Cognitive Final
According to Craik & Tulving (1975) who did the levels-of-processing experiment, people remembered target words best when the questions (that proceeded the target words) were about ______.
Meaning (e.g., fit into the blank?)
Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the flashbulb memories?
Flashbulb memories were originally considered as photographic memories that do not alter. People often make source monitoring errors and believe that they learned about the flashbulb-memory-events from TV even though that was not how they had learnt the news. People show higher confidence in recalling flashbulb memories than the memories of everyday events. Flashbulb memories are not necessarily more accurate than the memories of everyday events. ANSWER: All of the above are correct.
People favor one option over the other depending on how the two options are described even though the two options are essentially the same. Such phenomenon is called ____________.
Framing effect
Based on the discussion of the what-pathway and where/action pathway, if your temporal lobe is damaged you would not be able to ________________. On the other hand, if your parietal lobe is damaged, you would not be able to _________________.
Discriminate two brand logos (e.g., Nike vs. Addidas); insert your key into a keyhole
According to cognitive psychologists, it is better to have an administrator of the lineup procedure who _________ know whether or not the lineup has a real suspect/perpetrator while letting the eyewitness know that there _________ be the suspect.
Does not; may not
Lavie proposed her theory to resolve the issue of _______________.
Early selection vs. Late selection controversy
Loftus and Palmer's "car-crash films" experiment shows how a seemingly minor word change can produce a large change in eyewitness reporting (especially the estimated speed of the cars). In this study, the critical words were _______________.
"hit vs. smashed."
In the candle problem, subjects who were presented with ______ boxes were twice as likely to solve the problem as subjects who were presented with _______ boxes.
Empty; full
In the experiment in which participants sat in a psychology-experiment office and then were asked to remember what they saw in the office, participants "remembered" things, like books, that weren't actually there. This experiment illustrates the effect of on memory.
(scene) schemas
When someone (not just Dr. J's wife) is currently upset, she can easily recall some old events that had made her upset. This is an everyday example of the _______________.
Encoding specificity (especially, the state-dependent learning)
According to the class discussion, which of the following is a good example of practical application of the saving method?
Evaluating the efficiency of using flight-training simulator
According to Tolman, rats learn about the physical map of their environment (relative positions of things)
Even though the learning process has not been explicitly reinforced or punished
Which of the following is a correct description regarding spacing effect?
Even when subjects believe that cramming works for them, for the most of the cases, spacing effect occurs (i.e., when they space out study times, they perform better)
If you say that "Starbucks on the first floor of the Social Science building is my idea of a typical Starbucks," you are using the _____ approach to categorization.
Exemplar
In the first phase of Posner's dot pattern experiment, participants learn the dot-pattern A and B based on the __________. In the second phase, when they see old (the same dot patterns from the first phase) and new dot patterns, they tend to recognize the seed pattern of A and B as _____.
Feedback; old
As an explanation of the selective attention process (only the attended information tends to be fully processed), Broadbent proposed ________ in his Bottleneck Model which is called an early selection model, while Treisman proposed ________ in her model which is also called an early selection model.
Filter; attenuator
Intuitive decision-making process based on past experiences is called _______ which is _______.
Heuristic, not foolproof
Which of the following is NOT an example of semantic memory?
I remember not only when and where my last car accident happened but also remember that I was texting and my friends were in the same car talking about school and we were listening to our favorite music.
Watching a comedy film or receiving a basket of candy ________ the problem-solving performance while monetary reward improves the performance only if the task is _______.
Improves; easy
Which of the following will most likely cause the recency effect to disappear from the serial position curve?
Inserting the backward counting task for 30 seconds before recall
In the precueing experiment by Posner et al. (1978), how often the arrow cue at the center accurately predicted the location of the target?
80% of the time
Here's the Wason four-card problem with the following rule, "If there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number on the other side." Suppose you are presented with four cards as follows: [A, 2, M, 13], each showing one side of each of the four cards. To see if the rule is valid, you would have to turn over the cards showing _____________.
A and 13.
According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take longest to verify which statement below (contrary to the actual response time of participants)?
A pig is an animal.
Your instructor introduced an example that was very similar to the above question. The example was about two boys playing ________.
