Cognition Exam 2 PSY 440 (STM, LTM, Semantic, Memory Failure)

Echoic memory is thought to last

longer than the icon, perhaps up to 3-4 seconds

One criticism of visual imagery research is that the studies:

may involve demand characteristics.

Anderson's procedural memory

memory for skills - examples: tying shoes, typing, writing, dancing, etc

schema theory of memory

memory is filtered through our schema--cognitive structures or frameworks that influence how we look at the world

reconstructive memory

memory that has been simplified, enriched, or distorted, depending on an individual's experiences and attitudes

Semantic Processing

processing a word by its meaning

According to Anderson, procedural memory represents information as:

production rules.

decay theory

proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time

Some theorists believe that there is a single code for all types of information; this code is known as a _______ representation.

propositional.

In Godden and Baddeley's study of scuba divers, the best recall was achieved by divers who:

studied and took their test in the same location, whether that was under water or on land

Inhibition in memory

stopping or overriding of a mental process, in whole or in part, with or without intention

visuospatial working memory

stores visual and spatial information, including visual imagery

Meyer and Schvaneveldt

string of letters and respond yes is both are words no if not (lexical decision task)

What is the capacity of short term memory?

7 +/- 2

Encoding Specificity Principle: Mood Congruency (internal cue)

Our emotional state/mood allowing us to retrieve other emotional memories ex: someone happy, easy to recall happy memories

A retrieval cue will be effective if and only if it reinstates the context of the to-be-remembered event, according to the principle of:

encoding specificity

Collins and Loftus's spreading activation theory differs from the hierarchical network theory in that:

it dispenses with the idea of cognitive economy.

repitition priming

it's easier to recognize face/word if you have recenlty seen that same face/word

In Collins and Loftus's spreading activation theory, very similar concepts:

are placed close to each other and have many connecting links

Neurological studies indicate that processing mental images activates:

areas of the brain involved in visual perception

Repeating a phone number to yourself to hold it in memory while you dial it would use which component of working memory?

the phonological loop

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Psychologists believe that the capacity of long-term memory is:

unlimited.

What is the duration of short term memory?

18-30 seconds

A ________ is a mental representation of some object, event, or pattern.

concept

Priming in lexical decision tasks may be explained by the idea of

spreading activation.

Studies of semantic memory have shown that in a lexical decision task, people are faster at responding to the stimulus "bread" if it is paired with a stimulus such as:

"butter".

Loftus and Pickrell

"lost in the mall" study

Priming Effects Theory

(Graf, Squire, & Mandler, 1984) -amnesiac and normal participants -study: list of words -test: stem completion -instructed to write the first word that comes to mind -instructed to use the stem to recall the previous words -results -implicit instructions (amnesiac performance = to nonamnesiac) -explicit instructions (amnesiac performance < nonamnesiac)

Perceptual Categories

(Rosch-Heider, 1972) Dani of New Guinea do not have a color naming system (just dark and light). Learned to associate names with color chips more rapidly when the colors were prototypical (e.g., a pure green versus mint green) Even categories that do not rely on spoken language has typical and atypical members

Craik and Tulving (1975)

- Compared 3 types of encoding for effectiveness in processing verbal information (visual/acoustic/semantic encoding) - Asked subjects a question about the word they were about to see, one that requires them to process (encode) the word either visually, acoustically, or semantically -Afterward, researchers gave subjects a surprise memory test. RESULTS: Semantic encoding (encoding the MEANING of the stimulus) led more subjects to later recognize words

Factors that Influence Eyewitness Memory

-Duration of the event -Race of the perpetrator -Distinctiveness of the perpetrator -Presence of a weapon (weapon focus effect) -Central versus peripheral details -Amount of time between an event and its retrieval -Changes is facial features

Contributors of False Memory

-Expectations and Stereotypes -Source Monitoring -Imagination -Repetition

Implicit test of memory

-Perceptual tasks -fragment completion (e.g., co_n_ti_n) -stem completion (e.g., mem_ _ _) -anagrams (e.g., cdoneign) -picture naming (e.g., ) -Conceptual tasks -word association -category verification

Nickerson & Adams (1979) penny study

-conducted an experiment where participants were asked to identify true US penny - most failed because they did not encode info to long term memory

Jacoby, Kelley, Brown, and Jasechko's (1989)

