class, which was also the lowest of four property classes. He allowed them to participate in the assembly and court but forbade them from serving as magistrates or in the boule (although never officially abolished, these prohibits were ignored later in practice). Because they were too poor to afford the armor, they could not fight as hoplites; but when Athens became a naval power, they acquired an important role as oarsmen (if I remember correctly, some scholars, perhaps including Josh Ober, have argued that their important role as oarsmen contributed to the rise of equality among Ahtenian citizens and eventually of democracy).

electrum

Also "Elektron." A name for amber and a naturally occurring (Sardes: Soph. Ant. 1037; Spain: Plin. HN 33,22,1) or artificial alloy (Serv. Aen. 8,402; Isid. Orig. 16,24,2) of gold and silver, usually in the ratio of 3:1 with an admixture of copper [1. 201ff.]. Elektron is harder than gold and has been used for jewellery and vessels since the Mycenaean period [2. 102; 3], since the archaic period also for minting coins. Elektron coins were minted, for example, in the towns of western Asia Minor up to the 4th cent. BC, later Carthage, Syracuse and the western Celts and in late antiquity the Kušan and their successors [1. 202f.; 4. 34f.].

behistun inscription

An inscription on a rock face, 30 km east of Kermanshah in western Iran, on the silk road, which Darius I (c. 550-486) had made to list his achievements. There is also a pictorial representation, showing Darius stepping on his enemies. The inscription is 70 meters above the road, in three languages (Elamite, Babylonian, and Old Perisan). The inscription is partly autobiographical, and lists his successes in battles as he put down various rebellions against him. The inscription was made in phases, and was key to the decipherement of cuneiform script. The inscription was meant "to proclaim symbolically the legitimacy of Darius I's reign, founded in descent, success, and his just actions" (Brill's New Pauly, Bisutun).

Kerameikos

Ancient deme of Athens northwest of the agora stretching to the Academy. Major cemetary for the city since the 6th century. The origin of the Sacred Way to Eleusis from the Dipylon gate lay in the Kerameikos. Processions including the Panathenaia would set out from this area.

al mina

Ancient trading post in north Syria, given its name by Leonard Woolley. Founded before 800, destroyed by 700. Key to understanding the role of early Greeks in the east at the outset of the Orientalising Period of Greek cultural history

zenon-archive

Apollonius received from Ptolemy II an estate of 6800 acre as crown-gift for his service as chief minister near Philadelphia in the Fayum. Between 256 and 248/7 this land was managed by Zenon, a Carian immigrant from Caunus. A cache of over 2000 Greek and Demotic documents written on papyri were found in the 1900s, hence the name Zenon-archive or Zenon-Papyri. The documents include letters, accounts (e.g. of provisions for journey and of supplies) and records (e.g. of purchases and of loans)--essentially, the subject depends on where Zenon was at a certain time and what he was doing then. Note that despite the shortness of Zenon's service, the documents cover a timespan of about thirty years (260-230). It touches upon numerous respects of life in the Hellenistic Egypt and is one of our earliest records for this life. (For those who are interested in it, UMICH's website for the archive is pretty impressive; see http://www.lib.umich.edu/reading/Zenon/)

ekklesia

Assembly of the adult male citizens, which was entitled to the ultimate decision-making authority in the Greek states. In Athens, by no later than the 2nd half of the 5th cent. BC, all of the more important decisions and many of the less important ones were made by the ekklesia. During the 4th c., with the rise of Macedonia, wealthy and influential citizens "came to dominate the affairs of Greek cities, even in cities where fully democratic structures were in place, at the cost of the effective participation of the mass of citizens meeting in the ekklesia . . . in the long term in many places the ekklesia ceased to meet with any regularity."

phalanx

Battle formation of hoplites, heavily equipped foot soldiers in close ranks, most effective on open, flat terrain. It demanded close cooperation between fighters, as the shield of any man protected himself and the man to his left, creating a strong frontal defense and allowing fighters to 'push' against enemy lines. While the term phalanx crops up frequently in the Iliad, referring to mass fighting, this form of attack did not become standard among Greek states until the first half of the seventh century BCE. It was not superseded until the fourth century BCE

themistocles decree

Brill s.v. "Troezen inscription". Inscription of debated historical value, purporting to give the text of a decree proposed by Themistocles before the battle of Artemisium (480 BCE); current inscribed version from first half of 3rd century BCE, the text (if a forgery) probably dates to the 4th century. If genuine, the implications in Hdt. concerning Greek strategy during the war would be contradicted. Debate continues; extreme positions claiming either total forgery or verbatim reproduction are probably untenable. ML 23=F 55; photo on Wikipedia. - inscription first half of 3rd century BCE; text probably fixed by 4th century; purports to date from 480

siwah oasis

Brill's New Pauly s.v. Ammoneion. Oasis in Libyan desert in NW Egypt; site of an oracle of the Egyptian deity Amun Re, known to the Greeks as Zeus Ammon. Greeks from Cyrene made contact around the 7th century BCE; the oracle was consulted by Croesus, Cimon, and (most famously) Alexander, whom it acknowledged as divine and legitimate ruler of Egypt. Also consulted by Hannibal, but apparently faded away in the Roman period.

