Cognition & Memory Ch. 1-4

Phonological Buffer

"inner ear" A passive storage device that serves as part of the articulatory rehearsal loop. serves as part of the mechanisms ordinarily needed for hearing. In memory rehearsal, however, it is loaded by means of subvocalization. Materials can fade, but they can be refreshed by new covert speech under the control of the central executive.

The pathway leading from occipital cortex to parietal cortex is called the a. "where" system. b. parallel processing system. c. "what" system. d. ventral stream.

"where" system

A "well-formed" letter string is one that a. does not share perceptual similarities with other letter strings. b. contains all the feature information necessary for perception. c. is clearly and legibly written. d. conforms to the usual spelling patterns of English.

*d. conforms to the usual spelling patterns of English.

Which of the following is a problem with the recognition-by-components model? a. Memory for upside-down houses is a bit worse than memory for upright houses. b. Occluded objects cannot be distinguished. c. A "p" cannot be distinguished from a "q." d. Participants are faster to identify a fire hydrant in a picture of a firehouse than in a picture of a kitchen.

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Which condition would produce the most accurate response? a. Participants are asked whether they were shown a "d" or "b" when presented with these letters only. b. Participants are asked whether they were shown a "d" or "b" when presented with the word "LARD." c. Participants are asked whether they were shown a "d" or "b" when presented with the letter string "LRSPD." d. Participants are asked whether they were shown a "d" or "b" when presented with a word in another language.

. Participants are asked whether they were shown a "d" or "b" when presented with the word "LARD."

2 reasons psychologists became disenchanted with introspection/structuralism

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Capgras syndrome: how the temporal lobe/amygdala and right prefrontal cortex contribute

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angel/corner detectors

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center-surround cells

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computer vs. brain: different

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computer vs. brain: similar

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dot detectors

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edge detectors

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face recognition

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frequency in language

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lateral inhibition

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movement detectors

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restoration effect

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schedules of reinforcement

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spatial position

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transposition

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working memory: articulatory rehearsal loop

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working memory: central executive

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Assume that unvoiced sounds have a 60-ms voice-onset time (VOT), and voiced sounds have a 0-ms VOT. Participants in an experiment would be LEAST likely to hear the difference between a 10-ms VOT and a

0-ms VOT

M cells

1 of 2 types of cells within the optic nerve. Provide the input for the LGN's magnocellular cells and are specialized for the detection of MOTION and the perception of depth.

P cells

1 of 2 types of cells within the optic nerve. Provide the main input for the LGN's parvocellular cells and appear to be specialized for spatial analysis and the detailed analysis of form (PATTERN).

A friend tells you the seven-digit passcode to enter her home. How long will this information remain in your working memory if you do not rehearse it?

20-30 seconds - information remains in working memory for approximately 20-30 seconds

From his experiment using partial report task, what was the duration of iconic memory that Sperling determined?

300 milliseconds

The holding capacity of working memory is often said to be _______.

7 chunks

Participants are presented with brief series of letters or numbers and must report them back, in order, immediately. In this situation, most people are able to remember a string of approximately _______ letters or numbers. This gives us some evidence that working memory is _______.

7; limited in size

Which of the following examples illustrates how category typicality and judgments of category membership usually go together?

A German shepherd is recognized to have all of the features typical of a dog and is quickly recognized as such.

In a standard sentence-verification task, which of the following sentences would produce the SLOWEST response time?

A bat is a bird.

Priming based on specific expectations about the identity of the upcoming stimulus produces

A benefit for processing if the expectations are correct but slows processing if the expectations are incorrect.

Binocular disparity

A binocular distance cue - the difference in the retinal images of the two eyes that provides information about depth. Only really useful for close by objects.

Necker cube

A cubed ambiguous figure that can perceived in different ways (not an illusion, but ambiguous).

anarthria

A disorder characterized by an inability to control the muscles needed for ordinary speech. Anarthric individuals cannot speak, although other aspects of language functioning are unimpaired.

ANARTHRIA

A disorder characterized by an inability to control the muscles needed for ordinary speech. Anarthric individuals cannot speak, although other aspects of their language functioning are unimpaired.

Anarthria

A disorder characterized by, an inability to control the muscles needed for ordinary speech. individuals cannot speak, although other aspects of language functioning are unimpaired.

A tachistoscope is a device used to

A display stimuli briefly

aphasia

A disruption to language capacities, often caused by brain damage

BINOCULAR DISPARITY

A distance cue based on the differences between the two eyes' views of the world. This difference becomes less pronounced the farther an object is from the observer.

agnosia

A disturbance in a person's ability to identify familiar objects

apraxia

A disturbance in the capacity to initiate or organize voluntary action, often caused by brain damage

Linear perspective

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.

Texture gradients

A monocular cue where objects closer appear more distinct than those far away

positron emission tomography (PET scanning)

A neuroimaging technique that determines how much glucose (the brain's fuel) is being used by specific areas of the brain at a particular moment in time

computerized axial tomography (CT scanning)

A neuroimaging technique that uses X-rays to construct a precise three-dimensional image of the brain's anatomy

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic fields (created by radio waves) to construct a detailed three-dimensional representation of brain tissue. Like CT scans, MRI scans reveal the brain's anatomy, but they are much more precise than CT scans

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic fields to construct a detailed three-dimensional representation of the activity levels in different areas of the brain at a particular moment in time

CENTER-SURROUND CELL

A neuron in the visual system that has a "donut-shaped" receptive field. Stipulation in the center of the receptive field has one effect on the cell; stimulation in the surrounding ring has the opposite effect.

Which situation is the most difficult (and most dangerous)?

A novice driver talking on a cell phone

thalamus

A part of the lower portion of the forebrain that serves as a major relay and integration center for sensory information

Which does NOT describe a cost of chunking?

A participant is engaging the information in a relatively superficial fashion when chunking.

phonological buffer

A passive storage device that serves as part of the articulatory rehearsal loop. The phonological buffer serves as part of the mechanisms ordinarily needed for hearing. In memory rehearsal, however, the buffer is loaded by means of subvocalization. Materials within the buffer then fade, but they can be refreshed by new covert speech under the control of the central executive

PHONOLOGICAL BUFFER

A passive storage device that serves as part of the articulatory rehearsal loop. The phonological buffer serves as part of the mechanisms ordinarily needed for hearing. In memory rehearsal, however, the buffer is loaded by means of subvocalization. Materials within the buffer then fade, but they can be refreshed by new covert speech under the control of the central executive.

contralateral control

A pattern in which the left half of the brain controls the right half of the body, and the right half of the brain controls the left half of the body

Neural synchrony

A pattern of firing by neurons in which neurons in one brain area fire at the same time as neurons in another area and the brain notices they are firing in response to the same stimulus. Attention plays a key role in this.

CONE

A photoreceptor that is able to discriminate hues and that has high acuity. Cones are concentrated in the retina's fovea and become less frequent in the visual periphery. Often contrasted with rod.

span test

A procedure used for measuring working memory's holding capacity. In newer studies, the operation span test is used

SPAN TEST

A procedure used for measuring working memory's holding capacity. In newer studies, the operation span test is used.

Span Test

A procedure used for measuring working memory's holding capacity. used in newer studies.Have people repeat letters adding one at a time.

electroencephalography

A recording of voltage changes occurring at the scalp that reflect activity in the brain underneath

Capgras syndrome

A relatively rare disorder, resulting from specific forms of brain damage, in which the afflicted person recognizes the people in his or her world but denies that they are who they appear to be. Instead, the person insists, these familiar individuals are well-disguised impostors

CONCURRENT ARTICULATION TASK

A requirement that a research participant speak or mime speech while doing some other task. In many cases, the person is required to say "Tah-Tah-Tah" over and over, or "one, two, three, one, two, three." These procedures occupy the muscles and control mechanisms needed for speech, so they prevent the person from using these resources for subvocalization.

concurrent articulation task

A requirement that someone speak or mime speech while doing some other task. In many cases, the person is required to say "Tah-Tah-Tah" over and over, or "one, two, three, one, two, three." These procedures occupy the muscles and control mechanisms needed for speech, and so they prevent the person from using these resources for subvocalization

Concurrent Articulation Task

A requirement that someone speak or mime speech while doing some other task. In many cases, the person is required to say "Tah-Tah-Tah" over and over, or "one, two, three, one, two, three." These procedures occupy the muscles and control mechanisms needed for speech, and so they prevent the person from using these resources for subvocalization.

limbic system

A set of brain structures including the amygdala, hippocampus, and parts of the thalamus. The limbic system is believed to be involved in the control of emotional behavior and motivation, and it also plays a key role in learning and memory

hypothalamus

A small structure at the base of the forebrain that plays a vital role in the control of motivated behaviors such as eating, drinking, and sexual activity

lesion

A specific area of tissue damage

If a researcher applies mild electric current to a specific area of an animal's right hemisphere primary motor projection area, which of the following is likely to happen?

A specific movement of a body part on the left side of the animal

hippocampus

A structure in the temporal lobe that is involved in the creation of long-term memories and spatial memory

Parallel processing (pg76)

A system in which many different steps are going on simultaneously. Advantages: speed, mutual influence The brain divides what it sees into 4 components: color, motion, shape & depth

Serial processing

A system in which steps are carried out one at a time.

WORKING-MEMORY SYSTEM

A system of mental resources used for holding information in an easily accessible form. The central executive is at the heart of this system, and the executive then relies on a number of low-level assistants, including the visuospatial buffer and the articulatory rehearsal loop.

Working-Memory System

A system of mental resources used for holding information in an easily accessible form. The central executive is at the heart of this system, and the executive then relies on a number of low-level assistants, including the visuospatial buffer and the articulatory rehearsal loop.

working-memory system

A system of mental resources used for holding information in an easily accessible form. The central executive is at the heart of this system, and the executive then relies on a number of low-level assistants, including the visuospatial buffer and the articulatory rehearsal loop.

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

A technique in which a series of strong magnetic pulses at a specific location on the scalp causes temporary disruption in the brain region directly underneath this scalp area

Single-cell recording

A technique through which investigators can record the pattern of electrical changes within a single neuron, moment by moment

glia

A type of cell found (along with neurons) in the central nervous system. Glial cells have many functions, including the support of neurons, the repair of neural connections in case of damage, and a key role in guiding the initial development of neural connections. A specialized type of glia also provide electrical insulation for some neurons, allowing much faster transmission of neural signals

BIPOLAR CELL

A type of neuron in the eye. Bipolar cells receive their input from the photoreceptors and transmit their output to the retinal ganglion cells.

TRANSCENDENTAL METHOD

A type of theorizing first proposed by the philosopher Immanuel Kant. To use this method, an investigator first observes the effects or consequences of a process and then asks: What must the process have been in order to bring about these effects?

transcendental method

A type of theorizing first proposed by the philosopher Immanuel Kant. To use this method, you first observe the effects or consequences of a process and then ask, What must the process have been in order to bring about these effects?

Transcendental Method (pg 13)

A type of theorizing first proposed by the philosopher Immanuel Kant. To use this method, you first observe the effects or consequences of a process and work backwards and ask, What must the process have been in order to bring about these effects? "inference to best explanation" modern science

Olivia has sustained damage to the prefrontal area. As a result, she is most likely to have

A variety of problems, including problems planning and implementing strategies

Acuity

Ability to see fine detail. Much higher in cones than rods.

Attention is best characterized as a(n)

Achievement

Dr. Hout has fMRI evidence about the role of the FFA in visual processing. What should he do next?

Acquire evidence from another method, like CT, TMS

Researchers using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) find activity in the fusiform face area (FFA) when participants are viewing faces. This means that FFA:

Activity is correlated with recognizing faces

Which of the following is FALSE with regard to mistaken introspections?

After-the-fact reconstructions and true introspections are easily distinguishable by the person doing the introspection.

Which of the following systems is responsible for achieving and maintaining an alert state in the brain?

Alerting

A late selection view of attention suggests that

All inputs are fully processed; however, only the attended input reaches consciousness

William James

American psychologist (functionalist) who focused on consciousness ("the stream of consciousness") and cognitions

This structure is NOT visible when viewing an image of an intact brain:

Amygdala (pg 28)

Area MT

An area in the visual cortex that contains neurons that are acutely sensitive to direction and speed of movement (damage --> akinetopsia)

Area V4

An area in the visual cortex that contains neurons that fire most strongly to certain colours and shapes.

CONJUNCTION ERROR

An error in perception in which a person correctly perceives what features are present but misperceives how the features are joined, so that (for example) a red circle and a green square might be perceived as a red square and a green circle.

neuron

An individual cell within the nervous system

Bob suffered brain damage and now has difficulty recognizing objects. He was shown a clock and was asked to draw it, but drew only a square. However, when asked to draw a clock from memory, he was able to do it. Bob is likely suffering from

Apperceptive agnosia

Apperceptive agnosia and associative agnosia both involve difficulties with object recognition; however, they differ in that

Associative agnosia involves problems linking visual forms together.

Imagine you find that words that were initially presented in the context of a sentence show stronger priming in an indirect memory task than words that were presented alone. Keeping in mind what you know about process purity, which of the following can you conclude from this?

At least one kind of memory was affected, but beyond that it is unclear.

Each area of the brain does its own job and neural activity tends to be highly transient. _______ is what enables us to sustain the activity in these various systems.

Attention

Neuron A communicates with neuron B. The ________ of neuron A forms a synapse with the ________ of neuron B.

Axon terminal; dendrite

Participants are shown a visual stimulus for just 30 milliseconds (ms) and are then asked, "Was there an E or a K in the stimulus?" We would expect the best performance if the stimulus is

BARK

Which of the following is the LEAST accurate statement about behaviorism?

Behaviorism is primarily designed to explain why organisms believe their behavior is justified or reasonable.

Which is the clearest example of what psychologists call an action slip?

Being distracted while driving to the mall and turning the wrong way down the street you take every day to school.

Capgras syndrome

Belief that close family members have been kidnapped and replaced by identical looking imposters

subcortical

Beneath the surface (i.e., beneath the cortex

English nonwords (e.g., "HICE") are easier to perceive than strings of letters not resembling English words (e.g., "RSFK") because

Bigram detectors for more-common letter combinations fire more readily.

Participants are shown a pair of similar pictures separated by a blank interval. The pictures are identical except for a single aspect (e.g., a man is wearing a hat in one scene but not in the other). In these kinds of tasks, participants often find it hard to detect the change. This phenomenon is known as change

Blindness

Imagine you are reading a puzzling email from a friend. You identify the words, but have a hard time "reading between the lines." In this example, word identification involves ________ processing while "reading between the lines" involves ________ processing.

Bottom-up ; top-down

Positron emission tomography (PET) scans show

Brain areas that are currently consuming a particularly high level of glucose

behaviorist theory

Broad principles concerned with how behavior changes in response to different configurations of stimuli (including stimuli often called "rewards" and "punishments"). In its early days, behaviorist theory sought to avoid mentalistic terms

Behaviorist Theory (pg 11)

Broad principles concerned with how behavior changes in response to different configurations of stimuli (including stimuli often called "rewards" and "punishments"). In its early days, this theory sought to avoid mentalistic terms. First half of 20th century. The way people act, feel, guided by how they understand or interpret situation.