A video game (Starcraft)
Which of the following is true regarding {Taking regularities of the environment into account}?
A. Based on experiences, we know that {light comes from above} which affects our perception of a textured surface (e.g., protruding or indented). B. Oblique effect supports the account by showing that we are more sensitive to regularities of the environment. ANS: Both A and B
According to the textbook and the video regarding introspection, which of the following is true regarding introspection?
A. It has a low validity (subjective and hard to verify what the subject is reporting). B. It has a low reliability (subjects may report various experiences regarding the same stimulus). C. It requires intensive training (repeated request on focusing on current experience). D. It triggered behaviorism. ANS: E. All of the above.
Treisman modified Broadbent's early selection model (the Bottleneck Model) because __________.
A. Participants recognized their own names released from the unattended ear B. Of the Dear Aunt Jane experiment ANS: Both A and B
Treisman modified Broadbent's early selection model (the Bottleneck Model) because __________.
A. Participants recognized their own names released from the unattended ear and B. Of the Dear Aunt Jane experiment
According to Anne Treisman's Feature Integration Theory, ________
A. Perception goes through the pre-attentive stage followed by focused attention stage. B. During the pre-attentive stage, features are free floating. C. During the focused attention stage, features are combined with the help of attention (attention plays a role as a glue to combine features from an object) D. We can find physiological evidence supporting the theory from Balint's syndrome patients. ANS: All of the above.
According to Anne Treisman's Feature Integration Theory, ________
A. Perception goes through the pre-attentive stage followed by focused attention stage. B. During the pre-attentive stage, features are free floating. C. During the focused attention stage, features are combined with the help of attention (attention plays a role as a glue to combine features from an object) D. We can find physiological evidence supporting the theory from Balint's syndrome patients. ANS: All of the above.
Which of the following was(were) the suggestion(s) for being creative?
A. Put more (not less) restrictions on how to solve the problem C. Take a break after a deep work on the problem Both a and c.
Which of the following memory effect was introduced in Chapter 7?
A. Self-reference effect B. Generation effect C. Testing effect D. Spacing effect ANS: All of the above
Saved According to Schneider and Shiffrin (1977) who studied divided attention using an experimental paradigm in which the target frame is followed by a rapid sequence of frames with or without the target, _______________.
A. The experimental paradigm requires divided attention between the target to be remembered and the test frames to be monitored. B. With much practice, a task can become automatic and participants can report the feeling of automaticity, meaning that the process occurs without intention and uses only few of the cognitive resources. C. When the task is too hard, participants never reported the feeling of "automaticity." ANS. All of the above.
In the Invisible Gorilla video, viewers are asked to count how many passes the white-shirt players make. Why half of the first-time viewers of the video misses the giant gorilla walking in?
A. The visual scene is too crowded and the task is too challenging. Therefore, the viewer's task consumes too much of the processing capacity to perceive the task irrelevant stimulus (black gorilla). B. Viewer's attention is directed to white stimuli and this channeling-on-white filters out black stimuli. Without attention, no perception. C. The first-time viewers did not expect to see such a surprising event happening in the video clip. ANS: All of the above.
Phonemic restoration effect is most similar to __________.
A. Vanishing head illusion, especially not being able to see the face B. Vanishing head illusion, especially perceiving a continuous black bar ANS: Both B and C.
Which of the following is a correct description of the coding in short term memory (STM) and long term memory (LTM)?
A. Visual coding is for image, auditory coding is for sound, and the semantic coding is for category or meaning. B. Both STM and LTM use visual, auditory, and semantic coding. C. Auditory coding is more dominant in short term memory and semantic coding is more dominant in long term memory. ANS:All of the above.
the ease of getting interfered by automatic processes at the cost of poor-performing anintended processing.
According to Schneider and Shiffrin (1977) who studied divided attention using an experimental paradigm in which the target frame is followed by a rapid sequence of frames with or without the target, _______________.
Bransford and Johnson'(1972) had participants hear a passage about a man on the street serenading his girlfriend who lived in a tall building. The wording of the passage made it difficult to understand, but looking at a picture about the story made it easier to understand and memories the contents. The results of this study illustrated the importance of _________ in forming reliable long-term memories.