gerousia

Council of elders in Sparta, one of two parts of the Spartan state (the other being the apella). It was fixed at 30 members, including the two kings, who were chosen by the citizens from among candidates who had reached the age of 60. The functions of the gerousia were probably set by the reforms of Lycrugus, likely in the 7th century BCE; it submitted business to the apella and had extensive judicial powers, including the power to pronounce sentence of death or exile.

agathocles

Early third century son of Lysimachus. Sent by his father against Demetrius Poliorcetes and successfully drove him out of Anatolia. His stepmother Arsinoe apparently tried to poison him then had him cast into prison and executed in 284, so he never succeeded his father as he was supposed to. Instead Ptolemy Keraunos succeeded Lysimachus.

gymnopaediae

Festival held during July in Sparta in honor of Apollo, Artemis, and Leto. Boys, youths, and young men participated in exhibitions in gymnastics, music, and dancing. Instituted shortly after the defeat at Hysiai in 669 in the first Messenian War at the hands of the Argives. Murray says it seemed to have been an apotropaic ritual for this defeat and that it was closely related to Spartan military training (p. 165).

pydna

Greek seaport on the coast of Pieria in Macedonia. In 432, P. was besieged by the Athenians; in 410, it was finally captured by Archelaus, and the population of the city was settled inland about 4 km from their harbour. The harbour came under Macedonian sovereignty, but the community, whether in the old location or the new one, initially remained formally independent until about 360, when they were conquered by the Athenians under Timotheus. Shortly afterwards, P. was reconquered by Philippus and continued to be Macedonian. After 338 BC, P. became the seat of officials of the Corinthian League.

aratus of sicyon

Hellenistic statesman, leader of the Achaean Confederacy, (271-213.) Raised in exile, returned to Sicyon to expel its tyrant, after which he joined his city to the AC. Initially opposed Macedonian influence in Greece, allying the Confederacy with Ptolemy II Philadelphus and liberating Corinth and Argos. However, to offset the rise of Spartan military power under Cleomenes III Aratus turned to Antigonus Doson for help, allowing the Macedonians to reestablish power in mainland Greece, including their garrison on the Acrocorinth. His Memoirs are used by Polybius.

areopagus

Hill of Ares, site of important Athenian assembly. i) Pre-Solon: aristocratic advisory body to the king/archons, with limited judicial authority over homicides. ii) Solon gave or confirmed power to try cases of eisangeliai, crimes against the state, but overall its influence was diminished in relation to the new boule. iii) 462/1, Ephialtes stripped it of many of its powers, but it remained a court for homicide, assault and arson. iv) In the Hellenistic period as the archonship regained its prestige so did the Areopagus.

prytaneis

In Classical Athens, each of the ten Cleisthenic phylaí supplied a group of 50 prytáneis for the council of 500 (Boule); these groups formed the executive committee (prytany) of the council in an order determined by lot. The first four prytanies held office for 36 days each, the rest for 35 each. The main functions of the Athenian prytáneis were the preparation, convocation and leadership of the meetings of the council (Boule) and the popular assembly (Ekklesia). Starting in the early 4th cent. nine ad hoc próhedroi (one each from each phylḗ except for that which held the prytany), selected by lot, took over the leadership of the council and assembly, though the prytany kept the preparation and convocation of the meetings.

pylos

In Homer, P. can designate both the domain and residence of Nestor, but differing information in the two epics led to various places being identified even in ancient commentaries. The Iliad points to a place south of the Alpheius, the Odyssey suggests the territory of Messenia. It must be recognized how vague and indebted to ancient Homeric interpretations modern attempts at location are.

Lemnos, Imbros, Scyros

Islands in the Aegean, Scyros off the northeast coast of Euboea, Imbros and Lemnos close to Asia Minor. All three were cleruchies of Athens established in the fifth century, although Imbros also appears on the Athenian tribute lists so its historical status is not perfectly clear. These were clear strategic holdings for the Athenians in the Aegean; in 411 (cf Thuc. 8.102) the Athenian squadron at Sestos is spotted by the Peloponnesian fleet and takes refuge at Lemnos and Imbros. The terms of the King's Peace deictated that Athens was to retain control of these islands specifically, which show both that they were conceived of as a collection in antiquity ("Athen's strategic footholds in the Aegean") and their importance to Athenian security interests.

antidosis

Isocrates' antidosis (350s) is a speech in which he defended himself against the charge of corrupting the youth by teaching them how to speak well in order for them to gain an unfair advantage over their peers. The speech is also concerned with public liturgies of the wealthy, on which Athens depended economically, and antidosis also refers to the legal procedure of getting out of paying liturgies by identifying someone wealthier and better suited than you to pay them.

tiryns

It was significant Bronze Age settlement on a low rocky hill in the Argive plain. Settled by the late Neolithic, it developed into a center in the early Bronze Age with dense buildings on the entire hill but in the middle Bronze Age inhabitated areas shrank. A palace began to be constructed in the 15th century BCE, whose external walls showed an increasingly prominent defensive character. Other features of the palace include: a great megaron with atrium, ante-chamber and main chamber (where a throne and round hearth-place were found); a small megaron; colorfully painted floors and frescoes; rainwater drainage system (which made the palace technologically advanced). Despite the fire the palace suffered around 1200, it is still one of the best preserved Mycenaean fortress palaces now. A city settlement existed around the citadel hill. Scholars suggest that Tiryns was the second most important site in the Mycenae state (rather than an independent center) and served as Mycenae's main port. (More info if you need it: Unfortunately it began to decline again in the late Bronze Age, became subordinate to Argos in the Iron Age and was finally destroyed by Argos around 470 BCE with the surviving population moving to Halieis.)

katoikoi

Katoikoi was the Hellenistic replacement of the previous word kleorouchoi; they were granted land for settlement so that, as a result, they could be eligible to serve in the military. Katoikoi are most commonly attested in Egypt, and the term first appears in 257 BCE.

