cog psych final
Implicit encoding
- Spatial info is implicitly encoded, don't need to try -can recover spatial information even if you did not deliberately attend to all the specific spatial relations at the time of encoding
Perceptual equivalence
- imaging is like seeing with the "mind's eye" - the same visual screen is used. Tomato/leaf/banana/faint H experiment -an image we have generated, it seems to have shape, size, and physical characteristics in the same way that a picture of an object or scene, or the object or scene itself, would contain those physical characteristics -Perky's tomato/leaf/banana experiment
Transformational Agnosia
- inability to recognize objects when they are manipulated -patients are unable to recognize objects from unusual angles, such as a teacup from above. This rare disorder is usually due to damage to the right posterior parietal lobe, which, under Ungerleider and Mishkin's 1982 theoretical framework, would be expected to interrupt knowledge of the spatial orientation of objects.
Divided attention
- monitor two messages simultaneously -divide our cognitive resources (multitask) in order to accomplish several things at the same time
Hemispatial (or unilateral) neglect
- only see half of space while ignoring the other half -ignore or neglect visual information in the side of the VF opposite the lesion
Selective attention
- pay attention to one message while ignore the other -the ability to focus on or select one stimulus in the environment and block out competing stimuli
Stroop task
- the automatic skill of reading interferes with naming ink color in interference condition -Measure the time it takes you, in seconds, to state aloud the number of figures (either X's or written numerals) in each column. The interference condition typically takes longer than a neutral condition, or a faciliatory condition, because it sets in competition two responses to the same stimulus. In order to identify the number of digits in the interference condition, we must inhibit a stronger response (reading the numeral of which the set is composed). Furthermore, the task is designed so that the incorrect response and the correct one are members of the same category, numbers.
Biased Competition theory
-"sticky attention" in hemispatial neglect patients, right visual field "wins" and patients have difficulty disengaging to pay attention to LVF -objects compete for receptive fields; attention pushes the competition toward goal-relevant objects
Pattern recognition
-A term that originated with computer science to describe how incoming raw data—a pattern—is matched to information in memory related to that stimulus. -When we take in sensory input from the world, we need to match that input to a representation stored in memory in order to recognize it.
Indeterminacy
-Images leave out significant details and cannot be re-analyzed for those details the way that pictures can -Pylysyn's argument (descriptional theory)against kosslyn -Can you count tiger stripes?
Representational failure
-Inattentional Blindness -Failure to store information about initial Representation—never have a full or detailed representation of visual scenes (Rensink, O'Regan, & Clark, 1997). Thus, no comparison is possible if object was not attended to in the initial scene. -proposes that target items are either not initially represented in a person's visual array or not retained from one view to the next
Intramodal interference
-Kosslyn: image & perception share a "visual buffer" meaning that imagining and actively watching something will hinder your ability to pay attention to both action. -Kosslyn: image & perception share a "visual buffer"
Integrative Agnosia
-Left or Bilateral occipital-temporal damage 1. Difficulty recognizing objects, but purely in visual domain 2. Can define or recognize objects if presented in verbal, auditory, haptic domains 3. Elementary visual perception which isaccurate enough to copy an objectinability to combine local parts into a global whole - the lack of integrating perceptual wholes within knowledge. Can recognize part of an object but can't combine the part to make a whole. -can discriminate and draw shapes and can also copy objects and more elaborate scenes, such as St. Paul's Cathedral in London. Can recognize parts of objects, but not whole objects. Cannot integrate 2D and 3D forms into whole objects
Mental rotation
-Mentally rotate a visual input to the orientation that is store in memory. -process of imagining an object turning in three-dimensional space
Attention
-Selects sensory information for perceptual processing. -"the concentration of mental effort on sensory or mental events"
Task interference
-Tasks using the same processing modality will interfere with each other more than tasks using different modalities - effect of interference on attentional tasks - automatic processing not affected
Feature detectors
-The ability to detect certain types of stimuli, like movements, shape, and angles, requires specialized cells in the brain called feature detectors. Without these, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to detect a round object, like a baseball, hurdling toward you at 90 miles per hour. -Simple cells that detect features of a stimulus. a process by which specialized nerve cells in the brain respond to specific features of a visual stimulus, such as lines, edges, angle, or movement.