An organizational context (i.e., big picture/framework)
Applying a solution from one problem-solving situation to a similar problem-solving situation is the most related to ________.
Analogy (analogical transfer).
Because of the ___________, we are more likely to overestimate the risk of pregnancy than the risk of asthma.
Availability (of specific cases) heuristic
Considering that the members of the dot pattern A and B in Posner's experiment were generated by moving seed patterns of A and B a little, the answer of the above question suggests that participants __________.
Averaged dots of pattern A and B, respectively.
In the semantic network approach, the cognitive economy refers to ____________.
Avoidance of repetitive assignment of category-specific characteristics to individual members of the category
One of the key properties of the _________ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network as if neurons work.
Back propagation
According to the transfer appropriate theory, processing the auditory aspect of stimuli during encoding can cause a better memory at later test than processing the meaning of stimuli during encoding, if _____________ (Make sure to read all alternatives).
Levels of processing theory is not always correct. The test is made using the rhyming-questions (Does any word learnt rhymes with another word XXX?). Both A and B.
According to Rosch, the ____ level of categories is the psychologically "privileged" level of category that reflects people's everyday experience and is often used to name objects.
Basic
Which of the following represents the basic level item? (Make sure to read all the alternatives)
Basic level is dependent on an individual's knowledge and experiences
Which of the following was introduced as an underlying mechanism of perception?
Bayesian inference Helmholtz likelihood principle Taking regularities into account Gestalt principles of organization ANS: All of the above
According to the class discussion, why Ebbinghaus used saving method (ratio of relearning time to the original learning time) as a measure of memory instead of the number of nonsense syllables he could explicitly remember?
Because not being able to recall study material does not necessarily mean not remembering anything about the study material (i.e., you do remember something but just cannot explicitly recall it).
At the High museum, you appreciate the incredible beauty of paintings displayed on the wall. Your ability to see each painting as a complete picture rather than individual, disconnected features such as color, texture, and location is because of a process called _______.
Binding
The Graf et al. experiment with Korsakoff syndrome patients and two control groups had two phases where the patients first performed the _________ and then _________ later.
Likability rating of 10 words; either surprise free-recall of the 10 words or word-fragment task.
{Perception being affected by the sensation} corresponds to _______________ and {Sensations being consciously/unconsciously re-constructed based on person�s knowledge, experience, expectations, and context} corresponds to ____________.
Bottom-up processing; top-down processing
What is the primary difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning explains learning about two external events while operant conditioning explains learning about an agent's behavior and consequences
Which of the following phenomena cannot be explained by behaviorism?
Cognitive map Language learning (e.g., Mom I hate you!, Don't giggle me!, I helded the ball.) Aha experience or insight learning Observational learning ANS: All of the above
During class, you saw an image of a store in Korea with a Korean sign "스타벅스커피." Even though you don't know Korean, you knew it was an image of a Starbucks store (not Burger King). Which of the following is a correct description of the cognitive process underlying such a categorization process? You categorized the store as Starbucks by _______________.
Comparing the current image to the standard image you have about Starbucks.
Lydia is 48 years old, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy as an undergraduate.As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and she participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations. Which of the following alternatives is most probable?
Lydia is a housewife.
What is flashbulb memory?
Memory for circumstances surrounding shocking or highly charged important events.
When sentence A, The flimsy shelf weakened under the weight of the books. is followed by sentence B, The flimsy shelf ________ under the weight of the books. People often fill in the blank with "collapsed". This demonstrates that ____________.
Memory is reconstructed based on previous / typical language usage
According to the typicality effect, members that are high in typicality (e.g., apple) are judged as being a member of a group ___________ than members that are low in typicality (e.g., pomegranate).
More rapidly
Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the results from eyewitness-testimony experiments?
More than half of the time, viewers of a crime scene tend to pick someone from a line-up as a perpetrator even when the line-up does not include the real perpetrator. Eyewitness tends to pick a familiar face from the line-up as a perpetrator. Eyewitness' confidence on their own testimony is affected by the type of feedback they received from the investigator. ANSWER: All of the above are correct.