Gyges

King of Lydia in the mid-seventh century BCE, killed 652 BCE in battle by the invading Cimmerians; According to Herodotus, Gyges became king after killing King Candaules and marrying the queen (Candaules had boasted about his wife's beauty and forced Gyges to spy on the queen. She found out about it and told Gyges he could either kill the king or be killed himself. He chose to kill the king, and he took his place as king). Ancestor of Croesus who lost Lydia to Cyrus and the Persians.

Thermopylae

Literally "Hot Gates", Thermopylae derived its name from its hot sulphur spring. It is a strategic pass on the main land-route in antiquity from the northern Greece to the central and southern Greece. It is famous for the battle probably taking place in the August of 480 BCE, in which the Spartan king Leonidas attempted to check the invading Persians. But because some local resident betrayed the existence of an alternative route, the Greek defenders were forced to retreat and in the end annihilated by the arrow-shower of the Persians. This battle is often used by ancient and modern authors as an example of a patriotic army defending its native soil.

perioikoi

Literally meaning 'those living in the surroundings,' this term referred to a category of thirty or so communities surrounding Sparta and dependent on it, while still retaining internal autonomy. These poleis supported Sparta's foreign policy and military ventures; Herodotus reports that the Perioikoi supplied 5,000 hoplite soldiers for the battle of Plataeae in 479 BCE. Perioikoi manufactured goods for the Spartan military elite, who committed themselves fully to military training, and received a privileged and protected position in return. The Messanian Perioikoi broke away from Spartan hegemony in 369 BCE alongside the region's helots, but the Perioikoi in Laconia remained dependent until the beginning of the second century, when several communities formed the League of Free Laconians. - Dissolved the beginning of the second century

liturgy

Liturgy was the practice of a city-state's wealthiest citizens partially funding the state with their own private funds. There were two forms of liturgy in Athens: to endow performers and celebrations (festive liturgy) and to pay for the construction or maintenance of a ship for the fleet (trierarchia). Law limited to festive liturgies to once every two years and trierarchias were limited to once every three years. However, elite competition led to increasingly more expensive liturgies being undertaken more than prescribed by law. In the 4th century, it became more difficult to find individuals capable of bearing the financial burdens of liturgies and the practice slowly fell into disuse. During the Hellenistic period, the practice of euergetism that resembled liturgies developed.

sarissa

Long pike of Macedonian infantry and cavalry, 4-5 metres in length - a wooden shaft with pointed metal tips at both ends. Since the sarissa was held with both hands during the fight, the foot soldiers armed with it could carry only a small round shield hanging from their neck on a band. The Macedonian cavalry started using the sarissa at the latest in the battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC, with the hoplites probably following somewhat later.

Lycurgus

Lycurgus was the legendary lawgiver to the Spartans with various datings given in the tradition (11th-8th centuries). Much like other legendary lawgivers, Lycurgus' biography began to take on many common motifs: extensive journeys, creation of an order in a civil dispute, being one-eyed, exile and death. He is variously credited with the Great Rhetra on the cooperation of the kings, the creation of the gerousia, apella, and agoge among other institutions. Herodotos was the first report Lycurgus' founding of a comprehensive constitution, but this wasn't canonical from the start. Others such as Pindar and Hellanicus cited competing traditions and Plato believed in the gradual development of the Spartan constitution.

antipater I

Macedonian general, lived 397-319. Supported Philip and Alexander (he was even rumoured to be Alexander's father) and became regent of Alexander's empire in 320. Involved in the Battle of Chaeronea then sent to Athens to negotiate peace. Helped Alexander to secure his position after Philip's death in 336. In 322 he defeated the Greeks (led by Athens) at Crannon and imposed an oligarchy in Athens and demanded the surrender of Demosthenes. In Macedonia he fell ill and died and left the regency to Polyperchon (not his son Cassander).

argive heraion

Major cult site on hill dominating the Argolid, contested in the Submycenaean period by Mycenae and Tiryns but eventually controlled by Argos (though quite far from the actual polis). Acquired a peripteral temple at the same time as the Samian Heraion in the early 7th century. Site of the Herodotus's story of Cleobis and Biton, who died standing in for the oxen in their mother's ritual wagon and received dedications at Delphi. In 5th C received a chryselephantine cult statue by Polykleitos.

melos

Melos is the westernmost of the Cyclades islands. It was prosperous during the 8th to 6th centuries and later took part in the battles of Salamis and Plataea. The Melians were Dorians and therefore kin with the Spartans, but they attempted to remain neutral in the Peloponnesian War. Athens coveted the island for its strategic location and wealth, so in 416 Athenians sent a large force in an attempt to compel the Melians to join the Delian League. As detailed in the famed Melian Dialogue (V.84-116), the Athenians urged the Melians to think pragmatically and yield to their demands, while the Melians appealed to Athenians' humanity and fear of the gods. The negotiations failed and after the Melians' defeat in 415, the Athenians killed or enslaved all of the islands' inhabitants. The Athenians colonized the island, but in 405 Lysander reconquered the island and gave it back to its surviving inhabitants.