BEHAVIORIST THEORY

Broad principles concerned with how behavior changes in response to different configurations of stimuli (including stimuli that are often called "rewards" and "punishments"). In its early days, behaviorist theory sought to avoid mentalistic terms (terms that referred to representations or processes inside the mind).

Consider the speech of the following two patients. Patient A: "I...w-w-w-...went...um...th." Patient B: "Then, the zoo did very wildly to him, and before all he then did again to her. It did too him and her and them and all from here." Patient A probably suffers from damage to _______ resulting in a _______ aphasia. Patient B probably suffers from damage to _______ resulting in a _______ aphasia

Broca's area, nonfluent; Wernicke's area, fluent

Which statement about visual attention is MOST accurate?

By priming our detectors, we make expected stimuli more likely to be noticed and remembered.

The ________ contains the machinery necessary to keep the cell alive and functioning properly.

Cell body

Bipolar cells

Cells in the retina that connect photoreceptors to ganglion cells

Ganglion cells

Cells spread evenly across the retina, which are excited by bipolar cells. All these axons converge to form the optic nerve.

Center surround cells

Cells that fire one way to light presented to the central region of the receptive field and the opposite way to light presented to the surrounding ring (note: if both center and periphery are stimulated at same time, they cancel out so its the same as if there was no stimulus at all)

Orientation-specific visual fields

Cells that fire to specific orientations - they have a preferred orientations that they will fire most for.

Which of the following is true with respect to neurons in the visual regions of the brain?

Certain cells are specialized for detecting dots, edges, and specific line orientations.

event-related potential

Changes in an EEG in the brief period just before, during, and after an explicitly defined event, usually measured by averaging together many trials in which this event has occurred

Neuron X sends a signal that is picked up and processed by Neuron Y. This between-cell communication occurs via

Chemical transmission between Neuron X and and Neuron Y

Communication between neurons is ________, while communication within a neuron is ________.

Chemical; electrical

Piaget

Cognitive development of children

Patty is asked to find a red square among a display that also contains blue squares and red circles. This task requires what kind of search process?

Combination

The corpus callosum is a large

Commissure

Which of the following statements is FALSE?

Conscious processing is more efficient than unconscious processing but is also relatively unsophisticated.

Barlett

Constructive processes in memory

thalamus

Controls the way emotions are expressed

Which of the following statements about creative thought is most likely to be true?

Correct The "aha" experience implies only that we've discovered a new approach to a problem, not that we've discovered the right solution.

Crystallized intelligence _______ with age whereas fluid intelligence _______ with age.

Correct increases; decreases

Intelligence as measured by IQ is most similar in

Correct monozygotic twins.

Wallas argued that creative thought proceeds through four stages in which order?

Correct preparation, incubation, illumination, verification

Most of the brain's structures are hidden deep inside the ________, which is the outer, visible layer.

Cortex

SUBVOCALIZATION

Covert speech in which one goes through the motions of speaking, or perhaps forms a detailed motor plan for speech movements, but without making any sound.

subvocalization

Covert speech, in which you go through the motions of speaking, or perhaps form a detailed motor plan for speech movements, but without making any sound.

Subvocalization

Covert speech, in which you go through the motions of speaking, or perhaps form a detailed motor plan for speech movements, but without making any sound. "inner voice" for rehearsal loop

Which of the following statements is true?

Creativity may result from the right combination of ordinary processes.

Complete the analogy: Incoming is to outgoing as ________ is to ________.

Dendrite; axon

Monocular distance cues

Depth cues that depend only on what each eye sees by itself.

Gestalt principles

Describe the top-down processing that organizes sensory information into distinct forms (similarity, proximity, good continuation, closure, simplicity)

Individuals with a lesion to the parietal lobe perform normally when asked to search for a single feature in a display (e.g., find the round shape) but have trouble when asked to find, for example, the "blue, round shape" among other shapes that are blue (but not round) and round (but not blue). What conclusion do these findings support?

Detection of features is separate from the association of those features.

Akinetopsia

Disorder in which patient is unable to see objects in motion - as if they're lagging in time.

Smaller

Distant objects produce a ___________ (smaller/larger) image than do nearby objects of the same size.

Studies looking at electrical activity in the brain suggest that the processing steps for attended stimuli and unattended stimuli are

Distinguishable around 80 ms after stimuli presentation

Tolman

Early behaviorist who emphasized cognitive maps, even in the study of rats in a maze

In a study of visual selection, participants were shown a video of people throwing and catching a ball. Some of the people were wearing white shirts and some were wearing black shirts. Participants were asked to attend only to the group of people wearing white shirts and count the number of times they threw the ball. In this study, participants

Easily completed the task, but in the process failed to notice some peculiar events that occurred

What's the difference between echoic memory and iconic memory?

Echoic memory lasts for number of seconds, rather than a fraction of a second

Mistakes in word reading occur under a feature-net model of recognition. This results because the feature net encourages ________ over ________.

Efficiency ; accuracy

The water-jar problem, in which participants are given three jars of different sizes and need to use those jars to come up with a certain volume of water, has been used to demonstrate

Einstellung

Which of the following statements is FALSE?

Elements of a particular episode are stored in a "file" that separates them from elements of other episodes.

Among its other functions, the amygdala seems to serve as a(n)

Emotional evaluator or threat detector

right hemisphere

Emotional, intuitive half of the brain; artistic or creative skills; recognition of faces

Which of the following is FALSE with regard to the role of emotions in decision making?

Emotions have little place in the reasoned process of decision making.

Which statement pertaining to the overall state of memory is FALSE?

Errors in memory are more common than accurate memories.

Conjunction errors

Errors in which person correctly detects features present in a visual display, but makes mistakes as to how the features are bound together. Occurs with lack of attention.

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic distinguishing experts in a particular domain from novices in that domain?

Experts rely more heavily on the working-backwards strategy.

"Executive control cannot override automaticity" is a

FALSE statement about automatic tasks

"You can divide attention if the tasks are very similar" is a

FALSE statement because attention is limited in many ways

Damage to the ________ is likely to cause problems with precise eye movements.

FOREBRAIN????? PARIETAL LOBES??

Which is NOT part of the evidence for a dissociation between familiarity and source memory?

Familiarity is promoted by creating a link between the test item and the setting; source memory is promoted by focusing on the material to be learned.

Distance cues

Features of a stimulus that indicate an object's position

The cortex makes up the surface of what brain structure?

Forebrain

Which of the following types of processing for a target word will probably lead to the BEST memory performance?

Generating a sentence that uses the target word.

The term "geons" is short for

Geometric ions

In a tachistoscopic procedure, a word is likely to be more difficult to recognize if it

Has an unusual spelling pattern

Why might someone have a hard time solving the problem of how to support a candle on a wall?

He or she had trouble seeing past the most salient functions of the available tools.

Unconscious inference

Helmholtz's idea that some of our perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions that we make about the environment - for example, the inverse relationship between size and distance.

How does memory search in highly creative people differ from memory search in everyone else?

Highly creative people are better at making novel associations.

Which of the following was NOT one of the problems associated with introspection as a research technique?

How people react to a stimulus is heavily influenced by past experience.

What would be an example of a speech error that most directly shows the effect of an incorrect morpheme choice?

I have classifying many different species on plants.

A patient with visual agnosia will probably show an inability to

Identify common objects in plain view

Which of the following is TRUE of covariation?

Illusory covariations sometimes generate prejudice towards groups of people.

Lindsie participated in an fMRI experiment. The researchers found high activity levels in visual areas when she was looking at an image and high activity in those same areas when she was ________.

Imagining the image

Veronica wanted to go to the grocery store but was out of paper for writing a shopping list. She came up with several possible ways to remember what she needed to buy (listed below). Which of her ideas is NOT a simple mnemonic strategy?

Imagining what she can cook with all of the items on the list and imagining what all the food would taste like.

The task of shadowing involves

Immediately repeating, word for word, the contents of a message

Based on past research about explicit and implicit memory, which of the following patterns would you MOST expect to find?

In a word-stem-completion task, people are more likely to produce a word they have recently seen, even if they do not remember seeing it, than an equally plausible word they have not seen recently.

Which of the following statements is FALSE?

In the primary somatosensory projection area, the larger the physical size of a body area, the more cortical area is devoted to it.

Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

In the thalamus. Receives information from the optic nerve and transmit it to the primary projection area for vision in the occipital lobe.

Where does the "attentional spotlight" reside in the brain?

In the visual system / occipital lobe

Which of the following is NOT true about Rosch's prototype theory of category membership

In this theory, the boundaries of the category are specified, rather than the center of the category

Participants are instructed to fixate on a point on a computer screen and report on a "+" sign that appears off to one side. After several trials, the fixation point is replaced by a new shape, but the participants do not notice this change. This is a study of

Inattentional blindness

What is the CLEAREST advantage of connecting new information to prior knowledge in several different ways?

It allows the information to be accessed from multiple retrieval paths.

Which of the following claims is true of the response selector?

It can time-share between multiple tasks, launching responses as needed.

What is an advantage of trying to learn something using deep (meaning-related) processing rather than strategies like mnemonics?

It creates more retrieval paths for the memory.

What is the main reason why both late and early selection models can be true?

It depends on how many resources are consumed by a task.

Which statement about working memory is FALSE?

It functions mainly as a storage container.

When people can tell us which things they actually remember and which they just know, what advantage does this give us?

It gives us some indication of which memories are more likely to be true.

Which of the following statements applies to expectation-based priming but not to stimulus-based priming?

It has a cost attached.

Which of the following is NOT true of speech segmentation?

It is made easier by the process of coarticulation, where each phoneme overlaps with the ones before and after it.

What is an advantage for conscious, as opposed to unconscious, performance?

It is much more flexible.

The bigram CO is more common in English than CQ, which makes identifying CORN more likely than identifying CQRN. According to feature nets, how is knowledge of bigram frequency stored?

It is not explicitly stored anywhere

Some researchers have compared visual attention to a searchlight beam sweeping across the visual field. Which of the following claims about this beam is NOT currently supported by evidence?

It is possible to split the beam of visual attention, so that two nonadjacent positions are both within the beam

Why does statistical training have an effect on judgment and reasoning?

It makes it easier to for us trigger System 2.

How does attention help solve the binding problem?

It narrows the possible sources from which perceptual cues could be arriving at a given moment.

Why does elaborative encoding facilitate recall?

It provides many potential retrieval paths.

What is the purpose of using a mask in word recognition tasks?

It serves to stop participants from continuing to process the stimulus.

What prediction could you make on the basis of the "recognition-via-multiple-views" approach to object recognition?

It will be harder to recognize an object from some vantage points than from others.

Which of the following is true?

Just because people use prototypes does not mean that is the only information available to them.

Which of the following concerns is NOT addressed by adopting a cognitive approach to the study of psychology?

Just because something happens in a laboratory experiment does not mean it necessarily happens that way in real-life settings.

Seligman

Learned helplessness. strict behaviorist who transitioned to cognitive.

Retina

Light sensitive tissue that lines the back of the eyeball

Which of the following are most crucial for the perception of movement? a. P cells in the optic nerve and parvocellular cells in the LGN b. P cells in the optic nerve and magnocellular cells in the LGN c. M cells in the optic nerve and magnocellular cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) d. M cells in the optic nerve and parvocellular cells in the LGN.

M cells in the optic nerve and magnocellular cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

Which of the following are most crucial for the perception of movement?

M cells in the optic nerve, and magnocellular cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)

Which of the following regions in visual cortex is most likely to show abnormalities in a patient with akinetopsia? a. MT b. PO c. V1 d. V4

MT

IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804)

Made major contributions to many fields, and his transcendental method enabled him to ask what qualities of the mind make experience possible.

A synapse is:

Made up of the end of one neuron's axon, another neuron's receiving membrane, and the gap between these two

Which of the following experimental results is LEAST likely to be found?

Made-up names heard before are judged to be famous people's names on a test immediately following initial presentation.

Biederman's recognition by components (RBC) model

Makes use of geon detectors, which in turn trigger detectors for geon assemblies

In dichotic listening experiments, some aspects of the unattended message seem to leak through and are heard despite the participant's intention to ignore the message. Which of the following statements reflects what is LEAST likely to leak through in this fashion?

Material that is easily distinguishable from the attended message in its semantic content

Which of the following is a problem with the recognition-by-components (RBC) model?

Memory for upside-down houses is a bit worse than memory for upright houses.

Which of the following is a problem with the recognition-by-components model?

Memory for upside-down houses is a bit worse than memory for upright houses.

All of the following statements accurately describe the effects of mnemonics EXCEPT:

Mnemonics facilitate multiple connections between new material and prior knowledge.

Pictorial cues

Monocular depth cues that create an impression of depth on a flat surface.

Recordings from neurons in area V4 of the visual cortex are

More responsive to attended inputs than unattended inputs

Which of the following statements about generativity is FALSE?

Morphemes can be added to words in any order.

In one experiment, participants were repeatedly shown two lines and asked to judge which line was longer. Meanwhile, black dots appeared randomly on the other parts of the screen during each trial. For some trials, the dots moved to create "fins," as shown in Figure 4.3 in the textbook. Which of the following results were found?

Most of the participants reported the top line as longer, even though the lines are equal in length.

Which of the following is NOT part of how the binding problem is solved?

Much of the information is combined in a separate area of the brain.

Which of the following is NOT part of how the binding problem is solved? a. Attention directed toward the item being perceived aids binding. b. Much of the information is combined in a separate area of the brain. c. Cells from the different systems oscillate together in the same rhythm. d. Systems have their own spatial maps, which they can align together.

Much of the information is combined in a separate area of the brain.

TORSTEN WIESEL AND DAVID HUBEL

Much of what we know about the visual system derives from the pioneering work done by David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel. This pair of researchers won the 1981 Nobel Prize for their discoveries. (The Nobel Prize was shared with Roger Sperry for his independent research on the cerebral hemispheres).

The available data from patients with brain damage to circuits controlling attention indicate that

Multiple brain mechanisms are responsible for the control of attention

"Practice means that the response selector is no longer needed" is:

NOT a good reason on why practice can improve performance.

A feature net is a

Network of cognitive "detectors" organized in hierarchical layers

Enables us with some methods, to scrutinize the precise structure of the brain and with other methods, to track the moment-by-moment pattern activation or activitiy levels within specfically defined brain areas.

Neuroimaging techniques (pg 19)

Which of the following is an example of a prescriptive rule of grammar?

Never end a sentence in a preposition.

similarity

Objects that are similar in appearance are more likely to be perceived as belonging in the same group.

Bandura

Observational learning occurs immediately through observation, often without reward, not just gradually through operant conditioning

WILHELM WUNDT (1832-1920)

Often regarded as the "father of experimental psychology."

Which of the following claims is FALSE?

Once people rely on prototypes, they no longer use exemplars for judging category membership.