According to the experiment that involves emotional and neutral picture surrounded by color frames, people are ______ confident to recognize emotional pictures than to recognize neutral pictures, but their memory for the frame color is ________ accurate for the emotional pictures.
More; less
John B. Watson used classical conditioning (loud noise associated with a certain kind of stimulus) to explain __________________.
Negative emotional response to a certain specific stimuli
People tend to overestimate _______________________.
Negative feelings following a bad decision/consequence more so than positive feelings following a good decision/consequence.
In Mantyla's experiment, participants saw many target words and generated three words related to each target word. Then, those three words were presented as a retrieval cue in later recall. Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the result?
Neither self-generated nor others-generated cues were helpful for participants remembering the target words.
Functional fixedness would be LOWEST (i.e., less functional fixedness) for a(n) _____________.
New and unfamiliar object.
At the beginning of Ch 1, the instructor introduced his research regarding dual-task cost. According to him, what is the primary cause of the dual-task cost?
Not being able to make two decisions regarding two stimuli at the same time.
___________ supports the idea that experience changes the brain (experience-dependent plasticity).
Oblique effect The lack of sensitive to vertical lines of a cat reared in a horizontal-line-only environment Increased FFA response to Greebles after extensive name-matching training on Greebles ANS: All of the above
The choice reaction time is _________ longer than simple reaction time, suggesting that we need that amount of time to _________.
One-tenth of a second; make a simple decision
Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the experiment with which the testing effect was proposed?
Participants read target passages (about which they will be tested) followed by math problems. Then, as a prep, they either reread the passages (rereading group) or recalled what they have learned (testing group). Finally, they were tested through a recall test after a varying delay of 5 minutes, 2 days, or 1 week. Testing oneself is better than rereading especially when the delay between learning and testing is relatively long. Testing effect was replicated with young subjects (e.g., 8th grades) and with other materials (e.g., history). ANSWER: All of the above are correct description of the testing effect experiment.
Which of the following is a good example of the distinction between sensation and perception?
Patient with visual agnosia who sees something but does not know what it is.
Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the effect of emotion on memory?
People are less confident with remembering emotional events.
Which of the following demonstrates the top-down processing?
Phonemic restoration effect: filling in the missing phoneme based on the context An image presented before an ambiguous image (young-lady-old-lady, duck-or-rabbit) affects how the ambiguous image is interpreted The fate of ink blob demonstration: the same ink-blob is recognized differently depending on the context ANS: All of the above
As a supporting evidence of the cognitive hypothesis of the reminiscence bump, researchers found that people who immigrated at the age of 34-35 show a reminiscence bump that is ______.
Postponed comparing to those of people who immigrated at the age of 20-24
According to Bayesian inference, our final experience is determined based on ________ and __________.
Prior (initial belief); likelihood (current evidence)
Which of the following is an example of implicit memory?
Procedural memory Priming (e.g., the propaganda effect) Classical Conditioning ANS: All of the above
Posner's dot pattern experiment was designed to demonstrate the ___________ in category-standard formation.
Prototype
Which approach to categorization involves forming a standard representation of a category based on averaging category members encountered in the past? For example, you have the idea of Starbucks stores by averaging many Starbucks stores you have visited.
Prototype
Which of the following is NOT a good study strategy for a better recall of course materials in test?
Putting all study hours in one day immediately before the exam instead of spreading them across days.
Only 30% of subjects could solve the Duncker's radiation problem after _________. In contrast, 75% of subjects could solve the problem after __________.
Reading the fortress story; being nudged to apply the fortress story to solve the radiation problem
Which of the following involves procedural memory?
Reading the words on this test
Wickens et al. (1976) observed that if the category of words suddenly changed, then the memory accuracy, which was decreasing as trial goes, suddenly increases. They called it _______.
Release from PI (proactive interference), Semantic
The claim in Q2 (primacy effect is associated with a certain specific kind of memory) was supported by the finding that __________.
Repeating-words-out-loud during intervals between words showed that the number of repetition of each word corresponded well to the memory performance for the first few words
Tom is masculine, wears training pants, and regularly goes to a gym. If we judge the probability thatTom is a professional bodybuilder to be quite high because the description resembles our stereotype of a professional bodybuilder, we are using the __________________.