Peloponnesian League

Modern name for an alliance of states in the Peloponnese. Sparta, the most powerful city-state, began collecting allies in the early sixth century BCE, but the alliance really took shape when Spartan King Cleomenes organized an (unsuccessful) attack on Athens in 505 BCE and called on these allies to work as a unit. While Sparta remained the leader of the group, and no military maneuvers took placed without Spartan approval, majority vote ostensibly ruled. Tensions between the Peloponnesian League and the growing Athenian empire, leader of the Delian League, led to the first Peloponnesian War (c. 460-446 BCE), which culminated in the Thirty Years' Peace; this treaty dissolved when the Spartans declared war on Athens in 431 BCE, the second Peloponnesian war, which ultimately led to Spartan hegemony in Greece. The Peloponnesian League disbanded after 365 BCE, when Corinth and the other members, overruling a declining Sparta, made a treaty with the Boeotians.

pentakosiomedimnoi

Name for the highest census class in Athens, literally meaning 'five-hundred-bushelers,' whose estates yielded at least 500 units/metra of agricultural product each year. Aristotle and Plutarch suggest that Solon created this group and added it to pre-existing census brackets. This status was a prerequisite for certain offices as late as the fourth century BCE, although it stands to reason that the rise of a money economy required new standards for membership.

nicias

Nicias - 470 - 413; one of the most important commanders in the Peloponnesian War; one of the politicans filling the vacuum after Pericles died; competed with Cleon for influence in the ekklesia and the assignment of military commands; his policy was directed to ending aggressive Athenian politics of expansion and he wanted reconciliation with Sparta (e.g. Peace of Kallias, 421); famous debate with Alcibiades about the Sicilian Expedition, Kallias was against the expedition but lost the debate; elected as general with Alcibiades and Lamachus for the expedition, and after initial successes things went wrong (according to Thuc. he was too careful and hesitant); tried to escape in 413 with his army but was overwhelmed and executed in Syracuse.

aristogeiton

Older of the two tyrranicides, who in 514/13 assassinated Hipparchos at the Panathenaia following a lover's tiff. H's brother, Hippias, subsequently ruled more harshly as tyrant, leading to the intervention of the Spartans and the democratic reforms of Cleisthenes. A pair of statues by Antenor was dedicated on the Acropolis; these were despoiled by the Persians and replaced with new sculptures immediately following Salamis.

Ephor

One of five ephoroi, who were elected annually by the assembly and wielded significant power alongside the kings and the gerousia. The origin of the Spartan ephorate is wholly obscure. According to Murray, one of the central themes of Spartan history is the conflict between kings and ephors. The extension of the powers of the ephoroi essentially reached its zenith in the early 5th cent.

megara hyblaea

One of the oldest Dorian colonies on the eastern coast of Sicily. According to Thucydides (6.41), it was founded 250 years prior to its destruction in 484/2 by Gelon and completely abandoned in 415 (6.49). There are archaeological remnants from as far back as the Neolithic, but settlement seems to have existed by the second half of the eighth century. Megara Hyblaea's importance for modern scholarship rests in the numerous archaeological finds its ruins have yielded. In the mid-seventh century, the city appears to have been organized by a regularized plan with one of the first agoras. This has led to discussions about colonization and the role of the periphery and the center (see: Osborne 1998).

demos

Originally referring to land or a district (deme), "demos" comes to mean "the people," and is a term that is heavily loaded with ideological significance. Demokratia, of course, is the form of government that gives power to the demos, the citizen body. Members of the demos could participate in the assembly, and assembly decrees often talk about the demos in agential, almost personified terms. So "it seemed best to the Demos...", "the Demos honors...", "it is the decision of the Demos..." In this context, demos basically means assembly and disambiguates it from the Council of 500. Nino's article on honorific decrees suggested that the demos functioned in them as a kind of historical narrator, though it is important to remember that "Demos" almost always functions as a kind of metonymy or synechdoche--it is to some degree how a minority in power represented their actions and decisions as originating out of a collective "everyone" (an "everyone" that excluded women and slaves, of course).

Pausanias [Spartan general]

Pausanias (general) - birthdate unknown, died c.470; Spartiate from the house of the Agiads; led the Greeks to victory over the Persians at Plataeae in 479 (Herodot. 9); In the spring of 478, he led land and naval forces to Cyprus and the Hellespont. He was summoned back from Byzantium to Sparta, where he was placed on trial, but acquitted of the charge of arrogant behavior and medizing; this happened again in 470. At that time reports of contacts by Pausanias with the Persian king reached Sparta, so that Pausanias fled to the temple of Athena Chalkioikos, where he was forced to starve to death. His case shows Spartan attitudes, esp. in view of the conflict between polis community and individual (e.g. Pausanias had his name put on a dedication at Delphi, which the Spartans replaced by the names of the Greeks who participated in the battle)

philochorus

Philochorus (c.340-c.262/1) was the last Atthidographer (i.e., local historian of Athens). His main work, the Atthis, covered Athenian history from its mythical origins to the events of his own lifetime; his other works examined Athenian literature and religious traditions. Antigonus Gonatas ordered the execution of Philochorus in 262/1 on the grounds that he supported Ptolemy II during the Chremonidean War (267-261); this is perhaps evidence of the close connection between historiography and contemporary political discourse in late Classical and early Hellenistic Athens (it is worth remembering here that the Atthis did treat contemporary events). Philochorus is also the first historian known to have published a collection of (Attic) inscriptions.