ARTICULATORY REHEARSAL LOOP

One of the low-level assistants hypothesized as being part of the working-memory system. This loop draws on subvocalized (covert) speech, which serves to create a record in the phonological buffer. Materials in this buffer then fade, but they can be refreshed by another cycle of covert speech.

articulatory rehearsal loop

One of the low-level assistants hypothesized as part of the working-memory system. This loop draws on subvocalized (covert) speech, which serves to create a record in the phonological buffer. Materials in this buffer then fade, but they can be refreshed by another cycle of covert speech

Articulatory Rehearsal Loop

One of the low-level assistants hypothesized as part of the working-memory system. This loop draws on subvocalized (covert) speech, which serves to create a record in the phonological buffer. Materials in this buffer then fade, but they can be refreshed by another cycle of covert speech.

commissure

One of the thick bundles of fibers via which information is sent back and forth between the two cerebral hemispheres

midbrain

One of the three main structures (along with the forebrain and the hindbrain) of the brain; the midbrain plays an important role in coordinating movements, and it contains structures that serve as "relay" stations for information arriving from the sensory organs

hindbrain

One of the three main structures (along with the forebrain and the midbrain) of the brain; the hindbrain sits atop the spinal cord and includes several structures crucial for controlling key life functions

forebrain

One of the three main structures (along with the hindbrain and the midbrain) of the brain; the forebrain plays a crucial role in supporting intellectual functioning

cerebral hemisphere

One of the two hemispherical brain structures—one on the left side, one on the right—that constitute the major part of the forebrain in mammals

Which of the following is NOT true about heuristics?

One way to ensure error-free decisions is to use the typicality heuristic.

Given current evidence, what is the most likely impact of language on thought?

One's language impacts one's thought indirectly by impacting memory and attention.

On one trial of an experiment, a participant is shown the sequence GWXT. On a different trial, the participant is shown the sequence PAFE. On the basis of prior research, we should expect that

PAFE will be easier to perceive than GWTX because detectors for PA and FE are likely to be well primed

figure/ground organization

Part of a stimulus appears to stand out as an object (figure) against a less prominent background (ground)

Which condition would produce the most accurate response?

Participants are asked whether they were shown a "d" or "b" when presented in the word "LARD."

Which condition would produce the most accurate response?

Participants are asked whether they were shown a "d" or "b" when presented with the word "LARD."

Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding the perception of briefly presented words?

Participants are better at recognizing words that were recently seen.

In a tachistoscopic procedure, participants are shown the sequence NACL. Evidence indicates that

Participants are likely to misperceive the sequence, reading it as if it were a common letter pattern, such as NAIL

Which group would perform the BEST on a memory test?

Participants engaged in deep processing without previous warning of a memory test.

In one experiment, participants were shown a stimulus preceded by a neutral cue, a correct prime, or a misleading prime. For some participants, the primes were usually correct (high validity), and for others they were usually misleading (low validity). Which of the following was NOT a result of this experiment?

Participants in the high-validity condition showed no difference between neutral and mislead trials, demonstrating that there is no cost of priming.

The text describes one study in which some participants were asked to come up with 6 examples of when they had been assertive in the past and others were asked to come up with 12 examples. Which of the following best describes the results of this study?

Participants who came up with fewer examples judged themselves to be more assertive.

Participants are asked to report the shape of a visual stimulus that appears on the left side of a screen. Simultaneous with the presentation of this target stimulus, a second visual stimulus is flashed on the screen. Based on our understanding of inattentional blindness, which of the following is NOT sufficient to make the participants notice the second stimulus?

Participants' eyes are oriented toward the place where the second stimulus appears.

Which of the following is evidence of a double dissociation, suggesting differing underlying neural systems?

Patients with agnosia can recognize faces but not objects, while patients with prosopagnosia show the opposite pattern.

The existence of "bigram detectors" helps to explain which of the following?

People are more likely to recognize "TICE" when briefly presented than "EITC."

The existence of "bigram detectors" helps to explain which of the following?

People are more likely to recognize the letters "TICE" when they are briefly presented than the letters "EITC."

What do patients suffering from unilateral-neglect syndrome demonstrate about visual attention?

People have both space-based and object-based attention.

Which of the following is NOT true of people's reasoning about natural kinds and artifacts?

People tend to assume that the properties of artifacts are more predictable than properties of natural kinds.

Which of the following is TRUE about decision making?

People tend to overestimate how much they will later regret their errors.

Which of the following is FALSE with regard to the confirmation bias?

People tend to take disconfirming evidence at face value.

Which of the following is evidence in support of linguistic relativity?

People who speak languages with richer color vocabularies may perceive colors differently.

Which of the following is FALSE about autobiographical memories?

People will bias recollection of past events away from current characteristics.

Mach bands

Perception of a thin dark band on the dark side of a light-dark border and a thin light band on the light side of the border. These bands are an illusion because they occur even though corresponding intensity changes do not exist. Caused by edge enhancement.

Which of the following claims about working memory is NOT accurate?

Performance in working-memory tasks does require some focus but is not disrupted by relatively mindless tasks such as saying "tah-tah-tah" aloud while holding items in working memory.

Cones

Photoreceptors that are less sensitive than rods and need more incoming light to operate. Sensitive to color. 3 types that fire to different colors. Also, these enable you to discern fine detail.

Rods

Photoreceptors that are sensitive to low levels of light and play an essential role for moving in semidarkness. Can distinguish between intensities of light, but not colour. are color blind

_______ rules allow us to generate a sentence's ultimate meaning.

Phrase structure

Which of the following is NOT true regarding recall performance?

Physical context is more important to recall than psychological context.

Which of the following is a FALSE statement about the memory strategy of "chunking"?

Practice with chunking can greatly increase the actual size of an individual's working memory.

An experienced driver can drive while holding a relatively complex conversation. This combination of activities is difficult, however, for a novice driver. Which of the following explanations most likely explains the difference?

Practicing a task leads to a decline in the resource demands for that task

Top-down mechanisms suggest that

Processing can be driven by knowledge and expectations.

Chomsky

Psycholinguistics and "innate grammar"

Which of the following is a way that cognitive psychology is DIFFERENT from physics?

Psychologists must take into account the way participants interpret their study.

What is the most precise explanation for why many aspects of psychology (and most of cognitive psychology) rely on inferential methods?

Psychology often demands hypotheses about processes that cannot be observed directly in order to explain the capacities and the behaviors that we can observe.

left hemisphere

Rational, logical half of the brain; involved in tasks that require logic, order, critical thinking or analysis.

Which is the BEST example of "encoding specificity"?

Reading the word "washed" but later failing to realize that, as part of this presentation, the word "ash" has also been viewed.

The efficiency of a feature-net model occasionally leads to errors. We could avoid making word-recognition mistakes if we scrutinized each letter. Why is this a suboptimal strategy (and not the one we use)?

Reading would be very slow

A study has a "2x2" design in which half of the participants read a passage in a boat and the other half read the same passage on a train, and then they are tested for recall of the passage in either the environment they learned in or the other environment. Based on previous studies, what results would you expect?

Recall performance would be best for people whose testing environment matched their learning environment.

Process of Visual Perception

Reception: Light enters through the cornea. It then passes through the pupil, the hole in the middle of the iris. The lens then focuses the light on the retina, which contains the photo receptors- Light sensitive cells called rods and cones. Transduction: Electro-magnetic energy (light) is converted into electro-chemical impulses by the rods and cones. This allows the visual information to travel along the fibers of the optic nerve to the brain. Transmission: Electro-magnetic impulses travel from the optic nerve to the primary visual cortex, located in the occipital lobe (at the back of the brain). Selection: The image is broken up by specialised cells called Feature Detectors. Feature detectors are cells that individually respond to lines of certain lengths or angles. This occurs in both the optic nerve and primary visual cortex. Organization: Visual information is reorganised in the visual cortex, so that we can make sense of it. We do this by using certain visual principles, such as perceptual contancies, Gestalt principles and depth and distance cues. Interpretation: This is the process whereby the visual stimulus/object is given meaning. The temporal lobe identifies what the object is, by using both oncoming information, as well as memory and prior knowledge, motives, experiences and context. The information is also sent to the parietal lobe, which tells us where the object is in space.

Which of the following conclusions can be drawn from the existing data on face recognition?

Recognition of faces is heavily dependent on orientation.

Which of the following statements is true about the recognition of inverted faces?

Recognition of inverted faces is harder than for upright faces

primary projection areas

Regions of the cortex that serve as the brain's receiving station for sensory information (sensory projection areas) or as a dispatching station for motor commands (motor projection areas)

Which of the following strategies might you suggest to a child who is having trouble remembering a list of things?

Repeat the list over and over either inside the head or out loud; either will be very effective.

Which of the following pieces of evidence would NOT be consistent with claims about the articulatory rehearsal loop?

Repeating a nonsense syllable over and over interferes with the ability to hold a sequence of abstract shapes in working memory.

A participant reads a list of words in which the word "elephant" appears several times. Later, the participant tachistoscopically views another list of words. When the word "elephant" appears in the second list, the participant's response rate is faster than for other words not found on the previous list. This effect is called

Repetition priming

Assistants

Responsible for solely storing info. Both the articulatory loop and the visuospatial sketch pad are involved in storing information.

The auditory cortex follows the principle of contralateral control. Thus, the:

Right temporal lobe receives most of its input from the left ear.

A patient might elect to have split-brain surgery, which involves

Severing the corpus callosum

Kate has a split brain. Her doctor briefly presents the word "hammer" to only her left visual field and then asks her what she saw. Which set of responses is Kate most likely to give?

She will say she doesn't know what word appeared but she will be able to identify the object with her left hand.

smooth pursuit movements

Slow, tracking movements of the eyes designed to keep a moving object aligned with the fovea.

Which event will improve long-term memory performance during a free-recall task?

Slowing down the presentation of the list.

Which of the following is NOT supportive of the claim that perception is in the "eye of the beholder" and not in the stimulus itself?

Some cells are specialized to detect only horizontal bars in the environment.

Which of the following claims about false memories is INCORRECT?

Some false memories can be implanted in children, but not ones about major traumatic events.

If the corpus callosum is cut, what will happen to the two hemispheres of the brain?

Some information will be exchanged by other commissures.

Which of the following facts is explained equally well by prototype and exemplar-based theories?

Some items appear to be more typical of a category than others.

Patients with unilateral neglect ignore one side of their visual field. This problem illustrates the importance of

Space-based perception

Photoreceptors

Specialized neural cells that respond directly to incoming light. 2 types: rods and cones

Wilhelm Wundt

Structuralism/introspection

Lens

Structure in the eye that focuses light rays on the retina, along with the cornea. Surrounded by a band of muscle. When muscle tightens, lens buldges (nearby objects). When muscle relaxes, lens flattens (far objects).

Context influences perception

THE HAT example. A looks the same because the context leads you to certain expectations of what the letter is

Participants are shown the letter-string TPUM for 30 ms and asked to identify what they saw. If they are going to answer incorrectly, which response are they most likely to give?

TRUM

Recognition errors (like mistaking CQRN for CORN) lead us to what conclusion about feature nets?

TThe interactive nature of feature nets usually allows us to identify stimuli, but can also lead to errors.

The fusiform face area (FFA) is known to be an area that is specifically responsive to faces. Which of the following statements is also true about the FFA?

Tasks requiring other subtle distinction within a category (e.g., identifying different birds or cars) also produce high levels of activation in this area.

Perceptual constancy

Term referring to the fact we perceive the constant properties of objects in the world (sizes, shape, brightness)

Participants in a tachistoscopic procedure are shown the sequence CQRN. Participants misperceive this string as CORN. In a bigram feature-net account, which of the following statements probably does NOT contribute to this effect?

The CQRN detector is only partially activated at the word level.

Amygdala is included in what system in the brain?

The Limbic System

BINDING PROBLEM

The Problem of reuniting the various elements of a scene, given the fact that these elements are initially dealt with by different systems in the brain.

ACUITY

The ability to discern fine detail.

BRIGHTNESS CONSTANCY

The achievement of perceiving the constant brightness of objects in the world despite changes in the light reaching the eye that result from variations in illumination.

Which of the following is TRUE of the working-memory system?

The assistants are responsible solely for storage of information.

Clinical Neuropsychology (pg18)

The branch of psychology concerned with the relation between various forms of brain dysfunction and various aspects of mental functioning. They study, for example, amnesia, agnosia, and aphasia. The study of brain funtion that uses, as its main data source, cases in which damage or illness has disrupted the working of some brain structure.

NEUROPSYCHOLOGY

The branch of psychology concerned with the relation between various forms of brain dysfunction and various aspects of mental functioning. Neuropsychologists study, for example, amnesia, agnosia and aphasia.

neuropsychology

The branch of psychology concerned with the relation between various forms of brain dysfunction and various aspects of mental functioning. Neuropsychologists study, for example, amnesia, agnosia, and aphasia

The idea of a "cognitive budget" is used several times in this chapter. Which of the following statements is NOT true of the "cognitive budget"?

The budget can increase through practice

Fovea

The center of the retina. Only has cones - no rods, so this region has the greatest acuity.

Figure ground organization

The determination of what is the figure and what is the ground the perceptual field is divided into figure and ground

Which of the following statements is inaccurate?

The early projection areas for vision are in the parietal cortex.

This chapter describes in detail one way a feature net can be designed, but other designs may turn out to be preferable. For example, McClelland and Rumelhart's model makes use of all of the following statements EXCEPT

The elimination of feature detectors, relying instead on geon detectors

Which of the following is likely to be most important in creating the "narrowing" of focus often found in memories of emotional events?

The emotion is often caused by one particular stimulus, which is then given the majority of one's attention.

Participants are given a pair of pliers to help solve the two-string problem. Which situation would help overcome the effects of functional fixedness?

The experimenter absentmindedly sets one of the strings swinging back and forth while giving the instructions.

ecological validity

The extent to which a study is practical for real life

Which of the following is TRUE about language acquisition?

The fact that children start saying "goed" although they already know the word "went" is easily understood in terms of rule learning.

CENTRAL EXECUTIVE

The hypothesized director of the working memory system. This is the component of the system that is needed for any interpretation or analysis; in contrast,

central executive

The hypothesized director of the working-memory system. This is the component of the system needed for any interpretation or analysis; in contrast, mere storage of materials can be provided by working memory's assistants, which work under the control of the central executive. Also see executive control.

Central Executive

The hypothesized director of the working-memory system. This is the component of the system needed for any interpretation or analysis; in contrast, mere storage of materials can be provided by working memory's assistants, which work under the control of this component.

Which statement about feature nets is FALSE?