Representativeness heuristic.
H.M. underwent brain surgery (lobotomy) to relieve severe epileptic seizures. H.M.'s case has been extremely informative to psychologists by demonstrating that __________________, which is similar to Clive Wearing's (an old pianist) symptoms
STM can operate (relatively) normally while LTM is impaired due to the damage of hippocampus.
The above finding in Q5 indicates _______ coding in the short-term memory.
Semantic
In the beginning of Ch 3, we learned that: {sensory receptors being stimulated by energies from environment} corresponds to ____________ and {the processing of sensory information by specialized areas of the brain, resulting in meaningful experiences} corresponds to ____________.
Sensation; perception
According to cognitive psychologists, it is better to have ________ lineup and ________ in the lineup.
Serial; fillers (someone similar to the suspect/perpetrator)
Results of the precueing experiment showed that participants responded __________ to a stimulus that appeared at the invalidly cued location than to a stimulus that appeared at the validly cued location, demonstrating the ________.
Slower; selective visual attention
Which of the following effect is most closely related to the cognitive hypothesis of reminiscence bump?
Spacing effect
According to the class discussion, as a car sales person, if you ask your customer about their idea of SUV, they tend to think of ______.
Specific SUVs they have some experience with
According to the cognitive interview technique, we should let eyewitness _____________.
Talk with minimal interruption / feedback Recreate the situation/emotion that they had at the crime scene ANSWER: Bothe A and B
The best way to prepare for Exam 2 of this course is to __________.
Test yourself by verbally answering the "test yourself" questions
Cocktail party effect refers to
The ability to focus on one stimulus while filtering out other stimuli.
Cocktail party effect refers to ______________.
The ability to focus on one stimulus while filtering out other stimuli.
Which problem provides an example of how restructuring the mental representation of a problem canfacilitate problem solving?
The circle problem: determining the length of a line of a triangle inside a circle
Encoding specificity suggests that _______________.
The context of learning is encoded along with the material being learnt, and can facilitate retrieval of the material if one has the same context as the encoding at retrieval.
The semantic network model (e.g., Collins and Quillians's Hierarchical model) predicts that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information or answer a question should be determined by ______________.
The distance that must be traveled through the network.
The primary principle of cognitive psychology is that _________________.
The mind cannot be measured directly (e.g., based on subjective reporting), therefore must be inferred from observable behavior.
Jenkins and Russell (1952) presented a list of words like "chair, apple, t-shirt, cherry, sofa, pants" to participants. In a test, participants recalled the words in a different order than the order in which they were originally presented. This result occurred because of __________________.
The spontaneous tendency of grouping items based on their categories.
According to Lavie's load theory of attention, we are more likely to process task-irrelevant stimulus or unattended stimuli when __________________________________________________.
The task load is low due to the low complexity of stimuli, and therefore available processing capacity is left
According to the class discussion, which of the following is an example of practical application of introspection?
Think-aloud testing in user experience (UX) design (especially, usability testing)
In the beginning of the research history of selective/divided attention, researchers used the dichotic listening paradigm, where participants listen to one message through one ear and another message through the other ear. Participants were to repeat only one of the messages designated by the researcher, which is called shadowing. What is the purpose of the shadowing?
To ensure that participants are paying attention to the designated message.
According to McKay who proposed the late selection model based on the experiment where he released either "river" or "money" along with "They were throwing stones at the bank," unattended information can be processed fully (i.e., their meanings can be processed) without attention.
True
Graf and colleagues picked the 10 words for the likability rating so that they help the word-fragment task.
True
Which problem provides an example of how functional fixedness can hinder problem solving?
Two-string problem
Lucky contestants of the deal-no-deal tend to accept a banker's offer early while unlucky contestants tend to keep playing. This is because ____________.
Unlucky contestants want to avoid the negative feeling of being a loser and take more risks in the hope of beating the odds.
According to the class discussion, which of the following is a good example of the practical application of mental chronometry?
Using GOMS model to evaluate the efficiency of NYNEX phone company's new work station
Which of the following provides the best illustration of functional fixedness?
Using a juice glass as a container for orange juice.