Proofreader's error
-Top-down processing that prevent one from seeing a misspelled word. Solution: read backward -For example, if we read a misspelled word, say, cogitive, enough information might be present to activate the word cognitive, which means that our system will provide enough activation to its component letters to trick us into thinking the word is correctly spelled.
Phonemic restoration effect
-Warren&Warren - missing phonemes are restored by the context of the word. (e.g. *eel, ____ peel - orange, heel - shoe) -The people restored the missing phoneme to the tape. they replaced the cough with the correct word. The context that influenced phonemic restoration occurred at the end of the sentence, after the critical segment of the tape had been presented.
Geons
-component parts of objects -Structural configuration of geons important for recognition -3 geons sufficient to recognize most objects Simple geometric forms (geometric ions). found by breaking the object into its parts at concavities, akavertices (plural of vertex).
Context effects in recognition
-conditions. People were faster to respond to target objects in coherent than scrambled pictures, illustrating that recognizing a scene as a whole can play a role in the recognition of the individual objects that made it up
Temporal/Parietal junction
-damage to TP junction, right inferior parietal lobe, or unilateral brain damage ignore opposite side of space -an area of the brain where the temporal and parietal lobes meet. often ignore the opposite side of space.
Feature analysis
-denote a single component part of a stimulus. first step of pattern recognition -Stimuli broken into component lines
Prefrontal cortex
-executive functions of attention - selective and divided attention, inhibition of non-attended stimuli, use of deliberate cognitive strategies in memory, underactive in people with ADD -part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language
Prosopagnosia
-inability to recognize faces (propospon means face in Greek) -Face blindness, can not recognize faces but can recognize facial features.
Comparison failure
-initial representation WAS stored - failure to compare two representations (initial + changed scene) -proposes that people do represent the richness of visual scenes, but fail to compare the scenes for differences
Functional Equivalence
-mental imagery is functionally equivalent to seeing - capable of zooming in, scanning image -concept that many behaviors of individuals are similar in their meaning because individuals tend to view many situations and stimuli the same way.
Quasi-picture view
-mental images are analog/geometric representations of visual stimuli and are "functional isomorphs" to Euclidean space. (Isomorphic: maintains visual and spatial properties of original stimulus) -Visual information is represented depictionally (like a picture) -images are able to be reinterpreted. "Seeing with mind's eye" -an image functions as if it has visual and spatial characteristics. That is, an image of your mother seems to represent her as being three-dimensional (rather than a 2-D drawing), even though the image itself is not three-dimensional. Given its seeming tri-dimensionality, you can mentally rotate the image of your mother, so that, when she is viewed from the side, it is analogous to having a person in front of you turned to the side.
Capacity models of attention
-no bottleneck of attention per se, more of an attentional pool with limited capacity. Performance declines when need exceeds capacity -The idea that organisms are limited in the amount of cognitive activity that they can carry out at any one time
Spatial equivalence
-part of Finke's principle. representation as pictures, not sentences. Location, size, and difference among objects is preserved in thought -same spatial relations that these states have to each other on an actual map. Spatial equivalence should also mean that if people scan across an image, scanning times will take longer for longer distances
Nodes
-parts of feature nets - nodes at each level have varying thresholds of activation based on frequency -connection point, either a redistribution point or an end point for data transmissions
Dorsal Simultagnosia
-patients only recognize one object out of an array - typically due to bilateral damage to TPJ (Temporal Parietal Junction) -can only attend to one object at a time. tend to latch on to one object in the mix, at the expense of perceiving the other objects. Thus, their attention appears to stick to objects, rather than a particular region of space.
Thresholds of activation
-refer to amount of stimulation needed to cross the "threshold" to activate a node -low thresholds are easy to process
Spreading activation
-related to feature nets - excitatory/inhibitory connections from one level to adjacent levels of feature nets. Note letter positions, the feedback from higher levels (word) to lower levels (letter, feature). Example of top down processing -associative network, in which there are simply connections among related concepts and features. The connections among nodes allow activation to spread from one concept to a related one, and connections can vary in their associative strength, which translates into activation spreading at different speeds. When the node is activated, activation spreads along the links from that node to related conceptual nodes (e.g., NURSE, HOSPITAL, PROFESSION), and to property-related nodes (e.g., INTELLIGENT, CONFIDENT).