The input layer is particularly sensitive to the overall configuration of a pattern.

cerebellum

The largest area of the hindbrain, crucial for the coordination of bodily movements and balance

corpus callosum

The largest of the commissures linking the left and right cerebral hemispheres

parietal lobe

The lobe in each cerebral hemisphere that lies between the occipital and frontal lobes and includes some of the primary sensory projection areas, as well as circuits that are crucial for the control of attention

frontal lobe

The lobe of the brain in each cerebral hemisphere that includes the prefrontal area and the primary motor projection area

temporal lobe

The lobe of the cortex lying inward and down from the temples. The temporal lobe in each cerebral hemisphere includes the primary auditory projection area, Wernicke's area, and, subcortically, the amygdala and hippocampus

primary sensory projection areas

The main points of arrival in the cortex for information arriving from the eyes, ears, and other sense organs

Based on current knowledge, which of the following seems the LEAST well-established reason for a traumatic childhood memory to come to light after many years?

The memory was repressed because it was too painful, but it has now been recovered.

prefrontal cortex

The outer surface (cortex) of the frontmost part of the brain (i.e., the frontmost part of the frontal lobe). This brain area has many functions but is crucial for the planning of complex or novel behaviors, so this brain area is often mentioned as one of the main sites underlying the brain's executive functions

cortex

The outermost surface of an organ in the body; psychologists are most commonly interested in the brain's cortex

dendrite

The part of a neuron that usually detects the incoming signal

Lateral inhibition

The pattern of interaction among neurons in the visual system in which activity in one neuron inhibits adjacent neurons' responses.

Gestalt Theory

The perception of the whole is greater/different than the sum of its parts (vs. behavioral reductionism) organization is contributed by the perceiver our perception of the visual world is organized in ways that the stimulus input is not

The primary motor projection area forms a "map" of the body and the projections control movement to specific areas of the body. The amount of cortical tissue dedicated to different parts of the body correlates with

The precision of movement for the body part

Which features of a problem would cause pictures to be a more useful strategy than mental images?

The problem solution requires a change in reference frame.

INTROSPECTION

The process through which one "looks within," to observe and record the contents of one's own mental life.

introspection

The process through which you "look within," to observe and record the contents of your own mental life

Introspection (pg 9)

The process through which you "look within," to observe and record the contents of your own mental life. Not testable. Problem: thoughts are unconscious too. Wundt and titchner.

Which of the following is an example of a garden-path sentence?

The raft floated down the river sank.

occipital lobe

The rearmost lobe in each cerebral hemisphere, and which includes the primary visual projection area

localization of function

The research endeavor of determining what specific job is performed by a particular region of the brain

In a word recognition study, participants were briefly shown words that differed in frequency and familiarity. After each word was shown, participants were asked to report aloud what word they had seen. Their accuracy recognizing these words is represented in the graph. Which of the following is the BEST interpretation of the data?

The results demonstrate both a priming effect and an effect of frequency.

longitudinal fissure

The separation dividing the brain's left cerebral hemisphere from the right

central fissure

The separation dividing the frontal lobes on each side of the brain from the parietal lobes

lateral fissure

The separation dividing the frontal lobes on each side of the brain from the temporal lobes

Area V1

The site on the occipital lobe where axons from the lateral geniculate nucleus first reach the cerebral cortex. (Retina --> LGN --> _______ ). Contains cells that detect every possible stimulus.

AREA V1

The site on the occipital lobe where axons from the lateral geniculate nucleus first reach the cerebral cortex. This site is (for one neural pathway) the location at which information about the visual world first reaches the brain.

Receptive field

The size and shape of the area in the visual world to which a cell responds

Working Memory

The storage system in which information is held while that information is being worked on. All indications are that this is a system, not a single entity, and that information is held here via active processes, not via some sort of passive storage. Formerly called "short-term memory."

working memory

The storage system in which information is held while that information is being worked on. All indications are that working memory is a system, not a single entity, and that information is held here via active processes, not via some sort of passive storage. Formerly called "short-term memory."

WORKING MEMORY

The storage system in which information is held while that information is being worked on. All indications are that working memory is a system, not a single entity, and that information is held here via active processes, not via some sort of passive storage. Formerly called short-term memory.

primary motor projection areas

The strip of tissue, located at the rear of the frontal lobe, that is the departure point for nerve cells that send their signals to lower portions of the brain and spinal cord, and which ultimately result in muscle movement

cognitive neuroscience

The study of the biological basis for cognitive functioning

COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

The study of the biological basis for cognitive functioning.

Cognitive Neuroscience (pg 18)

The study of the biological basis for cognitive functioning. The effort toward understanding humans' mental functioning through close study of the brain and nervous system. Learn a lot from studying people with healthy brains and those with damaged brains.

association cortex

The traditional name for the portion of the human cortex outside of the motor and sensory projection areas

If a participant is asked to perform two activities at the same time, performance will be improved if

The two activities are highly dissimilar, drawing on different task-specific resources

Spatial position

The visual areas processing features like shape, colour, and motion each know the ____________________ of the object, which is part of what allows our brain to integrate all these things as one object.

Where system

The visual pathway leading from the visual cortex to the parietal lobe; especially involved in locating objects in space and coordinating movements.

What system

The visual pathway leading from the visual cortex to the temporal lobe; especially involved in identifying visual objects.

Which of the following best summarizes the perspective of Gestalt psychologists?

The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Which of the following best summarizes the perspective of Gestalt psychologists? a. The whole is equivalent to the sum of its parts. b. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. c. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. d. Aesthetic judgments can be broken down into distinct "truths."

The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Which sentence is the easiest to read?

The witness examined by the lawyer was nervous.

A participant is shown a series of stimuli and is asked to name the color of the ink in which the stimuli are printed. The eighth stimulus happens to be printed in green ink. We should expect a relatively slow response if the stimulus happens to be

The word "RED" printed in green

If instructed to identify the briefly presented word "PORK," which of the following hints will provide the greatest benefit for identification?

The word is something you can eat.

convolutions

The wrinkles visible in the cortex that allow the enormous surface area of the human brain to be stuffed into the relatively small volume of the skull

Which of the following offers the most support for the idea that object recognition is viewpoint dependent?

There are neurons in the "what" pathway that respond most to a certain type of object in a certain position relative to the eyes.

Which of the following is most accurate with respect to our knowledge about the fusiform face area (FFA)?

There is an ongoing debate about the specificity of the FFA to processing faces.

Which of the following statements is the most accurate?

There is little or no relation between memory confidence and memory accuracy.

In a study of spatial attention, participants were given a neutral, correct, or misleading cue about where on the screen a stimulus would appear. What is the BEST explanation for what happened on trials with misleading cues?

There were costs because the spotlight of attention had moved to the misled location and had to move back.

Which of the following is FALSE with regard to the illusory covariations found in studies of how people interpret (real or simulated) Rorschach responses?

There were objective correlations between the responses to the inkblots and respondent characteristics.

Which is true of P cells but NOT of M cells?

These cells are specialized for spatial analysis and form.

Which is true of P cells but NOT of M cells? a. These cells are located in the optic nerve. b. These cells are relatively large. c. These cells are specialized for spatial analysis and form. d. These cells fire only when the stimulus appears or disappears, not in between.

These cells are specialized for spatial analysis and form.

What is a benefit of problem-solving sets?

They allow you to focus your search.

Which was NOT identified by the textbook as something that the various cases of unconscious processing have in common?

They are accompanied in the person who is acting by an internal sensation of agency.

In the Nisbett and Schachter study (1966), participants were asked to let the experimenter know when they no longer wanted to continue receiving electric shocks. Which of the following is TRUE of the participants who had taken a placebo?

They experienced shaking and upset-stomach symptoms similar to those in participants not receiving the placebo.

"The dog attacked the mailman." "The mailman was attacked by the dog." Which of the following is TRUE about these two sentences?

They have the same meaning.

What is the LEAST accurate statement about linguistic universals?

They provide an argument against the necessity of an innate language device.

Which of the following things did researchers find that highly creative people typically had in common?

They were in the right place at the right time.

Commissures, including the corpus callosum, are

Thick bundles of fibers that allow communication between the brain's hemispheres.

Imagine you are putting together a puzzle. The lid of the box comes with a picture of the completed puzzle, and you reference that while you are working. The picture on the lid is acting as a

Top - down influence

Which of the following is FALSE about statistical training?

Training makes us more likely to use the representative heuristic.

when you remember the first few items from a list better than items in the middle of the list, this effect takes place because the first items were still present in your working memory upon recall

True - Better memory for the first few items in a list, or the primacy effect, takes place because you can rehearse these items and transfer them to your long-term memory

True

True or false? Helmholtz discovered that as the distance of an object doubles, the size of the image is halved (inverse relationship).

False (they work together)

True or false? Humans will gather all the "raw data" - the visual features - and then analyze/interpret the data.

True

True or false? Lens shape adjustment occurs most for nearby objects and decreases with distance.

True

True or false? People use distance to judge size.

False (they stimulate bipolar cells, which then excite ganglion cells)

True or false? Rods and cones report info directly to the cortex.

Which of the following findings does NOT support the existence of task-specific mental resources?

Two simple tasks are easy to do simultaneously, while two hard tasks are not.

Spikes per second

Units by which cells' firing rates are measured

Which of the following is NOT generally true about perceptual systems?

Unusual patterns, because of their rarity, are easier to recognize than common patterns.

Ebbinghaus

Used nonsense syllables to study memory/forgetting curves

A CT or computerized axial tomography scan

Uses x-rays to study the living brain's anatomy

Capgras syndrome contributes to our understanding of cognition in each of the following ways EXCEPT the role of

Visual area V1

Which is NOT a strategy that people use to parse sentences?

Waiting until the end of a sentence before starting to interpret it.

JOHN B. WATSON (1878-1958)

Was a prominent and persuasive advocate for the behaviorist movement. Given his focus on learning and learning histories, it is unsurprising that Watson was intrigued by babies' behavior and learning.

We can often recognize an object even if some of the object's parts are hidden from view. Evidence indicates that this recognition from partial viewing will be easiest if

We can see enough of the object to identify some of its geons.

What is the BEST example of top-down processing?

We recognize the word "aardvark" more quickly if we were expecting to see an animal word.

What is the BEST example of top-down processing?

We would recognize "aardvark" more quickly if we were expecting to see an animal word.

Which of the following statements is FALSE?

When asked to describe an object, people are likely to choose the most general term for that object first.

Which of the following facts fts LEAST well with the claims of prototype theory?

When making up sentences about a category, people tend to create sentences most appropriate for the prototype of that category, as opposed to a more peripheral member

Many people think of a drum as the prototypical percussion instrument. Given this, which of the following results is MOST likely?

When people are asked which of two instruments is "more percussionary", they will choose the drum, if it is an option

Which of the following is FALSE regarding categorical syllogisms?

When syllogisms endorse conclusions people believe to be false, they will scrutinize them particularly hard and therefore answer more accurately.

Which of the following is a failure of selective attention?

While you are working on your problem set in the living room, you are thrown off track when your sister changes the TV channel.

Which of the following is NOT a reason why performance might improve with practice?

With practice, individual elements of a task draw more on our resources.

Which of the following would NOT be due to schemata?

Witnesses to a crime blur together in their memory what they saw with what they heard from another witness.

What causes the primacy effect?

Words that get more attention are better encoded into long-term memory.

Is overregularization in word recognition beneficial overall?

Yes, it allows us to perceive much more efficiently.

In which of the following situations are you MOST likely to decide a stimulus is familiar?

You can recall when and where you last saw the stimulus.

Which of the following is required for an attribution of fluency to occur?

You try to interpret the feeling of specialness.

Which of the following behaviors is most difficult to explain from a behaviorist perspective?

Your response to a stimulus is dependent on how you interpret that stimulus.

Which is the voiced labiodental phoneme?

[v]

A central problem in Capgras syndrome seems to be difficulty with a) emotional analysis of faces. b) speech perception. c) matching faces that are in view to faces in memory. d) long-term memory.

a

As one of their main goals, the original behaviorists tried to a) discover a set of principles concerned with how behavior changes in response to different configurations of stimuli. b) gather a record of specific individuals' subjective interpretations of internal thought and experiences. c) study the influence of an individual's interpretation of a situation on his or her consequent behavior. d) show how all of an individual's feelings can be explained by his or her history of reinforcement.

a

In a digit-span task, a person hears a series of items and has to repeat them back immediately in correct sequence. This task is often understood to measure the a) holding capacity of working memory. b) speed with which the person can transfer items from working memory into long-term storage. c) holding capacity of long-term memory. d) speed with which the person can transfer items from sensory memory into working memory.

a

In an experiment designed to test the receptive field of a center-surround cell, a stimulus was placed in several locations. In one instance the firing rate of the cell DECREASED below its normal (base-rate) rate. This most likely occurred because a) the stimulus was in the part of the cell's receptive field that causes inhibition of firing rather than excitation. b) the stimulus was in the exact center of the cell's receptive field. c) the stimulus was apparently entirely outside of the cell's receptive field. d) the cell had apparently been injured and was failing to function as it normally would.

a

Many subcortical structures, such as the hippocampus and amygdala, come in groups of a) two. b) three. c) four. d) five.

a

Martin is trying to understand why he's been forgetting things lately. As a well-trained cognitive psychologist, Martin is likely to investigate this puzzle by a) examining the circumstances associated with his memory failures, including the complexity or familiarity of the material and how fully he paid attention to the material during learning. b) focusing exclusively on the stimuli he's encountered recently—including rewards or punishments he's received for remembering particular items. c) focusing entirely on the conscious experience of trying to remember and then the experience of succeeding or failing. d) relying on the anecdotes he has heard from his friends about when they remember and when they forget.

a

The "all-or-none" law states that a) the signal traveling down a neuron's axon does not vary in size. b) all neurons performing similar functions are grouped together in the brain. c) neurons all fire at the same rate, and so a neuron is either firing at the standard rate or not at all. d) single-cell recording can be used only in the study of vision.

a

The existence of functional localization is supported in part by the fact that a) the symptoms produced by brain damage depend on exactly where in the brain the damage is located. b) the brain has clearly defined separations between the various lobes. c) complex cognitive tasks such as reading or listening to music depend on many different parts of the brain. d) many people are able to recover from brain damage, even damage that seems relatively widespread.

a

The famous psychologist Edward Titchener claimed to have identified and catalogued nearly 10,000 sensations that he observed within himself. What method best describes his approach? a) introspection b) behaviorism c) psychoanalysis d) transcendentalism

a

The photoreceptors called rods are good for navigating in what kind of environment? a) dimly lit b) one in which color discrimination is vital c) one in which noises need to be finely discriminated d) one in which fine visual detail is important

a

Using converging methods when constructing a theoretical account is a) good because it works to eliminate alternative hypotheses. b) good because it ensures consistency in procedures. c) bad because it is confusing to have many different methods. d) bad because there is little consistency between the methods.

a

Which is true of P cells but NOT of M cells? a) These cells are specialized for spatial analysis and form. b) These cells fire only when the stimulus appears or disappears, not in between. c) These cells are located in the optic nerve. d) These cells are relatively large.

a

Which of the following are most crucial for the perception of movement? a) M cells in the optic nerve, and magnocellular cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) b) P cells in the optic nerve, parvocellular cells in the LGN c) P cells in the optic nerve, magnocellular cells in the LGN d) M cells in the optic nerve, parvocellular cells in the LGN

a

Which of the following behaviors is most difficult to explain from a behaviorist perspective? a) Your response to a stimulus is dependent on how you interpret that stimulus. b) You are very likely to respond differently to a novel stimulus than to a familiar one. c) Once you have learned that a particular response is rewarded, you are likely to repeat that response. d) Often someone's responses are different from what they said initially that they planned or hoped to do.

a

Which of the following statements is FALSE? a) In the primary somatosensory projection area, the larger the physical size of a body area, the more cortical area is devoted to it. b) In the primary visual projection area, more cortical area is devoted to signals received from the fovea, where visual acuity is greatest. c) In the primary somatosensory projection area, the left side of the brain receives input from the right side of the body and the right side of the brain receives input from the left side of the body. d) In the primary auditory projection area, cells that are adjacent to each other in the cortex tend to be sensitive to sounds that are similar to each other in frequency.

a

Which of the following statements is inaccurate? a) The early projection areas for vision are in the parietal cortex. b) Cells in the optic nerve both transmit and analyze visual input. c) The dorsal pathway is specialized for processing object-identification information. d) The visual system relies on parallel processing.

a

schema

a cognitive structure that helps us perceive, organize, process and use information

memory distortion

a collection of phenomena that demonstrates how our long-term memories are not always permanent

Motion parallax

a depth cue in which the relative movement of elements in a scene gives depth information when the observer moves relative to the scene

Optic flow

a depth cue that relies on the fact that the pattern of stimulation across the entire visual field changes as you move forward.