Jay's problem was to make a large amount of money for a down-payment. He approached the problem by _____.
Using all of the above systematically
During class, which of the following was used to demonstrate the distinction between bottom-up and top-down processing?
Vanishing head illusion (not seeing a head, but seeing the whole black bar) and not seeing a small X, but filling in the empty hole in the middle of a large X (seeing a complete X)
According to class discussion regarding the online experiment of simple- vs. choice-reaction time task, experimenters need to ________ temporal interval between trials so that _______________.
Vary: participants cannot predict when the target would appear
If you hear "red", then, it primes ______, which is an example of _______.
Vivid red; typicality effect
The defining characteristic of implicit memory is that ______________.
We are not consciously aware of the fact we have them and under the influence of them.
According to the encoding specificity, background noise during test (i.e., retrieval) can improve your memory if ______________.
You had had the same noise during encoding.
Graf and colleagues used Korsakoff syndrome patients so that ___________.
although the patients cannot explicitly remember the 10 words from the likability rating task, they can perform well in the word-fragment test with the help of the implicit memory of the 10 words that are related to the word-fragment task.
When the option is stated in terms of gains, people tend to _____ risks; When the option is stated in terms of losses, people tends to ______ risks.
avoid; take
The water-jug problem demonstrates that when we have a well-learned procedure that solves a problem from the past, then it may prevent us from __________________________.
being able to find more efficient solutions for similar problems.
At the High museum, you appreciate the incredible beauty of paintings displayed on the wall. Your ability to see each painting as a complete picture rather than individual, disconnected features such as color, texture, and location is because of a process called _______.
binding
Brenda is watching a political debate. When her preferred candidate gets up to speak, she nods her head when he makes points with which she agrees. When he is saying things that she does not support, however, she simply turns away and talks to her roommate. Brenda's tendency to seek out information that is consistent with her beliefs is called the ____________.
confirmation bias
Bartlett's experiment in which English participants were asked to recall the "War of the Ghosts" story that was based on Canadian Indian culture demonstrated the constructive nature of memory. Specifically, it demonstrated that memory is altered based on one's ___________.
cultural background.
The definitional approach to categorization ______________.
doesn't work well for most natural objects like birds, trees, and plants.
Murdoch's experiment from which the serial position curve was reported showed that memory is best for the ______ of a list.
first few and the last few words
You look at a rope coiled on a beach and are able to perceive it as a single strand because of the principle of __________.
good continuation
"Every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the underlying structure is as simple as possible" refers to which Gestalt law?
good figure / simplicity / pragnanz
For a non-insight problem, warmth feeling (i.e., how close you are to the solution) ______________; For an insight problem, it _____________ prior to the solution.
gradually rises; rises suddenly just
Your text describes an "Italian woman" who, after an attack of encephalitis, had difficulty remembering people or facts she knew before. She could, however, remember her life events and daily tasks. Her memory behavior reflects ____________________.
intact episodic memory but impaired semantic memory.
According to the class discussion regarding the online experiment of simple- vs. choice-reaction time task, we need the white placeholder at the target location to _______________.
let the participants know where the target would appear so that they can pay the attention to the potential target locations
The primacy effect (from the serial position curve experiment) is associated with memory.
long-term
When the "abstract" version of the Wason four-card problem is compared to a "concrete" version of the problem (in which beer, soda, young boy, and old man are substituted for the letters and numbers), ____________________.
performance is better for the concrete task.
The application of a(n) _________ makes it easier to solve the "drinking beer/soda" version of the Wason problem, because it encourages to use __________.
permission schema; falsification rule
To obtain an insight to solve a problem, Gestalt psychologists suggest that it is important to ___________.
restructure the mental representation of the problem
You are at a parade where there are a number of marching bands. You perceive the bands that are all in the same uniforms as being grouped together. The red uniforms are one band, the green uniforms another, and so forth. You have this perceptual experience because of the principle of _________.
similarity
The Stroop effect demonstrates ___________________________________.
the ease of getting interfered by automatic processes at the cost of poor-performing an intended processing.
The Stroop effect demonstrates ___________________________________.
the ease of getting interfered by automatic processes at the cost of poor-performing anintended processing.