polykrates of samos

Polykrates was tyrant of Samos from 544 to 520. He is associated with the construction (c. 540 BCE) of an enormous Ionic, peripteral temple, dedicated to Hera and built on top of the foundations of the earlier Rhoikos temple (c.575-60). We can view this building either as a part of the Ionian tradition of constructing massive temples (here, one might adduce the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus as a parallel) or as a part of Polykrates' wider building programme (he is also said to have constructed a harbour and an aqueduct on Samos); if we opt for the latter view, we see Polykrates as a tyrant who, like the Peisistratids, was concerned with public benefaction. Further, the episode regarding the seal-ring of Polykrates, related by Herodotus (Hdt. 3.40-43), is in keeping with the folkloric nature of later accounts of tyrants (cf. Herodotus' account of the Cypselids).

graphe hubreos

Public indictment for hubris under Athenian Law. Quoted in Demosthenes 21.47: "If anyone assaults any child or woman or man, whether free or slave, or commits any unlawful act against anyone of these, any Athenian citizen who desires so to do, being qualified, may indict him before the Judges; and the Judges shall bring the case before the Heliastic Court within thirty days from the date of the indictment, unless some public business prevents, in which case it shall be brought on the earliest possible date. Whomsoever the Court shall condemn, it shall at once assess the punishment or the fine which he is considered to deserve. In all cases where an indictment is entered, as the law directs, if anyone fails to prosecute, or after prosecution fails to obtain one fifth of the votes of the jury, he shall pay a thousand drachmas to the Treasury. If he is fined for the assault, he shall be imprisoned until the fine is paid, provided that the offence was committed against a freeman."

antigonos gonatas

Reigned (intermittently) 277-239, solidified Antigonid dynasty in Macedonia. Fought Pyrrhus and won; Pyrrhus died and the territory captured by him was restored. Installed lots of tyrants around Greece (Polybius: No man ever set up more absolute rulers in Greece than Antigonus). Fought Chremonidean war against Athens, Sparta and Ptolemy and won, establishing Antigonid hegemony over the Greek city-states. Died in 239.

dodona

Sanctuary of Zeus Naios in Epirus and the odlest attested place of an oracle in Greece (already talked about in Homer), where priests interpreted the rustlings of a sacred oak tree. Dodona became a cultural center of Epirus and was generally only second to Delphi in terms of oracle-prestige.

archaic law from dreros

Second half of 7th century, from Temple of Apollo Delphinus in Dreros, Crete. Possibly oldest Greek law on stone. Lays out term limits for chief magistracy (kosmos). Oldest epigraphic use of the term polis, suggesting perhaps communal action in the establishment of laws.

agesilaus

Second son of Archidamus. Spartan king, ruled c.400-360. Technically victorious in the battle of Coronea in 294 but he was injured and suffered losses. Successful general in the Corinthian war, capturing the Piraeus. Had problems with illness throughout his career and died in 360 on his way home from fighting for Nectanebo in Egypt.

battle of mycale

See Herodotus 9.99ff. Important battle during the second Persian invasion of Greece in 479; occured at Mycale in Ionia, near Samos. The Persians, hearing that a Greek fleet was approaching, sailed to Mycale to avoid a naval battle, beached their ships, and constructred a fortification around the ships and a defensive palisade. The Greeks pursued them to Mycale, exhorted the Ionians (by a herald drawing near to shore on a ship) to defect to their side, landed, and prepared for battle. Leotychides was commander of the Greek forces. The Greek got the upper hand, the Ionians turned on the Persians, and the Persian army was crippled. Herodotus says that the battle occured on the same day as Plataea. Major result: the liberation of Ionia.

tarentum/Taras

Spartan colony in S Italy; only Spartan colony in Magna Graecia; founded 706 BCE, during a time of conflict and social upheaval at Sparta. Relations with the local people were hostile, which the Delphic oracle was said to have predicted; various victories in these conflicts were celebrated with offerings at Delphi. In 473, Tarentum suffered a defeat in a war with the Messapians, resulting in the establishment of a democratic constituion. Reached peak power and population in first half of 4th century BCE; treaty with Rome already at the time of Alexander's campaigns, but conflict subsequently broke out on various occasions, most notably c. 280 BCE, when Pyrrhus intervened on behalf of Tarentum against Rome; Tarentum submitted to Rome in 272 and was increasingly marginalised, although Tarentum remained hostile, and briefly broke away during the 2nd Punic War.

agis IV

Spartan king 244-1, tried and failed to reform Sparta's political and economic structure to make it more equal and extend citizenship and cancel debt. He had begun cancellation of debts when called to war and upon his return found that his opposer had gained power. Rather than war with Leonidas he took sanctuary but was enticed out and killed.