Long-term memory is to working memory as _______ is to _______.

a file stored on a hard drive; an open document you are working on

fMRI

a form of magnetic resonance imaging of the brain that registers blood flow to functioning areas of the brain; light up

serial position effect

a form of memory bias in which our ability in which our ability to recall a given item from a series depends on its relative position within that series

What was the crucial innovation that defined the recognition-by-components (RBC) model?

a level of detectors sensitive to "geons"

fissure

a long narrow slit or groove that divides the brain into lobes

sensory memory

a memory system that retains the sensory information you perceive for a very brief period of time, usually only for a fraction of a second

interactive model

a model of cognitive processing that relies on an ongoing interplay between data-driven and concept-driven processing.

Which of the following drivers is MOST likely to get into an accident?

a novice driver engaged in an important phone interview

Edge enhancement

a process by which the visual system makes edges as visible as possible because of the lateral inhibition of cells in the middle by outer cells

Which of the following is the BEST definition of "induction"?

a process in which you draw general conclusions from specific facts or observation

bottom-up processing

a sequence of events governed by the stimulus itself

top-down processing

a sequence of events that is heavily shaped by the knowledge and expectations that the person brings to the situation

Which of the following is NOT an advantage of parallel processing in the visual system?

a simple solution to the binding problem

corpus callosom

a structure of brain in the longitudinal fissure that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres.

prosopagnosia

a syndrome in which patients lose their ability to recognize faces and to make other fine-grained discriminations within a highly familiar category, even thought their other visual abilities seem relatively in tact

feature net

a system for recognizing patterns that involves a network of detectors, with detectors for features as the initial layer in the system.

Which of the following is MOST likely to cause you to draw an inference about a category of animal?

a theory about how a feature you have seen in one member of the category might be caused by a feature that all category members share

Which statement about feature nets is FALSE? a. The input layer is particularly sensitive to the overall configuration of a pattern. b. Recognition based on geons is viewpoint independent. c. Network knowledge is represented in a distributed manner. d. A network of detectors can interpret ambiguous inputs, recover from its own errors, and make inferences about barely viewed stimuli.

a. . The input layer is particularly sensitive to the overall configuration of a pattern.

What prediction could you make on the basis of the "recognition-via-multiple-views" approach to object recognition? a. It will be harder to recognize an object from some vantage points than from others. b. Words that resemble each other visually will be difficult to discriminate. c. Representations will most likely be supported by tissue in the "where" pathway. d. It will be possible to see the Necker cube in both possible orientations at once.

a. It will be harder to recognize an object from some vantage points than from others.

Which of the following statements is TRUE regarding the perception of briefly presented words? a. Participants are better at recognizing words that were recently seen. b. Participants can avoid making errors if sufficient top-down processing is employed. c. Participants are equally poor at identifying all nonsense words, regardless of their well-formedness. d. Participants are better at identifying letters when they are presented in isolation compared to when they are presented as part of a word.

a. Participants are better at recognizing words that were recently seen.

Which of the following conclusions can be drawn from the existing data on face recognition? a. Recognition of faces is heavily dependent on orientation. b. The fusiform face area (FFA) is devoted entirely to recognizing faces. c. Face recognition uses a feature-net system similar to the one used for word recognition. d. The ability to recognize faces is closely tied to other forms of general visual recognition, such that loss in one ability is linked with loss in the other.

a. Recognition of faces is heavily dependent on orientation.

Which of the following is most accurate with respect to our knowledge about the fusiform face area (FFA)? a. There is an ongoing debate about the specificity of the FFA to processing faces. b. There is a general consensus that the FFA underlies many kinds of expertise. c. There is an ongoing debate about the role of the FFA in identifying general categories of faces and objects. d. There is a general consensus that the FFA is exclusively dedicated to processing faces.

a. There is an ongoing debate about the specificity of the FFA to processing faces.

What was the crucial innovation that defined the recognition-by-components (RBC) model? a. an intermediate level of detectors sensitive to "geons" b. the use of inhibitory connections c. recognition of only fully visible objects d. a hierarchy of detectors

a. an intermediate level of detectors sensitive to "geons"

If the word "trum" is presented, people are most likely to recognize it as a. truck. b. murt. c. drum. d. trun.

a. truck.

The unconscious is NOT

able to respond to situations in novel ways.

Which aspect or type of consciousness does the neuronal workspace hypothesis attempt to explain?

access

We would most expect an _______ when a situation calls for a(n) _______ response.

action slip; flexible

research conducted on homographs (bat or minute) in lexical decision tasks predicts that you are likely to

activate multiple meanings of the words and partially active closely related words

The Rumelhart and McClelland model is different from the simple feature model in all the following ways EXCEPT that it includes

activation from the feature level to the letter level.

A response threshold is the

activation level at which a response occurs.

Madison has difficulty perceiving fine details. This means she has trouble with __________, which is a function of __________.

acuity; cones

When participants were shown a passage from Rabbit Run and asked to point to the section that was responsible for their emotional reaction, they

agreed about which section was responsible but were proven incorrect.

If participants are shown the word "class" in a list of words and then tested later with the stimulus cla_ _. Which of the following conditions will yield correct completion of the word?

all of the above

mental lexicon

all the words you know, the ones you read, write and speak out loud are stored in what is known as __________

According to utility theory, people should NOT

allow the wording of a choice to affect expected value.

typicality effect

an additional finding that arises out of research using sentence verification

working memory: phonological buffer

an auditory image of the word

The 1995 bombing of the Federal Building in Oklahoma City was a very emotional event that, for many people, led to a flashbulb memory. Details of the day of this event are likely to be remembered MOST accurately by

an individual who worked in the immediate vicinity and narrowly escaped harm, questioned immediately.

What was the crucial innovation that defined the recognition-by-components (RBC) model?

an intermediate level of detectors sensitive to "geons"

Brain damage producing a disruption in language is called

aphasia.

Which of the following is the clinical term we use to describe a disturbance in the initiation or organization of voluntary action?

apraxia

When people offer explanations for their behaviors and decisions, it is because they

are able to make hypotheses based on what they know about the current situation and their past experiences.

Once people rely on prototypes, they no longer use exemplars for judging category membership.

are consistent with each other in which odd numbers they consider more odd. refuse to do the task because it does not make any sense.

All of the following are true about explanatory theories EXCEPT they

are only useful in providing a cause-and-effect understanding if they are accurate.

Participants were MOST likely to guess correctly the rule behind a series of numbers if they

asked questions that could disconfirm their theories.

According to Wittgenstein, we

assess category membership problematically by family resemblance

Reading simple words is an example of a(n) ______ task, and saying the color of the ink in which that word is printed is an example of a(n) _______ task.

automatic; controlled

A psychologist who adheres to the behaviorist school of thought would most likely attribute someone reaching for a slice of pie to a) an interaction between memory and desire. b) a learned behavior in response to specific environmental triggers. c) a chemical imbalance produced by a deficit in nutrients. d) inadequate maternal supervision and love during infancy.

b

If stimulating an area of the brain does not cause a behavior but disabling it with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) prevents the behavior, then that area is _______ for that behavior. a) necessary and sufficient b) necessary but not sufficient c) sufficient but not necessary d) correlated with, but neither necessary nor sufficient

b

If the corpus callosum is cut, what will happen to the two hemispheres of the brain? a) The two hemispheres will become completely independent. b) Some information will be exchanged by other commissures. c) One hemisphere will become dominant and take over the former responsibilities of the other. d) The two hemispheres will begin to develop different personalities.

b

In this drawing, parts A, B, C, and D are: a) the frontal lobe, the occipital lobe, the parietal lobe, and the temporal lobe. b) the parietal lobe, the frontal lobe, the temporal lobe, and the occipital lobe. c) the occipital lobe, the temporal lobe, the parietal lobe, and the frontal lobe. d) the temporal lobe, the frontal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the parietal lobe.

b

What is the process that leads to a stronger response from cells detecting the edge of a surface than from cells detecting the middle of a surface? a) single-cell recording b) lateral inhibition c) acuity d) postsynaptic capture

b

When someone asks you to pass the salt at the dinner table, you are able to understand the request even if it is asked in a variety of different ways. This illustrates that a) learned associations between stimuli and responses require that the stimulus be exactly the same every time. b) the meaning of an utterance, not the physical stimulus, is most important for predicting behavior. c) introspection is an essential component to understanding human cognition. d) language is a highly reflexive behavior, requiring fast and automatic responses.

b

Which of the following claims about working memory is NOT accurate? a) Individuals often confuse similar-sounding words in working-memory tasks. b) Performance in working-memory tasks does require some focus but is not disrupted by relatively mindless tasks such as saying "tah-tah-tah" aloud while holding items in working memory. c) Many amnesiacs (including the famous patient H.M.) appear to have relatively normal working memories, despite profound problems in other aspects of remembering. d) Much evidence suggests that working memory is not a single entity but is instead a system with separate components.

b

Which of the following is NOT part of how the binding problem is solved? a) Systems have their own spatial maps, which they can align together. b) Much of the information is combined in a separate area of the brain. c) Cells from the different systems oscillate together in the same rhythm. d) Attention directed toward the item being perceived aids binding.

b

Which of the following is a way that cognitive psychology is DIFFERENT from physics? a) Physicists test their theories using the scientific method. b) Psychologists must take into account the way participants interpret their study. c) Psychology does not allow for direct observation of the causes of phenomena. d) Physics bases its theories on objective, quantifiable data.

b

Which of the following is the LEAST accurate statement about behaviorism? a) Behaviorism rejected introspection on the grounds that objectivity is of paramount importance in the study of psychology. b) Behaviorism is primarily designed to explain why organisms believe their behavior is justified or reasonable. c) By focusing on the stimuli to which an organism is exposed and the responses an organism produces and then observing how these change over time, behaviorism can catalogue an individual's learning history. d) Behaviorism claims that behaviors are often best explained by the presence or absence of reinforcement or punishment.

b

You've met a researcher at a conference who says she is of the same school of thought as the famous nineteenth-century scholars Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener. You can gather from this statement that she feels the best way to study thoughts is to a) have every person freely introspect about his or her own thoughts. b) have only highly trained and qualified people introspect about their own thoughts. c) use the behaviors that people produce as a basis for inferring their thoughts. d) use simple animal models as a basis for theorizing about cognition in humans.

b

_______ is a brain-imaging technique that shows us precisely which areas of the brain are active at a particular moment in time; _______ is a technique that shows us the exact structure of each of the brain's parts. a) CT; PET b) functional MRI (fMRI); MRI c) PET; fMRI d) angiogram; MRI

b

What is the purpose of using a mask in word recognition tasks? a. It allows experimenters to change subjects' responses. b. It serves to stop participants from continuing to process the stimulus. c. It disguises the words so that a person cannot recognize them. d. It disrupts the word superiority effect.

b. It serves to stop participants from continuing to process the stimulus.

Which of the following statements about speed reading is FALSE? a. Speed reading involves reading fewer printed words. b. Speed reading is a good choice if you want to appreciate an author's style. c. Speed reading is not a good strategy for reading technical material. d. Speed reading relies on making more inferences about a text.

b. Speed reading is a good choice if you want to appreciate an author's style.

Which of the following offers the most support for the idea that object recognition is viewpoint dependent? a. Object recognition seems to involve a hierarchy of detectors, from feature detectors to whole object detectors. b. There are neurons in the "what" pathway that respond most to a certain type of object in a certain position relative to the eyes. c. When pieces of an object are missing, it is still fairly easy to recognize the object as long as the geons are still identifiable. d. Detection of objects employs both bottom-up and top-down processes.

b. There are neurons in the "what" pathway that respond most to a certain type of object in a certain position relative to the eyes.

What is the BEST example of top-down processing? a. Our processing often depends on our stimulus history, that is, what stimuli we have seen recently. b. We recognize the word "aardvark" more quickly if we were expecting to see an animal word. c. We begin processing a face at the hairline and move downward to the chin. d. When we perceive objects, we first detect basic features and then combine them into larger units.

b. We recognize the word "aardvark" more quickly if we were expecting to see an animal word.

When Betty (an English speaker) is shown a nonsense string of letters tachistoscopically, she misreads it in a way that follows the rules of common English spelling. This is because a. Betty is reluctant to give answers that she cannot easily pronounce. b. of a lifetime of strengthening of the bigram detectors for common English letter pairs. c. all humans are predisposed toward the visual configurations evident in "regular" bigrams; this is why English uses them. d. of the word superiority effect.

b. of a lifetime of strengthening of the bigram detectors for common English letter pairs.

A stimulus that is displayed for a very brief duration (perhaps 20 or 30 milliseconds) is said to be shown a. subconsciously. b. tachistoscopically. c. imperceptibly. d. via a feature net.

b. tachistoscopically.

Decisions based on utility calculations should

be immune to framing effects.

amnesia

because of damage, someone has lost the ability to remember certain things

You are walking progressively closer to a tree. The image the tree casts on your retina will __________, while your perception of the size of the tree will __________. a. become larger; become larger b. remain unchanged; remain unchanged c. become larger; remain unchanged d. become smaller; become larger

become larger; remain unchanged

You are viewing a car that is moving progressively closer toward you. The image of the car that is cast on your retina will — a. begin to activate rods instead of cones. b. remain the same size. c. become progressively smaller. d. become progressively larger.

become progressively larger.