Connectionist models
-rely on associative memory -computer model of word recognition - image demons/letter demons scream loudly or softly based on how well the input matches their particular feature/weight of feature can be changed over time depending on experience
Neurological equivalence
-similarity of imaging and seeing, as brain-imaging studies have confirmed that both processes activate overlapping cortical areas -Same area of Auditory Association Area (BA 22) active when listening to music and mentally filling in gaps in music (Kraemer, MacRae, Green & Kelly, 2005)
bigrams
-statistical knowledge of two letter combinations - frequent letter combinations have lower levels of recognition. helps to avoid errors and facilitate word recognition in less-than-optimum circumstances -a pair of consecutive written units such as letters, syllables, or words
Spotlight analogy
-take information and integrate it into a single location (pink triangle, not pink + triangle) -to take information about dimension & integrate it at a single location
Structural equivalence
-the structure of Images is like that of actual perceived objects-They can be re-organized & re-interpreted -the integrity of the shape and details of an object will be maintained (e.g., a German Shepherd will have pointed ears), and the spatial relations of the object parts will mirror the object itself (e.g., the head of the German Shepherd will be above the body, and the tail at the end opposite the head)
Dichotic listening tasks
-two messages piped to separate ears -(two-eared listening) task. There are two sources, or channels, of information that are usually presented through earphones, one message to each ear
Parietal lobe
-visual/spatial attention - dorsal pathway from occipital lobe processes motion. -A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch.
Illusory conjunctions
-when overloaded, people confuse mixture of traits (report a red X when they actually saw a blue X next to a red T) -If features are bound together in a separate stage of processing, as proposed in Treisman's model, then mistakes in binding might occasionally be made. There is the possibility that separate features could be integrated incorrectly
Image scanning
A task in which subjects are asked to shift their focus from one part of an imagined stimulus to another part; the time required depends on the distance traversed- linear relationship
Visual agnosia
Agnosia: inability to recognize objects Prosopagnosia: inability to recognize faces Alexia: inability to recognize words
Automatic vs. effortful processing
Automatic is often unconscious and the mind automatically processes steps and information for the task, effortful requires attention in order to understand and process information. -well learned tasks take up less attentional capacity Automatic: - innate processing: spatial, frequency, temporal processing. NOT affected by depression or arousal, not affected by individual differences in cognition -With time and practice, however, things become easier;requires significantly less attentional capacity Effortful: -Each separate driving component must be consciously attended to; more mistakes, slower
What/Where or Perception/Action systems
Bifurcation of visual systems into --"where:" dorsal (occipitoparietal) pathway (red) -spatial perception -processes information about spatial location -- "what:" ventral (occipitotemporal) pathway (green) -object recognition -identification of objects
Excitatory/inhibitory connections
Excitatory: A link from one node, or one detector, to another, such that activation of one node activates the other. Inhibitory: A link from one node, or one detector, to another, such that activation of one node decreases the activation level of the other. practices by nodes that allow \ / to be recognized as V and not W
Mental imagery
Experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of sensory input.
Inattentional blindness
Failure to detect stimuli that are in plain sight when our attention is focused elsewhere. The Wizard of Oz shows her in ruby slippers, you may have only paid attention to the magical trees and not to what Dorothy was wearing on her feet. Thus, failure to attend to and represent the ruby slippers assured that you would not remember them, even on a short-term basis.
3. Which part of the brain is responsible for face recognition, and how is it dependent on a calculation of the exact dimensions of a person's eyes/nose/mouth?
Fusiform Gyrus Configural information is essential for identifying faces. Pawan Sinha reported he has found that only 12 relational features (e.g., two eyes side by side, eyes above mouth, etc.) are needed for a stimulus to be characterized as a face. Individual features facilitate face identification mainly when those features are distinctive to the person.