-false fame effect -illustrates how failures in source information can lead to false memories -Procedure participants first received a list of nonfamous names (e.g., Valerie Marsh and Lester Dillard) and were told that these names were nonfamous people the same participants were later provided with a list of famous (e.g., Minnie Pearl and Winston Churchill) and nonfamous names and were asked to determine whether or not a name belonged to an actual famous person some of the names were repeated from the previous list

heirarchical network model

-semantic memory is organized as a hierarchical network of units(nouns), properties(verbs or adjs), and pointers(relation between units) -our semantic network has two main components: node-like structure and a question interface -equal link lengths -efficient filing system-Cognitive Economy -spreading activation

Allen and Brooks (1991)

-support the role that episodes can have on categorization -participants were presented a rule to distinguish "Builders" from "Diggers" -practiced applying the rule on 40 pictures -participants were given a classification tests on new pictures some of the pictures were similar to practice items but the creature was changed -participants were more likely to use the old creatures name than the new one -participants used episodic information about the picture, rather than the semantic rule

conceptually driven processing and perceptually driven processing

-the hypothesis that separate mental processes not memory systems have developed to perform specific functions -Transfer-appropriate processing -Performance will be best when the processes demanded by a task match the processes engaged by prior experience Jacoby and Dallas (1981)

Interference of Memory

1. proactive interference- Inability to recall new information due to information that was previously learned. E.g. remembering where I parked my car will be more difficult if I park it somewhere completely different than I normally park it. 2. Retroactive interference-Inability to recall old information due to new information learned. E.G. Learning new addresses and zip codes interferes with ability to recall old ones.

You have just listened to a list of 20 words. When asked to recall these words in any order, you are LEAST LIKELY to recall the

10th word

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

mood-congruent memory

A memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one's mood.

feature comparison model

A model proposing that items are categorized by matching the item's features to category features

semantic priming

A process in which activation of an idea in memory causes activation to spread to other ideas related to the first in meaning.

Brown-Peterson Task

A simple three-letter stimulus was presented to the subject, followed by a three-digit number. Subjects were instructed first to attend to the stimulus, then to begin counting backward by threes from the number they were shown. This counting was a distracter task designed to prevent rehearsal and prove that forgetting caused by decay.

cue-dependent forgetting theory

A theory of forgetting that proposes that forgetting is due to the unavailability of the retrieval cues necessary to locate the information in long-term memory.

resource allocation memory

Again, that (1) emotional states regulate mental capacity which may be impaired by a depressed mood state: (2) competition exists between negative and positive cognitions, when in a depressed state.

Brown-Peterson Task Part 2

An experimental paradigm in which subjects are given a set of items and then a number. Subjects immediately begin counting backward by threes from the number and, after a specific interval, are asked to recall the original items.

Working Memory Model

An explanation of the memory used when working on a task. Each store is qualitatively different.

What is the encoding format of short term memory?

Auditory (phonetic)

phonological loop (working memory)

Briefly stores information about verbal/ language sounds, if the information is rehearsed than it can remembered for longer.

What are the characteristics of STM?

Capacity, Duration, Encoding Format (auditory)

Encoding Specificity Principle: Context Specificity (external cue)

Chewing a type of gum when studying (encoding) and chewing it while taking test (retrieval) Diving experiment

Meyer and Schvaneveldt (1971)

Context affects word recognition - RT's to indicate if a target was a word or non-word were faster when ppts had previously been primed with a semantically similar word - Ppts were faster to categorise 'nurse' as a word when they had been primed with the word 'Doctor', than when primed with the word 'bread' - Shows affect of priming: activating one word in the lexicon seems to aid recognition for semantically similar words

context effects

Describes how the context in which a stimulus occurs can contribute to how people perceive that stimulus

verbal mnemonics Chunking

Dividing a long string of info into memorable chunks.

Mood and elaborative encoding

Ellis, Thomas, & Rodriquez (1984) - 1. Subjects were asked to read a set of 10 sentences that were either simple, base sentences, or were elaborated in terms of a target adjective in the sentence. 2. The subjects were either in a sad mood or a neutral mood. 3. Subjects were unexpectedly asked to recall certain target words from the sentence by filling in sentence frames such as: The child opened the door.

Encoding Specificity Principle: Mood Dependency (internal cue)

Emotional state serving as the cue at the time of encoding (want mood to be same during encoding and retrieval)

A prototype is an actual example of a concept that you have encountered.

False

Flashbulb memories are extremely accurate, much more so than memories for everyday events

False

Research suggests that short-term memory is searched in parallel, rather than serially.

False

Your "script" for going to a restaurant probably includes specific details such as picking up a fork and chewing.

False

G. Miller

Found that the capacity of short-term memory is seven (plus or minus two) items

Verbal mnemonics - Rhymes

Groups of words with an identity and rhythm. Using tune of Twinkle Twinkle helps to remember letters of alphabet

Shepard & Metzler - 1971: Mental Rotation Experiments: Predictions:

If the objects were represented using a depictive code, then larger angular separations should produce longer reaction times: A propositional representation predicts no effect of angular separation.