All of the following are benefits of the neuronal workspace EXCEPT

being aware of all mental processes taking place at a given time.

semantic interference

being distracted by the meaning of words

Which of the following illustrates a dissociation between form perception and object recognition?

being unable to identify objects by sight, despite having a visual impression of them

subcortical structures (pg 34)

beneath the surface Thalamus - acts as a relay station for nearly all the sensory information going to the cortex Underneath thalamus is hypothalamus, a structure that plays a crucial role in controlling behaviors that serve biological needs - eating, drinking, sex Surrounding thalamus and hypothalamus forms the limbic system - amygdala, hippocampus, under the cortex in the temporal lobe - essential for learning and memory

In one study, investigators monitored activity levels in a brain area (the fusiform face area, or FFA) that seems particularly responsive to pictures of faces, and also in another area (the parahippocampal place area, or PPA) that seems particularly responsive to pictures of places. Their data showed that

brain activity in these two regions depended on what the person was consciously perceiving and not just what the stimulus was.

why does overregulation occur?

brain is more set on being efficient than accurate; prone to an occasional error

neuropsychology

branch of psychology concerned with the relation between various forms of brain dysfunction and various aspects of mental functioning. They study, for example, amnesia, agnosia, and aphasia.

All of the following are effective strategies for turning an ill-defined problem into a well-defined problem EXCEPT

broadening your set of options and operators.

A synapse is usually composed of: a) some dendrites, the cell body, and an axon ending in terminals. b) some dendrites, a space, and the receiving membrane on another neuron's axon. c) the end of an axon, a space, and the receiving membrane on another neuron's dendrites. d) a complete cell, a space, and another complete cell.

c

An individual suffering from Capgras syndrome would most likely show an inability to a) see subtle visual stimuli. b) remember childhood events. c) detect the familiarity of an often-viewed face. d) solve puzzles that require the use of flexible strategies.

c

Cognitive psychology is primarily concerned with which of the following? a) the relationship between environmental input and behavior b) the understanding and treatment of mental disorders c) what we know, what we remember, and how we think d) the physical structures of the mind

c

Data from people with anarthria, the inability to speak, suggest that a) actual vocal movements are needed for sound-alike confusions to emerge in working-memory tasks. b) examining brain dysfunctions cannot shed light on the workings of normal brains. c) inner speech relies on brain areas responsible for planning speech. d) learning to speak is intimately connected with hearing.

c

In one study, investigators monitored activity levels in a brain area (the fusiform face area, or FFA) that seems particularly responsive to pictures of faces, and also in another area (the parahippocampal place area, or PPA) that seems particularly responsive to pictures of places. Their data showed that a) the activity of these areas could be predicted based simply on what stimulus was in front of the person's eyes. b) if a picture of a face was put in front of one eye and a picture of a place in front of the other, both brain areas became highly activated. c) brain activity in these two regions depended on what the person was consciously perceiving and not just what the stimulus was. d) high levels of activation were detected in the FFA even when pictures of houses were shown, illustrating the flexibility of brain function.

c

Intellectual functions like making judgments, retrieving memories, and paying attention depend primarily on tissues specialized for these purposes, which are located in a) the hindbrain. b) the midbrain. c) the forebrain. d) all three parts of the brain.

c

Modern psychologists follow the lead of Immanuel Kant in arguing that the solution to the impasse between introspectionism and behaviorism lies in a method in which we begin with _______ and then proceed to _______. a) animal models; human models b) internal causes; likely behavioral outcomes c) observable facts; likely internal causes d) the computer as a metaphor; the human mind

c

Participants are presented with brief series of letters or numbers and must report them back, in order, immediately. In this situation, most people are able to remember a string of approximately _______ letters or numbers. This gives us some evidence that working memory is _______. a) 26; fairly large b) 7; expandable depending on context c) 7; limited in size d) 2-15; extremely variable between people

c

Performance on a span task is typically reduced when the participant has to perform concurrent articulation. This finding suggests that a) memory performance suffers when the person is distracted by an especially demanding task. b) memory performance suffers if the person is asked to make some sort of rhythmic movement while memorizing. c) memory performance suffers if the person is prevented from subvocalizing while memorizing. d) memory performance suffers if the person has suffered brain damage.

c

Research about the what and where pathways suggests that the _______ lobe is important for determining the _______ of an object, whereas the _______ lobe is important for determining the _______ of the object. a) frontal, identity; occipital, location b) temporal, location; parietal, identity c) parietal, location; temporal, identity d) occipital, identity; temporal, location

c

Researchers use various brain-imaging techniques to chart the structure of the brain and to measure the activation levels at any moment in time in each part of the brain. These imaging techniques include all of the following EXCEPT a) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). b) computerized axial tomography (CT). c) positron emission tomography (PET). d) transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS).

c

The response of a center-surround cell a) can be altered only by light falling into the center of the cell's receptive field. b) is not influenced by whether the light falls into the center of the cell's receptive field or the periphery. c) tends to be in one direction (e.g., increased firing) if the stimulation is in the center of the cell's receptive field and in the opposite direction (e.g., decreased firing) if the stimulation is in the periphery of the receptive field. d) is determined either by activation in the center of the cell's receptive field or by activation in the periphery, but not both.

c

The use of computers as a metaphor for how humans process information BEST typifies which approach? a) behaviorism b) introspection c) information-processing psychology d) transcendental psychology

c

Which of the following is NOT an advantage of parallel processing in the visual system? a) speed b) mutual influence among multiple systems c) a simple solution to the binding problem d) the "negotiation" of a solution that satisfies the requirements of each system

c

Which of the following is TRUE of the working-memory system? a) The central executive serves the same function as a piece of scrap paper, freeing the rest of the system to do other tasks. b) Working memory has an unlimited capacity. c) The assistants are responsible solely for storage of information. d) Working memory is a single entity with virtually no peripheral mechanisms.

c

Which of the following tasks has NOT been connected with the amygdala? a) remembering emotional events b) feeling familiarity when seeing a close friend c) discriminating between internal and external events d) making decisions based on hunches

c

Which of the following was NOT one of the problems associated with introspection as a research technique? a) Some thoughts are not available to the conscious mind. b) Many introspective claims cannot be tested in a rigorous fashion. c) How people react to a stimulus is heavily influenced by past experience. d) Thoughts and feelings cannot be meaningfully compared across individuals.

c

The existence of "bigram detectors" helps to explain which of the following? a. The fast presentation of a "crossbar" stimulus leads to the activation of the "A," "E," and "F" detectors. b. The network's knowledge is locally represented in the brain. c. People are more likely to recognize the letters "TICE" when they are briefly presented than the letters "EITC." d. The network cannot distinguish between "false alarms" and true recognition.

c. People are more likely to recognize the letters "TICE" when they are briefly presented than the letters "EITC."

Which of the following would be LEAST likely to serve as an effective prime for the word "bread"? a. thread b. butter c. pie d. whole wheat

c. pie

source misattribution

can happen with the time, place, people, or circumstances involved with a memory misremembering the time or place something happens

Eliora is diagnosed with prosopagnosia. This means that she

can perceive faces but cannot recognize them.

Eliora is diagnosed with prosopagnosia. This means that she a. can perceive objects but cannot say what they would be used for. b. can perceive faces but cannot recognize them. c. cannot perceive faces. d. cannot perceive objects.

can perceive faces but cannot recognize them.

Evidence from patients with blind sight following damage to the primary visual cortex or striate cortex indicates that they

can process some visual information unconsciously, without being aware of seeing.

Research shows that children are willing to make suggestions about how to turn a toaster into a coffee pot but deny the possibility of turning a skunk into a raccoon. This is evidence that

category membership depends on decisions about which features are essential to the category.

Capgras syndrome: cognitive appraisal system vs. emotional appraisal system

cognitive: underlies perceptual recognition is intact emotional: underlies the feeling of familiarity is disrupted

The integration of diverse elements in the neuronal workspace is NOT necessary for

color perception.

The corpus callosum serves what major function?

communication between hemispheres

The photoreceptors that allow you to perceive colors are called __________, while the receptors that distinguish between intensities of light are called __________.

cones; rods

In Stroop effect experiments, what is it called when the color named by the word was the same as the color of the test used for the word? Example: when the word BLUE was written in blue

congruent trials

The ___________ wiring of rods leads to __________ sensitivity to light.

convergent; increased

dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

crucial in evaluating the two sources of information, ignoring the irrelevant one, and making a decision

If a patient were to suffer amnesia similar to H.M.'s, which of the following would pose a particular problem? a) recalling the name of childhood pets. b) accessing the background knowledge necessary to understand simple stories. c) navigating streets he knew well before brain surgery. d) remembering her divorce after brain surgery.

d

Researchers in cognitive psychology rely on all of the following forms of data EXCEPT a) measurements of how long someone needs to make a response. b) the exact types of errors people make. c) which conditions lead to greater accuracy and which lead to poor accuracy. d) anecdotes and testimonials.

d

The left cerebral hemisphere receives its main input for vision from the a) left eye. b) right eye. c) left half of the visual field in both eyes. d) right half of the visual field in both eyes.

d

What is the most precise explanation for why many aspects of psychology (and most of cognitive psychology) rely on inferential methods? a) Language processing requires the ability to draw inferences. b) It is hard to know why the behavior of a particular individual changes. c) Psychology is an inaccurate science. d) Psychology often demands hypotheses about processes that cannot be observed directly in order to explain the capacities and the behaviors that we can observe.

d

When reading a story about a girl shaking a piggy bank because she wants to buy something, we understand the reasons for her action because a) our working memory fills in the background information. b) all the necessary information is already present in the story. c) the capacity of working memory is unlimited. d) we provide additional background knowledge based on our own experience.

d

Which is NOT a factor in explaining why the postsynaptic neuron's initial response may vary in size? a) the sensitivity of the postsynaptic membrane b) the quantity of neurotransmitters released by the presynaptic cell c) the accumulation of previous cell firings d) the width of the gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells

d

Which of the following concerns is NOT addressed by adopting a cognitive approach to the study of psychology? a) The study of psychology involves entities (like beliefs or desires) that cannot be directly observed. b) Many mental processes are unconscious. c) Many mental processes unfold so rapidly that it is difficult to observe them. d) Just because something happens in a laboratory experiment does not mean it necessarily happens that way in real-life settings.

d

Which of the following is the clinical term we use to describe a disturbance in the initiation or organization of voluntary action? a) aphasia b) neglect c) agnosia d) apraxia

d

Which of the following pieces of evidence would NOT be consistent with claims about the articulatory rehearsal loop? a) In working-memory tasks, when people hear "F" spoken, they sometimes remember "S" instead. b) In working-memory tasks, when people see the letter "F," they sometimes remember "S" instead. c) Repeating a nonsense syllable over and over interferes with the ability to hold a string of letters in working memory. d) Repeating a nonsense syllable over and over interferes with the ability to hold a sequence of abstract shapes in working memory.

d

Which of the following strategies might you suggest to a child who is having trouble remembering a list of things? a) Repeat a nonword over and over while memorizing, in order to prevent other real words from interfering with what he's trying to remember. b) It does not matter if she rehearses the words or not, because rehearsal has only minor and transient effects on memory. c) Insist on actually the saying the words out loud, since the words must actually be heard through the ears for the rehearsal loop to work. d) Repeat the list over and over either inside the head or out loud; either will be very effective.

d

With current neuroimaging techniques, all of the following things can be measured without in any way disturbing the participant EXCEPT a) blood flow. b) oxygen content. c) physical structures. d) neuronal firing rates.

d

Individuals with a lesion to the parietal lobe perform normally when asked to search for a single feature in a display (e.g., find the round shape) but have trouble when asked to find, for example, the "blue, round shape" among other shapes that are blue (but not round) and round (but not blue). What conclusion do these findings support? a. If you cannot detect a complex object, you cannot detect its constituent parts. b. Object identification takes place in the parietal lobe. c. Shapes are more difficult for the system to detect than colors. d. Detection of features is separate from the association of those features.

d. Detection of features is separate from the association of those features.

In a word recognition study, participants were briefly shown words that differed in frequency and familiarity. After each word was shown, participants were asked to report aloud what word they had seen. Their accuracy recognizing these words is represented in the graph. Which of the following is the BEST interpretation of the data? a. The words that are naturally easy to recognize are used more frequently. b. Low-frequency words are recognized about half the time, near the level that would be expected by chance. c. People only have difficulty with recognizing primed, high-frequency words. d. The results demonstrate both a priming effect and an effect of frequency.

d. The results demonstrate both a priming effect and an effect of frequency.

The Rumelhart and McClelland model is different from the simple feature model in all the following ways EXCEPT that it includes a. bidirectional activation. b. inhibition as well as excitation. c. top-down processing. d. activation from the feature level to the letter level.

d. activation from the feature level to the letter level.

Donovan looks in a mirror and perceives his own face, but thinks he is seeing a stranger. Donovan most likely has a. Capgras syndrome. b. change blindness. c. associative agnosia. d. prosopagnosia.

d. prosopagnosia.

Which effect CANNOT be explained by feature nets? a. the word-superiority effect b. the well-formedness effect c. the ability to read letter strings like PIRT but not ITPR d. the effects of sentence context

d. the effects of sentence context

In an experiment, people were asked to memorize words in a way that focused either on meaning (deep-processing condition) or sound (shallow-processing condition). Then they were asked to recall the words, cued with hints that either matched their learning (e.g., cued with sound hints if sound was focused on during learning) or did not match (e.g., cued with meaning hints if they focused on sound during learning) . The results showed that recall was best for participants in the:

deep processing, matched cues condition.

The pattern of causal relationships within a problem is the problem's

deep structure.

Which of the following is NOT an attribute of the prototype theory?

defining features

Which is LEAST well established as a contributor to the forgetting of traumatic events?

deliberate forgetting, or repression, on the part of the traumatized individual

The role of the anterior cingulate cortex, with regard to the neuronal workspace, is to

detect and resolve conflicts among different brain systems.

Each of the following is evidence for a feature theory of perception, EXCEPT

detecting an embedded figure (including its features) is independent of the way the form is parsed.

The photoreceptors called rods are good for navigating in what kind of environment?

dimly lit

transcranial magnetic stimulation

direct stimulation of the cerebral cortex induced by magnetic fields generated outside the skull; light up Utilized experimentally by producing a temporary lesion - allowing to identify what functions are compromised when a particular bit of brain tissue is briefly turned off.

Explicit memories are revealed by _______ memory tests, such as _______, whereas implicit memories are revealed by _______ memory tests, such as _______.

direct, recall; indirect, priming

As one of their main goals, the original behaviorists tried to

discover a set of principles concerned with how behavior changes in response to different configurations of stimuli.

Which of the following tasks has NOT been connected with the amygdala?

discriminating between internal and external events

Someone with a larger working memory capacity is likely to perform better than someone with a smaller working memory capacity on all of the following tasks EXCEPT

discriminating shapes

According to most current thinking, what process is impaired (in the affected half of space) in patients with unilateral neglect syndrome?

disengaging attention from its current focus

In a game where one chooses cards from either a high-risk or low-risk stack, participants with damage to the orbitofrontal cortex

displayed an emotional response only after turning over a card.

how to find the error rate?

divide the number of incorrect trails for a condition by the total number of trials for the condition

If the word "trum" is flashed quickly on a screen, people are most likely to recognize it as

drum

If the word "trum" is presented, people are most likely to recognize it as

drum.

feature analysis

each stimuli is processed by recognizing several distinctive features rather than a basic template. this is consistent with neurological studies in which different neurons in the visual cortex respond to different stimuli (vertical/horizontal lines). However, this theory is still too limited.