Incidental vs. intentional learning
Incidental: -Learning without trying to learn, and often without awareness that learning is occurring. -Learning information without realized Intentional: -Actively learning information -process by which consumers set out to specifically learn information devoted to a certain subject
Form Agnosia
Maintains: ¨Acuity ¨Color ¨Motion Impaired: ¨Shape recognition ¨Matching stimuli ¨Integrating stimuli ¨Copying forms patients who have trouble discriminating or copying basic shapes. These patients have usually suffered severe damage to the primary occipital cortex or the lateral occipital complex in the ventral system. Their deficits are sometimes described as seeing through a peppery mask, as if they can perceive individual features but cannot combine them into simple shapes.
Parallel vs. serial processing
Parallel: -Processing that occur simultaneous -The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. Serial: -Processing that occur one after another. -Solving a problem one step at a time, a relatively slow process in comparison to parallel processing. -ex) 3vs 5 featured faces
Change Blindness
People miss large changes (e.g., people exchanging heads) when the changes occur during saccadic eye movements -failing to notice changes in the environment
Repetition/Semantic priming
Repetition: when the same word or picture is presented as the prime and the target. Semantic: based only on meaning, in which case there is no physical similarity at all between the prime and target. For example, presentation of nurse primes processing of doctor
Simple, complex, hypercomplex cells
Simple: -Sensitive to whether a dark edge appeared on a white background, or a white edge on a black background. -Sensitive to orientation, part of the visual field, and size. -a cell that responds primarily to oriented edges and gratings Complex: -Also sensitive to lines of a given orientation, but are also sensitive to whether the lines are moving in one direction or another. Hypercomplex: -Are responsive to more intricate stimuli, such as two lines at a right angle that form a corner. -Have inhibitory regions at each end, thus maximally respond to lines of a given orientation if they are not too long. End-stopping--decrease in firing to increasingly larger stimuli
Spatial, frequency, temporal processing
Spatial: Dorsal or "Where" stream, parietal Frequency: how many Temporal: time/order
Template matching
The incoming sensory information is compared directly to copies (templates) stored in the long term memory -Holistic matching of stimuli to the stored representation in memory
Receptive field (on/off center cells)
The portion of the retina that activates when light hits it. Once activated, it sends a signal to the brain of what type of light has entered the eye and retina. -The area in neurons that a single sensory receptor, or its afferent nerve fiber, is capable of sensing stimuli. The degree of activation of the cell depends on the extent to which the stimulus bar falls on the receptive field, relative to the inhibitory surround.
Brain Areas V1-V5
V1: Primary Visual Cortex V2: Relays visual signals to other areas V3: Form, & Motion (3a) V4: Form & Color: Activated by objects but not scrambled objects V5: Motion
Conceptual-Propositional Theory
a code that is more like a verbal description than a picture of an object
Analogical representation
a mental representation that has some of the physical characteristics of an object; it is analogous to the object
Occipitoparietal/dorsal system
allows us to accurately orient our motor system to act on objects in the environment
Occipitotemporal/ventral system
deals with the identification of objects
Image generation
imagine image in mind
Propositions
information about objects, object parts, and spatial relationships is stored in a representation that does not contain sensory-specific information, but is similar to an abstract sentence— a description of the information
Word superiority effect
letters are recognized better when presented in words than when presented in isolation
Perceptual reference frame
mental images contain both depiction and perceptual reference frame, imagery only preserves one interpretation
Demand characteristics
people's interpretations of what they think the researcher wants them to do
Masking
process by which a stimulus (usually visual or auditory) is obscured by the presence of another almost simultaneous stimulus
Fusiform gyrus
processes "face-like" stimuli —Fusiform Face Area (FFA) --inferior, medial temporal lobe Area of brain responsible for fine-tuned discrimination of visual stimuli -active as we view faces, processes face-like stimuli, occipital and temporal lobe
Top-down processing
schema/memory-driven -Using prior knowledge to impose on the interpretation of a new stimulus. Eg. proofreading for spelling error by reading backward. -the perceiver's knowledge or expectations play a role in interpreting the incoming stimulus
Transformational equivalence
we mentally manipulate, rotate, and scan images in the same fashion as we do pictures, objects, or scenes. longer RT linked to longer rotation angles -mental rotation (letter rotation)
Object Recognition-by-Components
we use structural descriptions made up of large-scale shapes
Vertex/vertices
where two geons are combined (vertices—plural) -Vertices indicate the intersection of two geons, and allow us to divide or parse an object into geons