Phonetic Processing

Information is processed according to how it sounds

Semantic orienting task

Instructions to focus on a particular aspect (physical, phonemic, semantic) of a stimulus

Visual imagery mnemonics

Keyword method Bizarre imagery Method of loci Peg-word method

Visual imagery mnemonics - method of loci

Learner associates part of the material to be recalled with different places in order that they are recalled.

Information such as the name of the person who sat in front of you in the fifth grade is stored in:

Long Term Memory

Visual imagery mnemonics- mind maps

Making notes of information in the form of a drawing usually a branching pattern, with the main topic in the center and ideas radiating outwards. Small sketches and color can be added. Each page therefore has a distinctive visual appearance.

implicit memory

Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously

Encoding Specificity Principle: State Dependency (internal cue)

Mental or physical states (drowsy, caffeinated, hot, cold) need this state to remain constant in learning and retrieval

mental rotation experiment

Methods: Showed subjects pairs of block objects and asked them if they were the same or different.

verbal mnemonics

Narrative chaining method Acronym-based method

Visual Processing

Parallel processing occurs at the level of bipolar and ganglion cells in the eye. Visual info is then split into two distinct pathways: one that detects motion and one that detects form, and these pathways project to separate areas of the LGN and visual cortex. From there, feature detection occurs via serial processing of the information. Shallowest LOP- leading to the worst recall Information processed according to how it looks/the structure of the word.

long-term memory (LTM)

Permanent and unlimited capacity memory system which short term memory may pass to. Is subdivided into explicit & implicit memory.

Verbal mnemonics - Acrostic

Poem or sentence where the first letter in each line or word forms the item to be remembered.

Paivio

Proposed dual-code hypothesis. this study demonstrates strong support for the proposal that people use analog codes, rather than propositional codes.

Encoding Specificity Principle: Context Specificity fact

Recall is context dependent (forgetting what you need when going to room to get it)

Propositional Network Theories

Set of interconnected concepts and relationships in which long-term knowledge is held. Rely on different types of associative links

memory systems theory

Several kinds of long term memory can be distinguished, with the different systems being supported by different brain structures

The process of ______ occurs when we move through space and revise our mental representations of where things are in the environment.

Spacial updating

Kosslyn, Ball, & Reiser (1978)

Ss first memorize a map -Next asked to image it and scan between 2 landmarks -Ss press a button when they "arrive" -Greater distance = longer scanning times

retrieval cues

Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior

Retrieval of mood

Studies of mood effects on retrieval require the induction of a mood state after subjects have processed some information.

Shepard & Metzler - 1971:Mental Rotation Experiments: Conclusion

Subjects were solving this task by mentally rotating one object until it matched the other. • The speed of the mental rotation operation is about 40 degrees per second.

Bartlett (1932)

Suggested that schemas influence memory during memory reconstruction: War of the Ghosts

Anderson's (1974) "fan effect"

Taught subjects new facts so that the strength of association could be held constant. HE then manipulated the degree of fan. -The doctor is in the bank. -The fireman is in the park. -The lawyer is in the church. -The lawyer is in the park. * After learning, Anderson gave subjects a recognition test.

imagination

The ability to think of things in ways different from how they exist in reality

elaboration hypothesis

The effect is related to the elaboration of the memory representation of the skill variations that a learner is practicing. The idea that random practice during practice causes people to elaborate or discover the distinctiveness among skills (whereas blocked practice does not), which is beneficial for performance in a retention test.

search process

The person scans his or her memory for the specific answer to a question

Deese, Roediger and McDermott's paradigm

The procedure typically involves the oral presentation of a list of related words (e.g. bed, rest, awake, tired, dream, wake, snooze, blanket, doze, slumber, snore, nap, peace, yawn, drowsy) and then requires the subject to remember as many words from the list as possible. Typical results show that subjects recall a related but nonpresented word (e.g. sleep), known as a 'lure', with the same frequency as other presented words.[1] When subjects are asked about their experience after the test, about half of all participants report that they are sure that they remember hearing the nonpresented word, indicating a false memory - memory for an event that never occurred.

source monitoring

The process of making attributions about the origins of memories.

Activation process

The questions people pose to themselves activate relevant pieces of information that have been stored in long-term memory, after which this activation then spreads simultaneously to every other associated piece of information

Studies of imaginal scanning suggest that visual images are very much like physical pictures or maps.

