Cognitive Development

postconventional moral reasoning

According to Kohlberg, a level of moral development during which moral judgments are derived from a person's own moral standards. Level of moral reasoning in which moral judgments reflect one's personal values

preconventional moral reasoning

According to Kohlberg, a level of moral development in which moral judgments are based on fear of punishment or desire for pleasure.

conservation

According to Piaget, the principle that the properties of substances remain the same despite changes in their shape or arrangement.

sensorimotor stage

According to Piaget, the stage during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. Stage of cognitive development when children learn to coordinate vision with touch

concrete-operational stage

According to Piaget, the stage of cognitive development during which children acquire the ability to think logically. Stage of cognitive development when children begin to show signs of adult thinking

formal-operational stage

According to Piaget, the stage of cognitive development during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

In the formal-operational stage, children begin better to understand __________

abstract situations and problems.

Based on children's answers on intelligence tests, Jean Piaget theorized that

children's thinking develops in a sequence of stages.

According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, children between the ages of 2 &7 are often unable to see another's point of view. This is referred to as

egocentrism

According to Piaget, people reach cognitive maturity during the

formal-operational stage

At this stage of moral development, children behave morally to avoid consequences.

preconventional level

Identify and describe Kohl-berg's three levels of moral development.

Kohlberg believed that people's moral reasoning develops in stages. Kohlberg divided these stages into three levels. The three levels are the preconventional level, the conventional level, and the postconventional level. Most children under the age of nine use preconventional moral reasoning. They base their moral reasoning on the consequences of behavior. Children believe the morally right thing to do is whatever helps them avoid punishment or what satisfies a person's needs is considered morally correct. At the next level—the conventional level—people make moral judgments based on conventional standards of right or wrong. People at this level believe that the morally correct thing to do is what meets one's needs and the expectations of other people or what is considered right corresponds to societal obligations and rules. At the postconventional level, people base their moral reasoning on their own standards of goodness. At the post-conventional level of reasoning, individuals recognize the importance of laws and social conventions but rejects these standards in exceptional circumstances. People at this level may also rely on their own consciences to make morally correct decisions. They base their moral decisions on the values of human life, justice, and dignity.

Identify and describe Piaget's four stages of cognitive development. Be sure to explain the specific cognitive characteristics of each stage.

Piaget theorized that thinking develops in four stages: the sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage, the concrete-operational stage, and the formal-operational stage. The sensorimotor stage runs from birth to about age two. During this stage, children learn to coordinate their physical movements with their sensations and perceptions. By about eight months to a year, infants grasp object permanence. Children enter the preoperational stage at about age two, when they learn to use language. Children display one-dimensional thinking, egocentrism, and an artificialistic and animistic view of the world at this stage. Most children enter the concrete-operational stage at age seven. Thinking at this stage is similar to adult thinking. It is two-dimensional and less egocentric than the preoperational stage. But children at this stage can only understand abstract concepts when they think of, see, or manipulate specific objects. At about puberty, children reach the formal-operational stage. This stage represents cognitive maturity. A person at this stage can think abstractly, deduce rules of behavior from moral principles, and deal with hypothetical situations.

How does psychologist Carol Gilligan explain the differences in moral reasoning between boys and girls?

Psychologist Carol Gilligan argues that boys and girls appear to reason at different levels of moral development because of how they are taught to behave by adults. Girls are taught to consider the needs of others over simple right and wrong. Boys are often taught to argue logically rather than with empathy.

What are some of the criticisms of Piaget's theories?

Psychologists have criticized Piaget for underestimating the abilities of children. Recent studies suggest that preschoolers are less egocentric than Piaget believed. Some psychologists believe that several cognitive skills develop more continuously than Piaget

___________ is the ability to understand another's point of view and imagine what the person might be feeling.

Empathy

egocentrism

In Piaget's theory, the inability of the preoperational child to understand another's point of view.

preoperational stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage during which a child learns to use language but does not yet think logically. Stage of cognitive development when children begin to communicate with words and symbols

____________________ was a stage theorist who studied cognitive development in children.

Jean Piaget

object permanence

The awareness that people and objects continue to exist even when they cannot be perceived. Understanding that an object exists even when it cannot be seen or touched

conventional moral reasoning

The level of moral development at which a person makes judgments based on conventional standards of right and wrong. Level of moral reasoning in which moral judgments reflect common standards

accommodation

The process of adjusting existing ways of thinking to encompass new information, ideas, or objects.

assimilation

The process by which new information is placed into pre-existing categories. Process by which new information is placed in categories that already exist