periander

Succeeded his father Kypselos as tyrant of Corinth ca. 655/627 BCE and ruled for about forty years. Herodotus characterizes both Periander and his father as authoritative and cruel rulers. A different viewpoint emerges from an Augustan-era writer, Nikolaos of Damascus, who summarizes a biography by the fourth-century historian Ephoros; Ephoros paints Kypselos as benevolent and Periander, hated. Periander continued his father's campaign of establishing colonies and trade routes, maintaining Corinth's position as a prosperous commercial hub.

antigonos monophthalmos

Successor of Alexander IV. Lived 382-301 BC but only reigned from 306. With his son Demetrius Poliorcetes, "liberated" Athens from Cassander. Ended up at war with Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy and Lysimachus who won against him at the battle of Ipsus in 301. He died in the battle, struck by a javelin, and was succeeded by his son.

boule

The boule developed from Homeric times onward; in the Homeric texts the boule consists of nobles advising a king. In oligarchies membership in the boule may be restricted and members serve for a long term, and might be rather more powerful than the assembly. In democracies, membership could be broader and term limits shorter. In Athens, the boule originally advised the kings and archons and was composed of ex-archons = the Areopagus. Solon in 594/3 was credited with creation of a second boule to prepare the business for the assembly; it consisted of 400 people, one hundred from each of the four tribes. Cleisthenes (508/7) replaced this system with a council of 500, fifty from each of the 10 new tribes. Membership open to all but the lowest of the 4 property classes (i.e. not the Thetes). Appointment was by lot for a year (at least by the mid 5th cent.). The council met everyday except for holidays; members were paid by the late 5th century. The 50 members from one tribe served as the prytaneis (presidents) for 1/10 of the year (the order of service was by lot). One of the tribe's members served as president for the day. No subject could be discussed or resolved on which the boule hadn't put on the agenda for the assembly; the boule could suggest proposals, but didn't have to, and any citizen in the assembly could suggest a proposal on the subject the boule had put forward.

eisphora

The eisphora was a tax imposed on wealthy Athenians during financial crises (e.g., the Peloponnesian War). According to Thuc. 3,19,1, an eisphora was imposed in 428/7 BC for the first time (πρῶτον) in the amount of 200 talents due to the high costs of war. Since an eisphora is already documented (B Z. 17) in the so-called Callias decree (IG I3 52) of 434/3 BC, the πρῶτον in Thuc. apparently must refer to the stated amount of 200 talents (SEG 40,4).

eleutheria kai autonomia

The first signs of freedom as a political concept and the word eleuthería are not to be found prior to the Persian Wars of 480/479 BC. The word autonomia can be used as a synonym for eleuthería and was perhaps . . . supposed to have been coined . . . under the conditions of the Delian League. Following the treaties concluded by Sparta in 418, the cities in the Peloponnese remained autónomoi (Thuc. 5,77,5; 79,1) just as the Greek cities had in the King's Peace of 386 (Xen. Hell. 5,1,31). In the 4th-cent. Athenian League, the members had the status of eleútheroi and autónomoi. Freedom and autonomy continued to be announced by Hellenistic kings and by Rome.

ephebic oath

The institution of the ephebeia . . . can be traced back to the middle of the 5th cent. . . . The Attic ephebeia was probably reformed in 336-35 BC by a law from Eucrates (Lycurg. fr. 5,3) . . . At the age of 18 Athenians were entered into the lists of citizens after checking their personal legal status, and then admitted into the ephebeia by phyle . . . at which time they received athletic and military training . . . more than likely an oath was sworn (Tod 204; Pollux 8,105; Stob. 4,1,48; Lycurg. 76f.; Plut. Alcibiades 15,7) in which the ephebes promised military obedience, to observe the laws and religious rules of the polis, as well as to protect the constitution.

Salamis

The largest island in the Saronic gulf, according to Homer the home of Ajax, it was conquered from Megara by Athens under Peisistratus, and was settled by Attic farmers. S. was made famous by the naval battle in the Persian Wars in 480. In the Peloponnesian War, there was an important Athenian base on it. In 405 the island was devastated by Lysander. In 305 it was captured by Cassander, then regained by Demetrius for Athens. In 262, Antigonus conquered it and until 229 BCE it remained Macedonian.

anabasis

The name given to the retreat, documented by Xenophon (who participated), of the Ten Thousand Greek mercenaries hired by Cyrus to seize the throne of Persia from his brother Artaxerxes. Cyrus was killed and the expedition was a failure. The army then had to march through deserts and over mountains to get out of enemy territory to the coast of the Black Sea (and then across it). c.401, after the end of the Peloponnesian war

thesmophoria

Thesmophoria is a women-only festival in honor of Demter and Kore common to all Greeks, although there was no uniform way of celebration. The most secure evidence comes from Attica: probably only married women were allowed to participate; it took place at the time of autumn sowing and lasted for three days; and the celebration involved obscenity and sacrifice. It has long been believed that the aim of this festival was to promote the fertility of crops, but the fact that only married women were allowed also indicates that in terms of the social function, the festival concerned the definition of gender roles (the gender role thing is what Robert Parker said in the New Pauly but he did not elaborate).