True

Visual imagery mnemonics- keyword method

Used why trying to associate two pieces of information. Conjuring up a visual image of the two words should trigger the recall of the word.

false memory

a distorted or fabricated recollection of something that did not actually occur

In the Brown-Peterson short-term memory task, recall performance was hurt most by:

a large number of interfering items.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

Baddeley's Working Memory Model

a more complex model than just passive STM; includes a phonological loop, visuospatial working memory, and the central executive

semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

retrieval-induced forgetting

a process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items

Roediger's work on the testing effect tells us that taking tests:

actually improves memory for material

Loftus and Palmer Experiment

car crash study - question differently, suggest by words can influence our memory (crashed/smashed/bumped)

Craik and Lockhart

developed the levels-of-processing theory of memory as an alternative to the stage theory of memory

Paivio's ____ hypothesis argues that long-term memory contains two separate systems that represent information in verbal and visual forms, respectively.

dual code.

The more facts that you learn about a particular topic, the longer it takes you to retrieve any particular fact. This is referred to as the _____ effect.

fan

According to research by Collins and Quillian, the statement "Siamese cats have blue eyes" will be verified:

faster than "Siamese cats give birth to live young."

directed forgetting

forgetting arising because of a deliberate intention to forget

Explicit test of memory

free recall recognition memory cued recall

serial position curve

graph depicting both primacy and recency effects on people's ability to recall items on a list

Semantic memory models

heirarchical network model Collins and Quillian Model Feature Comparison Model Semantic Network Model (AKA Spreading Activation Model)

The schema view of concept formation assumes that:

information is abstracted across instances.

semantic network model

model of memory organization that assumes information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion, with concepts that are related stored physically closer to each other than concepts that are not highly related

Central Executive

part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that oversees the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer. Responsible for shifting and dividing attention. Actively integrates information from phonological loop, visuospatial working memory, and long term memory as we associate old & new information, solve problems, and preform other cognitive tasks.

Learning a rhyme that begins "One is a bun, two is a shoe" is part of the mnemonic technique called the

pegword method

Nickerson and Adams showed that when it comes to memory for commonly seen objects like pennies,

people are not very good at recognizing a penny even though they see it frequently.

You are taking two psychology courses this term, a course in cognition and a course in learning. Both professors are giving midterm exams tomorrow. You have just finished studying for your cognition test, and are attempting to study for the learning exam. However, you find it difficult to recall the material on learning. You are experiencing:

proactive interference

Ebbinghaus' (1885) methods and interpretation

provided the first systematic demonstration of forgetting. -1. Learned a series of nonsense syllables until he could repeat them correctly, twice -2. Relearned the syllable series to the same criterion, at different intervals following the first learning session -3. Computed a savings score = took old learning time minus new learning time; then divided by old learning time -The above procedure is called method of savings, based on time to learn. -His forgetting curve demonstrates that most forgetting occurs very soon after learning (there is a steep drop in the graph). Forgetting then becomes more gradual. -Rate of forgetting is initially very fast and then slows down as the retention interval increases.

Shepard & Metzler - 1971: Mental Rotation Experiments: Results

reaction times increased with the angular separation between the objects; e.g., subjects needed only 2 seconds to say that two patterns separated by 40 deg were the same, but needed 4 seconds to say that two patterns separated by 140 deg were the same.

3 things that help retrieval

retrieval cues priming context effects

2 memory retrieval theories

search process activation process

Your memory for the fact that Ebbinghaus studied forgetting is an example of:

semantic memory.

Unattended information is stored briefly in

sensory memory.

Information is held in _____ for 20 to 30 seconds

short-term memory

"Cramming" for exams tends to be ineffective because of the

spacing effect

The results from the studies of Kosslyn, Ball, and Reiser indicated that:

subjects' reaction times to mentally "scan" across a map of an island were strongly correlated with the distance scanned.

When you imagine hearing a song, which part of your brain is probably active?

temporal lobes.

explicit memory

the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences

Repitition

the action of repeating something that has already been said or written.

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

Encoding Specificity Principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

The term "anterograde amnesia" refers to:

the loss of the ability to form new memories

Several mnemonic devices, including the method of loci, the pegword method, and the method of interacting images, have in common their reliance on:

visual imagery.

Distinctiveness Hypothesis (Macquire, 1978)

we highlight what makes us unique in a given social context 3. Distinctiveness Hypothesis Study -American 6th graders describe themselves -Kids in a minority or unique in age, birth place, or gender were more likely to report it when describing themselves

Collins and Quillian Model

• Hierarchical organization • Distance between nodes predicts response time on lexical decision tasks