Which effect CANNOT be explained by feature nets?

effects of sentence context

Which is of the following is MOST effective for long-term retention?

elaborative rehearsal.

A central problem in Capgras syndrome seems to be difficulty with

emotional analysis of faces.

For a procedure that relies on processing fluency, what matters most is _______ the test stimulus.

encountering

scripts

event schemas, such as a birthday party

Martin is trying to understand why he's been forgetting things lately. As a well-trained cognitive psychologist, Martin is likely to investigate this puzzle by

examining the circumstances associated with his memory failures, including the complexity or familiarity of the material and how fully he paid attention to the material during learning.

The idea that we categorize objects based on their similarity to previously stored instances is known as

exemplar theory.

Which approach best explains knowledge of variability and distinctions within a category?

exemplars

Research suggests that you usually rely on _______ to aid in categorization of an unfamiliar concept. In contrast, for a highly familiar concept, you are more likely to rely on _______ to aid in categorization.

exemplars; both prototypes and exemplars

Which of the following provide(s) us with an understanding of cause and effect?

explanatory theories

The dangers of source confusion are particularly relevant to which real-world situation?

eyewitness identification

mood congruency memory bias effects occur only when you are in a negative mood

false

In full report tasks, people correctly recall 50% of letters on average from the matrix, whereas in partial report tasks, people correctly recall 90% of letters on average from a given row

false - in full report tasks, people correctly recall 50% of the letters (4.5 letters) on average from matrix. In partial report tasks, however people correctly recall 75% of letters on average from a given row

In a production task, the _______ category members that a person mentions are also the category members that produce the fastest reaction times in a sentence-verification task.

first

People are often selective in how they search memory for evidence. As a result, they usually search memory

for evidence that might confirm their current beliefs.

Which lobe or cortex is farthest from the cerebellum?

frontal

_______ is a brain-imaging technique that shows us precisely which areas of the brain are active at a particular moment in time; _______ is a technique that shows us the exact structure of each of the brain's parts.

functional MRI (fMRI); MRI

Using converging methods when constructing a theoretical account is

good because it works to eliminate alternative hypotheses.

Problem-solving heuristics do NOT

guarantee a feasible solution.

Someone with anterograde amnesia

has no explicit memory for events after the onset of amnesia.

Compared with nonexperts, experts in a particular field will

have more complex explanatory theories.

You've met a researcher at a conference who says she is of the same school of thought as the famous nineteenth-century scholars Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener. You can gather from this statement that she feels the best way to study thoughts is to

have only highly trained and qualified people introspect about their own thoughts.

Memories that are not lost within a few years of their acquisition

have probably achieved a state of permastore.

Which event will affect working memory performance during a free-recall task?

having participants count backward by threes for 30 seconds before recalling the list

Which of the following is LEAST likely to promote misremembering?

having some involvement in an event rather than just witnessing it

Which of the following best describes the serial position curve for an experiment conducted with a delay between the presentation of a list and participants' recall of that list?

high percentage of recall for the first few positions in the list and low recollection for all other items in the list - when there is a delay between the presentation of a list and recollection of that list, we still observe the primary effect, but we no longer observe the recency effect because at the end of a list are no longer in working memory at the time of recall

You live in western Massachusetts and need to get to San Francisco to close a business deal by the following night. Because the only flights that are available are in Boston, you drive east to Boston in order to catch the first flight to San Francisco that morning. This solution would NOT have been possible if you had exclusively employed a

hill-climbing strategy.

Damage to the _______ tends to result in _______.

hippocampus; anterograde amnesia

In a digit-span task, a person hears a series of items and has to repeat them back immediately in correct sequence. This task is often understood to measure the

holding capacity of working memory.

reaction time

how long it takes for psychological process to occur in our brains

top-down processing

how our conscious expectations affect perception Ex: Msispleld wodrs epaxmle; pig nose in fog

Practice Quizzes

https://wwnorton.com/college/psych/cognition5/ch/04/quiz.aspx

Qualitative vs. Quantitative

https://www.simplypsychology.org/qualitative-quantitative.html Emperical textual vs. numerical data gathering

hierarchical structure

if an item is found under one concept, which is itself nested within another higher concept, the original item belongs to both higher-level concepts

People are MOST likely to use heuristics

if they are under time pressure.

People seem NOT to have pragmatic reasoning schemata that apply to situations involving

if-then relations in general.

Necker Cube

illustrates how features remain constant, but form shifts

gamma band oscillation

in neural synchrony, the cells are firing at roughly 40 times per second, a rate called gamma band oscillation

In Stroop effect experiments, what is it called when the color named by the word was a different color than the word itself? Example: when the word BLUE was written in red

incongruent trials

The use of computers as a metaphor for how humans process information BEST typifies which approach?

information-processing psychology

Individuals with greater working-memory capacity will tend to show advantages over those with smaller working-memory capacity EXCEPT when

initiating routinized, automatic tasks.

Data from people with anarthria, the inability to speak, suggest that

inner speech relies on brain areas responsible for planning speech.

John has apperceptive agnosia. This means that he cannot

integrate perceptual information to perceive intact objects.

John has apperceptive agnosia. This means that he cannot a. recognize faces. b. perceive faces. c. perceive shapes, colors, or positions of objects. d. integrate perceptual information to perceive intact objects.

integrate perceptual information to perceive intact objects.

Rugby players' recall of the names of their teammates suffered based on the number of intervening games, not based on the mere passage of time. This study demonstrates that

interference is a major contributor to forgetting.

The famous psychologist Edward Titchener claimed to have identified and catalogued nearly 10,000 sensations that he observed within himself. What method best describes his approach?

introspection

Results of the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) procedure demonstrate

intrusion errors based on semantic knowledge.

Consciousness

is a state of awareness of sensation or ideas.

When listening intently to one message, you are likely to detect your name if it is spoken in a different message. This is likely to be because your name

is a stimulus for which you are well primed.

Photoreceptors A and B are receiving the same high levels of stimulation. They in turn activate interneurons A' and B', respectively, by the same amount. However, interneuron A' shows a lower level of activity relative to interneuron B'. A likely explanation for this fact is that interneuron A'

is being laterally inhibited by other nearby cells

encoding specificity principle

is the idea that any stimulus that is encoded along with an experience can later trigger a memory for the experience

Mood congruency

is the tendency to remember emotionally charged information best when you are in a mood matching that emotion more likely to occur during free recall rather than recognition

According to some current theories, information that is consciously available is considered trustworthy enough to act upon whenever

it is confirmed by multiple systems.

which of the following statements is true of mood congruency?

it is the tendency to remember emotionally charged information best when you are in a mood matching that emotion

temporal lobe

language (Wernicke's area- understanding speech), hearing

What is the process that leads to a stronger response from cells detecting the edge of a surface than from cells detecting the middle of a surface?

lateral inhibition

example of cognitive function

learning to read and understand language

amygdala

limbic system component associated with emotion, particularly fear and anger

hippocampus

limbic system component associated with memory

hypothalamus

limbic system component that regulates hunger, body temperature and other functions

feature detectors

lines/shapes come together to make a letter, and then that is when the bigram detectors pick it up to make a word.

MRI

magnetic resonance imaging; light up

Intrusion errors are NOT typically caused by

maintenance rehearsal.

Which of the following is likely to INCREASE the intrusion of schematic knowledge in later recall?

making an effort to fill in the gaps in one's memories

The strategy whereby one compares the current state to the goal state, often using this information to break a large problem into smaller subproblems, is called

means-end analysis.

EEG

measures electrical activity in the brain; light up

Performance on a span task is typically reduced when the participant has to perform concurrent articulation. This finding suggests that

memory performance suffers if the person is prevented from subvocalizing while memorizing.

long term memory

memory that you can access a few minutes later

limbic system

memory, emotion, and goal-directed behavior. Contains hippocampus and amygdala

cognition

mental activity that includes thinking and understanding gained from thinking, such as memory and intelligence

Converging Method

methods that allow you to test different aspects of a question, which will help with discounting possible alternative hypotheses.

Interposition (pg94)

monocular depth cue; if one object partially blocks our view of another object, we perceive it as closer

word-superiority effect

more accurate and more efficient in recognizing words than they are recognizing individual letters.

Patient L.M. has a lesion in the MT area of the visual cortex and was diagnosed with akinetopsia. This means that she is unable to perceive

motion

Patient L.M. was diagnosed with akinetopsia. This means that she is unable to perceive

motion

The all-or-none law states that

neurons all fire at the same rate, and so a neuron is either firing at the standard rate or not at all.

According to interference theory, most forgetting is attributable to the fact that

new learning disrupts or overwrites old learning.

Utility theory seems implausible as a(n) _______ theory of decision making and, for many people, is morally unacceptable as a(n) _______ theory of decision making.

normative; descriptive

Correct Some false memories can be implanted in children, but not ones about major traumatic events.

nothing that we know of reliably distinguishes true and false memories

Modern psychologists follow the lead of Immanuel Kant in arguing that the solution to the impasse between introspectionism and behaviorism lies in a method in which we begin with _______ and then proceed to _______.

observable facts; likely internal causes

The primary visual cortex is located in the __________ lobe.

occipital

A patient with visual agnosia is most likely to show abnormalities in the pathway leading from the __________ to the __________.

occipital lobe; temporal lobe

When Betty (an English speaker) is shown strings of letters tachistoscopically, she overregularizes them to follow the rules of common English spelling. This is because

of a lifetime of strengthening the bigram detectors for common English letter pairs.

Most participants in a dichotic listening task are

often able to notice personally relevant words like their names in the unattended channel.

When people are explicitly told that a particular instance is NOT representative of the larger group, they

often continue to reason as if the instance IS representative of the larger group.

All of the following are evidence that theories play an important role in conceptual knowledge EXCEPT

once people have theories, they largely abandon the use of typicality heuristics.

transcendental method

one first observes the effects or consequences of a process, and then asks what must the concept have been in order to bring about these effects?

articulatory rehearsal loop

one of the most important assistants, when trying to remember numbers while reading, you keep them in the rehearsal loop so you can keep reading with central executive

Scores on which task show the strongest correlation with reading comprehension and reasoning tasks?

operation span

Which of the following responses is a result of a rigid Einstellung?

overlooking a simple response in favor of a practiced, more difficult one

common types of errors in word recognition

overregulation

parallel processing vs serial processing

parallel: describes how various areas of the brain are involved simultaneously in processing memory serial processing: sequential processing by two or more processing units

Research about the what and where pathways suggests that the _______ lobe is important for determining the _______ of an object, whereas the _______ lobe is important for determining the _______ of the object.

parietal, location; temporal, identity

Research about the what and where pathways suggests that the __________ lobe is important for determining the __________ of an object, whereas the __________ lobe is important for determining the __________ of the object.

parietal, location; temporal, identity

during a stroop test, where is the meaning of words determined?

part of the brain's temporal lobe, called Wernicke's area

In an experiment performed by Jacoby in 1983, participants saw a word and had to "generate" (and remember) its antonym. In the "context" condition, participants saw both the word and its antonym and had to remember the latter. In the "no context" condition participants were just shown the word to remember. On a standard recognition test

participants from the "generate" condition performed best.

Kahneman and Tversky (1973) asked participants to make judgments about the likelihood that people with certain characteristics were lawyers or engineers. These participants were also told the proportion of people in the overall population who were lawyers or engineers. In this situation,

participants ignored base rate and relied only on diagnostic information.

Participants were presented with an example of a newly discovered bird, a newly discovered element, or a member of a newly discovered island culture. When asked to generalize about these categories,

participants required several examples of the bird, all of which were blue, before agreeing that all members of the new bird species were blue.

All of the following are problems for the prototype and exemplar accounts of categorization EXCEPT

participants' ratings of membership in a novel category change with experience.

In the "Hobbits and Orcs" problem, the ratio of Hobbits to Orcs traveling on the boat would be considered

path constraint.

recency effect

people also have a good memory for items at the end of a list

Which of the following is a key finding from research using memory tests like this one in this ZAPs lab?

people believe the lure word was present in the list just as frequently as other words that actually did appear in the list

anterograde amnesia

people can no longer for new long term memories

primacy effect

people have a good memory for items at the beginning of a list

Over and over, research shows us that

people's introspections are often wrong, even if they are extremely confident in them.

Expectation-based priming suggests that

perception works within a limited-capacity system.

The hierarchy of linguistic units, from smallest to largest, is

phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases.

Which of the following is an extralinguistic cue used for sentence parsing?

physical context

bigram detectors

pick up letters that go together, like RN. They pair off in two letters until a full word is made eventually.

Which of the following would be LEAST likely to serve as an effective prime for the word "bread"?

pie

The only difference between the [p] and the [t] phonemes is

place of articulation.

frontal lobe

planning and organizing, socioemotional understanding, movement, Broca's area (producing speech)

In using the rehearsal loop, the central executive is directly involved in the step of

planning the end-goal of the rehearsal.

Maintenance rehearsal is:

poorly suited for delayed recall, even if you knew you would be tested.

PET scan

positron emission tomography scan; light up

Schemata do all of the following EXCEPT

prevent us from confusing an event with other, similar events.

What factor about a person will BEST predict ability to memorize complex information about biology?

previous related biology knowledge

In this graph for recall in a word-learning paradigm, "A" reflects the _______ effect and "B" reflects the _______effect.

primacy; recency

binding problem

question of how the various pieces of info picked up by the various types of cells are integrated to form a single, organized perception. (the blue cup example)

Saccades

rapid voluntary movements of the eyes from one place to another

Patients who have suffered damage to the occipital-parietal or dorsal pathway (the "where" system) will have difficulties with which of the following tasks?

reaching in the correct direction to retrieve the toothbrush

typical results of the stroop test

reaction times in the incongruent trials are higher than reaction times in the congruent trials

Patients with unilateral neglect resulting from damage to the right hemisphere will

read only the right half of words shown to them.

In the Gick and Holyoak paradigm (1980), participants were required to solve the tumor problem. Those who demonstrated the fastest solution times were the participants who

read the "General and Fortress" solution and were told to apply it to the tumor problem.

It's a rainy night on campus in the middle of finals week. You have a statistics exam the next day, and you study for it while listening to a playlist of sad music. The combination of the weather, finals, and the playlist put you in a gloomy mood you wake up the next morning feeling much more upbeat, but you can't remember everything you studied last night. what can you do to job your memory?

reading through your notes while listening to the playlist from last night

Which testing method mainly targets explicit, rather than implicit, memory?

recall tasks

In the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) procedure, participants are asked to remember a list of words like "bed, snooze, awake, tired, dream, rest"—all words concerning the topic of sleep. However, the word "sleep" is not on the list. After this procedure, participants

recall the word "sleep" being on the list even if they were explicitly warned to be careful.