arginusae

Three islands east of Lesbos, site of Athenian naval victory at the very end of the Peloponnesian War. An inexperienced Athenians fleet, including slaves and metics, had been newly raised to lift a blockade of the main force. The veteran Spartan fleet was defeated through the use of novel tactics. When a storm prevented the rescue of Athenian sailors in crippled ships, the assembly ordered the execution of all six strategoi. Spartans sued for peace, but Athens rejected their embassy only to be defeated decisively a year later.

epikleros

Upon the death of an Athenian citizen, if there were no male heirs, any surviving daughters became epikleroi (a term that doesn't quite mean "heiress"). This meant that they could be claimed by their nearest male relatives, even if they were already married, and their new husbands would act as trustees of the property until it could pass to their sons. In Gortyn, and probably in Sparta, when there were sons and daughters, a daughter inherited half as much as a son; when there were only daughters, in Gortyn as in Athens they had to marry within the family, but in Sparta they did not.

cleon

active 430s - 422 - The most influential Athenian politician after 430, and the first prominent representative of the Athenian commercial class (although himself an aristocrat). Cleon opposed Pericles at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, and when P. died from the plague in 429, Cleon went from oppositional speaker to leader and champion of democracy. His policies were anti-nobility and anti-Spartan, and in 427 he urged the Athenians to put to death the entire male population of Mytilene (see the speech in Thucydides book 3, after the Athenians had capitulated). It was probably on his initiative that tribute was doubled in 425. He died at Amphipolis fighting against Spartan forces in 422, allowing for the Peace of Nicias.

phaistos

bronze age palace - Site of a Minoan palace, excavated by Italian archaeologists since 1900. Located in a fertile, resource-rich plain of southern Crete, the earliest signs of human settlement date to the late Neolithic period, and it remained the largest community in the area until about 700 BCE. The latest level of palace construction dates to the mid-sixteenth century and features a common Minoan centralized plan, with an interior courtyard surrounded by buildings. Found within this palace was "The Disc of Phaistos," both sides of which feature an early, untranslated writing system with distinctly Minoan imagery.

demetrius of pharos

d. 214 - Illyrian prince from Pharos who surrendered Corcyra to Rome in the 1st Illyrian War. The Romans rewarded him with power over part of Illyria. He got a bit too big for his britches, though, and tried to "ravage" (OCD's word) other Illyrian cities under Roman control. The Romans got mad and came after him, so he ran to the court of Phillip V of Macedon, where he served until his death. Polybius writes that D. was a bad influence on Phillip.

timoleon

d. 330 BCE - A Corinthian, he made achievements by expelling Dionysius II from Syracuse, put down other tyrants in Sicily and defeated Carthage. It was once believed that after these he established a new democratic institution in Syracuse but this seems unlikely: he himsef had great power probably as strategos autokrator; and he received help from two Corinthians in devising the institution yet in fact Corinthinians had no experience in democracy. During his reign he settled many from mainland Greece in Sicily, where a resurgence was well attested by archaological evidence after a serious decline in the first half of the fourth century. He also brought Corinthian coins into Sicily, which then became the standard coin there.

thrasybulus

d. 388 - (I assume it refers to the Athenian Thrasybulus) He was an eminent democratic politician and commander between the late fifth and early fourth centuries BCE. He made great achievements by helping with the overthrow of an oligarchic coup at Samos, organizing resistence against the oligarchs at Athens, seeking the return of Alcibiades and defeating the Peloponnesian fleet under Mindarus. He was exiled by the Thirty Tyrants but he managed to gather a large group of followers, with which he occupied Parnes and Piraeus and then defeated the troops sent by the tyrants. Later thanks to the amnesty proclaimed at the instance of Sparta, he led his men into Athens and restored democracy. In the Corinthinian War he also played an important role in the revival of Athenian imperialism, although he didn't realize that the imperialistic policy he supported was far beyond Athens' material resources at that time.

lysander

d. 395 - Lysander was a Spartan general, who became the navarch in 407. He won many great victories against the Athenians, but most notably at Aegospotami in 405 where he decimated the Athenian fleet. He then proceeded to blockade Athens until their capitulation in the Spring of 404, effectively ending the Peloponnesian War. He supported the rise of the Thirty in Athens and, later after their ouster, he was made harmost of Athens in a bid to fight the Athenian "democrats." This was stopped by Kings Pausanias and Agis II, who rejected his leading role and instead supported Athenian reconciliation in order to consolidate Sparta's hegemony. Despite this defeat, he was able to use his influence to successfully support Ageislaus' II claim to the crown, but was eventually marginalized by Ageislaus himself. There are unverifiable reports that he attempted to create an elected monarchy in Sparta. He died in 395 at the Battle of Haliartus.

cyrus the younger

d. 401 - Persian prince, Son of Darius II, brother of Artaxerxes II. Darius II gave him command in Asia Minor to support Sparta against Athens during the Peloponnesian War. Cyrus tried to stage a coup to overthrow his brother, who ascended to the throne after Darius II's death, with Greek mercenaries but was unsuccessful. He was defeated and died at the battle of Cunaxa.

brasidas

d. 422 - Important Spartan officer during the early part of the Peloponnesian War. Distinguished himself early in the war by freeing the Messenian town of Methone which had been surrounded by Athenians; appointed as eponymous ephor and militar adviser in 431/430. Most important success was the capitulation of Amphipolis in 424/3, an Athenian colony in Thrace, a strategically located city, before Thucydides (the historian) as general could arrive. Brasidas died in 422, when Cleon arrived in Thrace and they battled at Amphipolis (Cleon also perished in the battle). Brasidas received the heroic honors as "city founder" at Amphipolis.

harmodius

d. 514 - One of the two tyrannicides (the other is his lover, Aristogiton) of Athens. They attempted to kill the Athenian tyrant Hippias and his brother Hipparchus, but only succeeded in killing the latter during the Panathenaic festival (Harmodius died in the process). The tyrant Hippias became much harsher as a result of his brother's murder. After the defeat of the Persians in the early fifth century, the tyrannicides became symbols of the nascent democracy and Greek freedom, tied in with Athens' identity as the liberator of the Greek poleis. A statue group of the tyrannicides was erected on the Athenian Acropolis (taken by the Persians at the sack of Athens and returned later by Alexander the Great). They were also given a public tomb and their genos received public honors in perpetuity.

Ktesias of Knidos

late-5th / early 4th-century historian and physician to Artaxerxes II, whom he accompanied on his campaign against Cyrus the Younger. Wrote a geographical treatise, the Periodos, as well as a Persika that from its fragments appears to have engaged largely with early 4th-century tradition of "Hellenika" history (Xenophon's, the Oxyrhynchus Hellenika). The work is supposed to have extended from the legendary Assyrian king Ninus to the eighth year of the reign of Artaxerxes II. He is famously combative with Herodotus. His account of Persian history is inaccurate in many places.

seisachtheia

lit. 'shaking off of burdens', from at least the 4th cent. Used to denote the abolition or mitigation of debts by Solon. Among ancient authors there is a debate whether it referred to a complete cancellation of debts, or their reduction. Solonic legislation reduced the material burden on the Athenian population in various ways, and it may therefore be sensible not to suppose that the term seisachtheia referred to a single measure.

psephisma

literally a decision made by voting using 'voting stones' (psêphoi) as opposed to voting by show of hands (cheirotonía). Psephisma is the most widespread word for 'decree'. Any kind of meeting could embody its decisions in a psephisma. In nearly all Greek states, the highest decision-making body was the people's assembly (ekklēsía), whose psephismata had to be preceded by a preliminary decision (proboúleuma) of the council.

Philip II

r. 359 - 336 - Father of Alexander the Great and Philip Arrhidaeus, third son of Amyntas III, Philip II was king of Macedon from 359 (or 356) to 336 BCE. In many ways he set the stage for the political history of the Hellenistic period: drawing on Theban and Illyrian military practices (which he observed while he lived as a hostage among these people), he instituted a standing, professional army, consisting primarily of sarissa-armed phalangitai and heavy cavalry; he cemented his alliances with other kings through marriage into their families (here, one might the marriage of Seleucus I and Apame as a parallel); he regularly intervened in the local conflicts between poleis in such a way as extended his hegemony (e.g., the Third and Fourth Sacred Wars); and in his lifetime he developed a cult of personality or ruler cult, which was given sculptural form in the Philippeion at Olympia. He also centralized power in the Macedonian kingdom by having the sons of Macedonian nobles be taken to his court as hostages and be trained as military officers and the king's bodyguards; these youths were called Royal Pages, Paides Basilikoi. After the Battle of Chaeronea in 338, Philip instituted the League of Corinth, which included all Greek states except Sparta and over which Philip ruled as hēgemōn; it was this League that decreed war against the Persians, and after Philip's death it was Alexander, taking over the position of hēgemōn, who led this war, though Philip's army had entered Asia Minor before Philip's assassination in 336.

seleucus I

~355-281, reigning from either ~312 or ~305 - Founder of the Seleucid dynasty. Infantry general under Alexander; after A.'s death, became satrap of Babylon. Fought against Antigonus and his son Demetrius, defeating the latter at Gaza in 312 together with Ptolemy. Expanded his territory, and (with elephant cavalry from India) was instrumental in the defeat of Antigonus in 301 (Battle of Ipsus), further expanding his territory as a result. Founded many cities and annexed more territory, but was assassinated by a member of his retinue in 281 after crossing the Hellespont in an attempt to annex Thrace and Macedonia; his empire fell into crisis. Nicknamed Νικάτωρ, conquerer.

sigeum

Σίγειον: ancient promontory in the Troad and city at the southern tip; colony founded by Mytilene, 8th or 7th century BCE. After a conflict about which Alcaeus wrote poetry, the Athenians occupied Sigeion (late 7th century); after further fighting with the Mytileneans, Peisistratos reconquered the city. After the expulsion of the Peisistratids in 510/9, Hippias went into exile in Sigeion. Member of the Delian league, and maintained ties to Athens through the fourth century. Fought over occasionally in the Hellenistic period, destroyed some time after 168 BCE but before the end of Augustus' reign. The promontory marked the opening of the Hellespont.

sicels

Σικελοί, sometimes also known as Siculi, their Latin name. An Italic people, they colonised Sicily (already populated by small numbers of Ausonians) in the late bronze age/early iron age. Greek colonists drove them to the north and east and into the mountains inland on Sicily. After failed attempts to unite them, they were subsumed into the Greek colonies; they supported Athens during the Sicilian expedition. Their language is tentatively assigned to the Sabellic branch of Italic, which is consistent with ancient traditions that they migrated from central Italy. - late 2nd millennium BCE