A question like, "What's the name of the waiter?" requires _______; a question like, "Isn't that the guy we usually see on the bus?" requires _______.

recall; recognition

Which behavior is LEAST likely to be demonstrated by a Korsakoff's patient?

recalling that a sentence was heard earlier in the test but feeling no sense of familiarity about the sentence

In a basic-recall task, participants read a story about a character named Nancy and her behavior at a party. During recall, participants

remembered more details and made inferences about the story if they received a prologue giving additional context.

When people reconstruct their thought processes, what does it most often feel like?

remembering

If a patient were to suffer amnesia similar to H.M.'s, which of the following would pose a particular problem?

remembering her divorce after brain surgery.

Which of the following is an example of recall?

remembering the name of your fifth-grade teacher when asked

Which of the following would help improve recall of a difficult-to-understand paragraph the LEAST?

repeating the paragraph aloud many times

A participant reads a list of words in which the word "elephant" appears several times. Later, the participant tachistoscopically views another list of words. When the word "elephant" appears in the second list, the participant's response rate is faster than for other words not found on the previous list. This effect is called

repetition priming

hearing or reading a word frequently increases the ease and speed of its recognition because of this phenomenon in lexical decision

repetition priming

sentence verification tasks

response times (RT pg 18) of subjects on each sentence are measured and used as evidence for the existence of this type of network

Eli can remember what he did last week, but he cannot remember the birth of his cousin (which happened immediately before Eli received a head injury in a motorcycle accident). What is Eli's condition?

retrograde amnesia

The left cerebral hemisphere receives its main input for vision from the

right half of the visual field in both eyes.

Which of the following is a function morpheme?

s

A cross-country decides to eat at a local restaurant she has never heard of. She walks in and sees a counter that contains cash register machines; a menu hangs above the counter. Behind the counter, employees wearing headsets and paper hats hustle to and fro, pulling food from a service window and placing it onto trays. These images will most likely trigger a ______ that will lead the traveler to believe she should _________

schema; order at the counter and then seat herself

cognitive psychology

scientific study of acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge helps us to understand capacities relevant to virtually every moment of our lives. Activities that don't appear to be intellectual would collapse without the support of our cognitive functioning. The same is true whether we're considering our physical movements through the world, our social lives, our emotions or any other domain = Scope of cognitive psychology.

cognitive psychology

scientific study of knowledge

When you make an overregularization error in visual perception, what is the subjective experience like?

seeing

All of the following are true with regard to the presentation of multiple analogues EXCEPT

seeing multiple analogues is helpful for experts, but for novices it is just confusing.

Children's overregularization production errors

seem to be caused by an understanding of rules.

bottom-up processing

sensation and perception (shape, color, etc.); information processing that begins at the sensory receptors and works up to perception

iconic memory

sensory memory of visual information 1/3 second

According to the modal model, all of the following are true EXCEPT

short-term memory's size can be expanded with sufficient practice.

tachistoscope

shown a word or letter very quickly, such as DARK, followed by a mask, (TXVW), followed by the question did you see dare or dark? it shows how our brains more accurately remember words over letters

working memory: subvocalization

silently pronouncing words

Recognition by components

similar to feature analysis, but takes into account 3-D shapes ("geons")

parietal lobe

spatial skills, sensations

concurrent articulation

speak or mime speech while doing some other task (tah tah tah tah tah). this occupies the musceles and control mechanisms needed for speech, so they prevent the person from using these resources for subvocalization.

In the absence of attention

stimuli may not be consciously perceived but can still have an influence on the perceiver.

In an experiment designed to test the receptive field of a center-surround cell, a stimulus was placed in several locations. In one instance the firing rate of the cell DECREASED below its normal (base-rate) rate. This most likely occurred because the

stimulus was in the part of the cell's receptive field that causes inhibition of firing rather than excitation.

Regarding the use of analogies in problem solving,

students taught new information via analogy were better able to make inferences from that information than other students.

Phenomenal consciousness refers to

subjective experience.

In her research study, Meg presents the word "bread" so quickly that participants are not aware that they have seen it. Still, they are faster to respond to the word "butter" when it is presented a few moments later, compared to a control condition. In this case, "bread" acts as a

subliminal prime.

An individual suffering with smaller working memory would be LEAST likely to exhibit which of the following behaviors?

taking an alternative route to school after learning about a traffic jam on the traditional route

Stroop test

task designed to measure conflicts between two sensory inputs that is perhaps the most widely used and important of all cognitive tests

Divided attention requires enough mental resources to attend to both tasks. These limited mental resources include all of the following EXCEPT

task-general storage space like long-term memory.

object recognition

template matching, feature analysis, recognition by components

While under hypnosis, people

tend to talk more about the event they are being questioned about.

recency of use (including priming)

tendency to remember materials that occur late in a series. priming: a process through which one input or cue prepares a person for an upcoming input or cue.

The response of a center-surround cell

tends to be in one direction (e.g., increased firing) if the stimulation is in the center of the cell's receptive field and in the opposite direction (e.g., decreased firing) if the stimulation is in the periphery of the receptive field.

Unconscious influences on conscious thinking include all of the following EXCEPT

the "inner dialogue" we sometimes have.

Form

the Gestalt totality of that which is being viewed

acuity

the ability to see fine detail, it is much higher for the cones than it is for the rods

repetition priming

the activation of a word after the first presentation takes some time to fade and then when it is presented again it takes less time for its threshold to be activated again

When reasoning, it is important to consider the overall likelihood that an individual will be in one category or another, independent of diagnostic information. This overall likelihood is called

the base rate.

cognitive neuroscience

the broad set of mental activities of which we are completely unaware that makes possible our ordinary thinking, remembering, reasoning, and so on.

memory bias

the changing of memories to fit current beliefs or attitudes

Which hypothesis about forgetting points to the fact that over time, relevant brain cells die off and connections between memories gradually weaken?

the decay hypothesis

suggestibility

the development of false memories from misleading information

Which effect(s) CANNOT be explained by simple feature nets (i.e., feature nets without bigrams)?

the effect of sentence context

A synapse is usually composed of

the end of an axon, a space, and the receiving membrane on another neuron's dendrites.

A synapse is usually composed of:

the end of an axon, a space, and the receiving membrane on another neuron's dendrites.

principle of inheritance

the features are only stored once and as high as possible in the hierarchy

Intellectual functions like making judgments, retrieving memories, and paying attention depend primarily on tissues specialized for these purposes, which are located in

the forebrain.

Optical illusions, such as the Ponzo illusion in which line 1 appears to be longer than line 2 despite the opposite being true, have been useful in studying the dissociations between action and perception. Suppose participants were asked to estimate the length of line 2 with the aperture of the thumb and index finger. From what we know of the dorsal (where/action) and ventral (what) pathways, we should predict that

the illusions mainly affected the ventral stream processing

Features

the individual details of a stimulus: the angles, the curves, the parallel lines, the coloring etc.

retina

the light sensitive tissue that lines the back of the eyeball

Errors in reasoning about conditional statements are LESS common when

the logical rule under question is modus ponens rather than modus tollens.

When someone asks you to pass the salt at the dinner table, you are able to understand the request even if it is asked in a variety of different ways. This illustrates that

the meaning of an utterance, not the physical stimulus, is most important for predicting behavior.

midbrain

the middle division of brain responsible for hearing and sight; location where pain is registered; includes temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and most of the parietal lobe

Two parents are presented in a hypothetical child-custody case. One parent has moderate traits, while the other has some positive and some negative traits. When asked to whom they would award child custody, the majority of people choose

the parent with both positive and negative traits.

In this drawing, parts A, B, C, and D are:

the parietal lobe, the frontal lobe, the temporal lobe, and the occipital lobe.

The fact that new words in English very rarely start with sound combinations like "tl" or "ks" demonstrates

the phonological rules of English.

hindbrain

the posterior portion of the brain including cerebellum and brainstem

according to the network proposed by Collins and Quillian, common characteristics that different breeds of dogs share (fur, tail, sharp hearing) will appear once and as high up as possible in the network. What is this concept called?

the principle of inheritance

introspection

the process through which one "looks within," to observe and record the contents of one's own mental life

working memory

the processing system that keeps information available for current use, can only maintain 5-9 pieces of information for up to 20 to 30 seconds

The Collins and Quillian model proposes that categorical information is organized hierarchally what is one important difference between this model and a spreading activation model?

the relationship between concepts in a spreading activation model can strengthen or weaken depending on typicality and frequency of occurrence

echoic memory

the sensory memory store of auditory information the duration of echoic memory is substantially longer than that of iconic memory 4 seconds

The "all-or-none" law states that

the signal traveling down a neuron's axon does not vary in size.

morpheme

the smallest unit of language that carries meaning

In an experiment designed to test the receptive field of a center-surround cell, a stimulus was placed in several locations. In one instance the firing rate of the cell DECREASED below its normal (base-rate) rate. This most likely occurred because

the stimulus was in the part of the cell's receptive field that causes inhibition of firing rather than excitation.

The existence of functional localization is supported in part by the fact that

the symptoms produced by brain damage depend on exactly where in the brain the damage is located.

Binding problem

the task of reuniting the various elements of a scene that are initially addressed by different systems in different parts of the brain

law of closure

the tendency for people to perceive complete figures even when the actual figures are not complete.

Size constancy

the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance

Shape constancy

the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina

Brightness constancy

the tendency to perceive the apparent brightness of an object as the same even when the light conditions change

mood dependency

the tendency to remember information best in the same mood in which you learned it

cornea

the transparent tissue at the front of each eye that plays an important role in focusing the incoming light

lens

the transparent tissue located near the front of the eye, together with the cornea plays an important role in focusing the incoming light Muscles control the degree of curvature of the lens allowing the eye to form a sharp image on the retina

fovea

the very center of the retina

The short-term storage of verbal materials is often supported by the rehearsal loop. The short-term storage of mental images is accomplished by _______.

the visuospatial buffer

Which is NOT a factor in explaining why the postsynaptic neuron's initial response may vary in size?

the width of the gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells

convolution

the wrinkles visible in the cortex that allow the enormous surface area of the brain to be stuffed into the small volume of the skull

All of the following contribute evidence for a dissociation between explicit and implicit memory EXCEPT

there is a dissociation between the primacy and recency effect in the serial position curve.

With regard to the "man who" arguments described by Nisbett and Ross (1980)

they reflect our willingness to take a small sample of data as seriously as a larger sample.

spreading activation model

this model explains not only the typicality effect but also many other effects that have been revealed through sentence verification tasks

how is the transcendental method relevant to a rejection of radical behaviorism and a move toward cognitive psychology?

though we can't actually see it, we see evidence it exists.

Which of the following is NOT one of the functions of attention as discussed by the textbook?

to consolidate newly acquired memories

forebrain

top of the brain which includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex; responsible for emotional regulation, complex thought, memory aspect of personality

Researchers use various brain-imaging techniques to chart the structure of the brain and to measure the activation levels at any moment in time in each part of the brain. These imaging techniques include all of the following EXCEPT

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS).

what is the Stroop cognitive test based upon?

troop effect

During flue season, people are more likely to ask "Do you have any kleenex?" than "do you have tissues?" this is best explained as the typicality effect

true

words are most likely stored in the mental lexicon by semantics so that table would be closer to chair that it would be to tape

true

T/F: anarthic (people who can't use their muscles used in speech) can have subvocalization ability.

true. actual muscle movements are not needed for subvocalization. Instead, inner speech relies on the brain areas responsible for planning the muscle movements of speech.

Evidence suggests that

unattended stimuli are more fully processed if the attended input is particularly simple.

Clinical Neuropsychology (pg 18)

unites the areas of biopsychology and clinical psychology, focusing on the relationship between biological factors and psychological disorders Focuses on the origin of psychological disorders in biological factors

Chess experts are better at remembering chess positions than novices because they

use chunking strategies.

working memory: span test

used for measuring working memory's holding capacity. list 4 letters, then 5, then 6, etc. until they make an error.

what/where system in the parietal cortex

various brain areas are responsible for shape, color, size, and motion. the blue color of the cup THERE, the cup shape THERE, the large thing THERE, and moving slightly THERE.

rhythm/neural synchrony

various cells fire in synchrony with each other, thus the brain notes that the stimuli are perceiving the same object.

Some resources are task specific and others are task general. Which of the following is a task-specific resource?

verbal resources for tasks involving words

Women and men in general are matched on IQ scores. However, women score higher on tests of _______ ability whereas men score higher on tests of _______ ability.

verbal; spatial

during a troop test, where is the color of the text determined?

visual areas of the occipital lobe

occipital lobe

visual perception (man who mistook his wife for a hat)

Gestalt principle

ways that the brain can infer missing parts of an image when it is incomplete perception is guided by proximity and similarity when you see elements that are close to each other or resemble each other you assume these elements are parts of the same object

closure

we fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object tendency to see incomplete figures as complete

template matching

we have patterns stored in memory. However, this process is too inflexible and only works for basic stimuli (letters, etc.)

continuity

we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones we tend to follow elements of something in the direction they appear to be going

When reading a story about a girl shaking a piggy bank because she wants to buy something, we understand the reasons for her action because

we provide additional background knowledge based on our own experience.

proximity

we see things as appearing close, as belonging together

In one study, participants saw a video of a car wreck and were then asked questions about what they had seen. Participants who heard the question, "How fast were the cars going when they hit each other"

were less likely than those individuals who had heard "smashed into each other" to recall that they had seen broken glass.

Cognitive psychology is primarily concerned with which of the following?

what we know, what we remember, and how we think

retrieval cues

when we learn information _____________ are encoded along with the information

overregulation errors

where one perceives or remembers a word or event as being closer to the norm than it really is. Ex: msispleld wodrs can be read normally with minimal effort

As part of a pronunciation task, you are presented with a list of made-up names. Later, during a second, unrelated task, some of the names appear again. Which factor will LEAST influence the likelihood that you will think the name belongs to a famous person?

whether the names are presented in the auditory or visual modality

You are at a cocktail party conversing with a friend. In this situation, you are LEAST likely to hear

whether the person behind you is speaking intelligently or foolishly.

Phrase-structure rules help explain all of the following EXCEPT why

why English-speaking children first learning to speak know more nouns than verbs.

Categorical perception can explain

why we more easily detect differences between two phonemic categories than variations within a single category.

Patients with blind sight

will reach toward targets and adjust their hand position appropriately.

congruent trials

words and colors match

incongruent trials

worst and colors do not match

cerebral cortex

wrinkled outer portion of brain; center for higher order brain functions such as thinking, planning, judgment; processes sensory information and directs movement Include regions with it's own functions: MOTOR AREAS contain brain tissue crucical for organizing and controlling bodily movements SENSORY AREAS contain tissue crucial for organizing and analyzing the information received from the senses ASSOCIATION AREAS support many functions, including essential human activity we call "thinking"

CT scan

xray

familiarity of the word

you remember the word better the more familiar you are to it