Cognitive Psychology Goldstein 4th Ed. Chapter 12

Mental set, 340

A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, which is determined by a person's experience or what has worked in the past.

Two-string problem, 339

A problem first described by Maier in which a person is given the task of attaching two strings together that are too far apart to be reached at the same time. This task was devised to illustrate the operation of functional fixedness.

Tower of Hanoi problem, 341

A problem involving moving discs from one set of pegs to another. It has been used to illustrate the process involved in means-end analysis.

Source problem, 349

A problem or story that is analogous to the target problem and which therefore provides information that can lead to a solution to the target problem. See also Target problem.

Radiation problem, 349

A problem posed by Duncker that involves finding a way to destroy a tumor by radiation without damaging other organs in the body. This problem has been widely used to study the role of analogy in problem solving.

Mutilated checkerboard problem, 346

A problem that has been used to study how the statement of a problem influences a person's ability to reach a solution.

Target problem, 349

A problem to be solved. In analogical problem solving, solution of this problem can become easier when the problem-solver is exposed to an analogous source problem or story. See also Source problem.

Candle problem, 339

A problem, first described by Duncker, in which a person is given a number of objects and is given the task of mounting a candle on a wall so it can burn without dripping wax on the floor. This problem was used to study functional fixedness.

Water-jug problem, 340

A problem, first described by Luchins, that illustrates how mental set can influence the strategies that people use to solve a problem.

Means-end analysis, 343

A problem-solving strategy that seeks to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states. This is achieved by creating subgoals, intermediate states that are closer to the goal.

Think-aloud protocol, 347

A procedure in which participants are asked to say out loud what they are thinking while doing a problem. This procedure is used to help determine people's thought processes as they are solving a problem.

Problem, 336

A situation in which there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal state and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle.

Creative cognition, 361

A technique developed by Finke to train people to think creatively.

Analogical encoding, 353

A technique in which people compare two problems that illustrate a principle. This technique is designed to help people discover similar structural features of cases or problems.

Functional fixedness, 338

An effect that occurs when the ideas a person has about an object's function inhibit the person's ability to use the object for a different function. See also Fixation (in problem solving).

HOW EXPERTS SOLVE PROBLEMS ➢ Differences Between How Experts and Novices Solve Problems Experts Possess More Knowledge About Their Fields Chase & Simon 1973 Chess Experiment, 355

Compared how well a chess master and a beginner were able to reproduce the positions of pieces on a chessboard after looking at an arrangement for 5 seconds Masters were better when the arrangement was an actual pattern that occurs in real games

CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING ➢ What is Creativity? 358

Creativity researchers have proposed definitions of creativity that go beyond originality. James Kaufman's book, Creativity 101, notes that divergent thinking is the cornerstone of creativity, but it is not all that creativity can be. He proposes a response to a problem must be useful. Defining it as "anything made by people that is in some way novel and has potential value or utility"

HOW EXPERTS SOLVE PROBLEMS ➢ Differences Between How Experts and Novices Solve Problems

Experts Possess More Knowledge About Their Fields Experts' Knowledge is Organized Differently than Novices' Experts Spend More Time Analyzing Problems

CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING ➢ Generating Ideas: Finke technique Demonstration: Creating An Object

Finke randomly choose 3 items for his subjects who were tasked to create a new and useful object from these objects and then given 1 minute to name it from a preinventive list

USING ANALOGIES TO SOLVE PROBLEMS ➢ Analogical Transfer, 349

Good analogical transfer does not always occur.

USING ANALOGIES TO SOLVE PROBLEMS ➢ Analogical Problem Solving and The Duncker Radiation Problem Koh and Holyoak 1987 Study Effect of Making Surface Features More Similar, 352 The Lightbulb Problem

High surface similarities aid analogical problem solving The radiation problem was used as the source problem and the lightbulb was the target problem--both used rays of a sort

USING ANALOGIES TO SOLVE PROBLEMS ➢ Analogical Problem Solving and The Duncker Radiation Problem Gentner and Goldin-Meadow (2003) study, 354

Illustrated analogical encoding by showing that it is possible to get subjects to discover similar structural features by having them compare two cases that illustrate a principle Involved a problem inn negotiation taught about trade-off and contingency

Fixation, 338

In problem solving, people's tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution. See also Functional fixedness.

Operators, 341

In problem solving, permissible moves that can be made toward a problem's solution.

Goal state, 341

In problem solving, the condition at the end of a problem.

Initial state, 341

In problem solving, the conditions at the beginning of a problem.

Intermediate state, 342

In problem solving, the various conditions that exist along the pathways between the initial and goal states.

Subgoals, 343

In the means-end analysis approach to problem solving, intermediate states that move the process of solution closer to the goal.

CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING ➢Practical Creativity? Problem Solving As A Process Basadur proposal, 359

Involves lengthy period of trial-and-error Involves a process Basadur's idea is the four-stage process begins with generation of the problem and ends with implementation of the solution. Key is realizing there is a problem, which then leads to ideas, which are evaluated and eventually turned into a product

MODERN RESEARCH ON PROBLEM SOLVING: THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH ➢ Newell and Simon's (1972) Approach: Why is the Tower of Hanoi problem important? 344

It illustrates means-end analysis, with its setting of subgoals. Can be applied to real-life situations.

Analogy, 349

Making a comparison in order to show a similarity between two different things.

CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING ➢Practical Creativity? 358

Many examples of how inventions were created involve analogical thinking, in which observing a phenomenon has led to a new, novel, and useful solution to a practical problem. • Examples Of Creative Analogical Problem Solving • Problem Solving As A Process

USING ANALOGIES TO SOLVE PROBLEMS ➢ Analogy in the Real World Dunbar (2001) studies

Many real-world examples of analogical problem solving illustrate what Kevin Dunbar (2001) has called the analogical paradox: While it is difficult to apply analogies in lab research, people routinely use analogies in real-world settings. Studied use of analogies in real-world using a technique called in vivo research.

HOW EXPERTS SOLVE PROBLEMS ➢ Differences Between How Experts and Novices Solve Problems Experts Spend More Time Analyzing Problems, 357

May slow them down at first, but they try to understand the problem rather than immediately solve it

Latent inhibition, 363

Mechanism that results in screening out irrelevant stimuli.

Preinventive forms, 362

Objects created in Finke's "creative cognition" experiment that precede the creation of a finished creative product.

In vivo problem-solving research, 354

Observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations. This technique has been used to study the use of analogy in a number of different settings, including laboratory meetings of a university research group and design brainstorming sessions in an industrial research and development department.

Savant syndrome, 364

Occurs in people with autism or other mental disorders, who can achieve extraordinary feats of memory or may have great artistic talent or mathematical ability.

USING ANALOGIES TO SOLVE PROBLEMS ➢ Analogical Problem Solving and The Duncker Radiation Problem Gick and Holyoak 1983 Study, 351 Factors to facilitate noticing and mapping

One difficulty is that people often focus on surface features

THE GESTALT APPROACH: PROBLEM SOLVING ➢ Obstacles to Problem Solving, 338 DEMO: Duncker (1945) Candle problem

One major obstacle to problem solving is fixation.Example of functional fixedness is provided by the candle problem.

Analogical paradox, 354

Participants in psychological experiments tend to focus on surface features in analogy problems, whereas people in the real world frequently use deeper, more structural features.

Expert, 355

Person who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, has become acknowledged as being extremely skilled or knowledgeable in that field.

USING ANALOGIES TO SOLVE PROBLEMS ➢ Gick and Holyoak Fortress Story Study, 350

Process of analogical problem solving involves three steps: 1) Noticing relationship 2) Mapping correspondence between source and target 3) Applying mapping

USING ANALOGIES TO SOLVE PROBLEMS ➢ Analogical Problem Solving and The Duncker Radiation Problem 349

Radiation problem and solution fit with the Gestalt idea of representation and restructuring. ⇒Analogies aid problem-solving ⇒Often hints must be given to notice connection. Still very difficult to solve. Only 30% of subjects solved after reading Fortress story ⇒Surface features get in the way ⇒Structural features must be used

CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING ➢ Generating Ideas Group brainstorming success

Research has shown that placing people in groups to share ideas results in fewer ideas than adding up the ideas generated by the same number of people asked to think of ideas individually.

USING ANALOGIES TO SOLVE PROBLEMS, 348

Research is focused on how effective this is. Using a solution to a similar problem guides solution to a new problem. Example: Russian marriage problem (source problem) ⇒ mutilated-checkerboard problem (target problem)

MODERN RESEARCH ON PROBLEM SOLVING: THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH ➢ Newell and Simon's (1972) Approach: Problem Set, 341

Saw problems in terms of an Initial state--conditions at the beginning of the problem--and a goal state--the solution of the problem. They introduced the idea of operators--actions that take the problem from one state to another and that there is a sequence of choice steps, with each action creating an intermediate state. The initial state, goal state and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem make up the problem space.

THE GESTALT APPROACH: PROBLEM SOLVING ➢ Obstacles to Problem Solving DEMO: Luchins (1942) Water Jug Problem, 340

Situationally produced mental set • Situation influences approach to problem • Water-jug problem: given mental set inhibited participants from using simpler solution

Surface features, 351

Specific elements that make up a problem. For example, in the radiation problem, the rays and the tumor are surface features. Contrast with Structural features.

SOMETHING TO CONSIDER ➢ Creativity, Mental Illness, and the Open Mind, 363

Studies have shown that creative people are not more likely to have mental illness, but close relatives without the disorder scored higher in creativity. This suggests a genetically determined trait that is associated both with mental illness and with creativity.

Insight, 337

Sudden realization of a problem's solution.

➢ THE GESTALT APPROACH: PROBLEM SOLVING AS REPRESENTATION & RESTRUCTURING, 336

Take a perceptual approach: • How people represent a problem in their mind • How solving a problem involves a reorganization or restructuring of this representation

CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING ➢ Generating Ideas Smith 1993 Experiment re: too much knowledge, 360

Task was to invent, sketch, label and describe new and creative toys or new life forms that might evolve on a planet like Earth Preconception can inhibit creativity.

HOW EXPERTS SOLVE PROBLEMS ➢ Differences Between How Experts and Novices Solve Problems Experts' Knowledge is Organized Differently than Novices' Chi 1982 Physics Experiment, 355

Task was to sort 24 physics problems into groups based on their similarities Experts focus on structural features (the principle behind the problem) Novices focus on surface features (specific elements of the problem)

MODERN RESEARCH ON PROBLEM SOLVING: THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH The Importance of How a Problem is Stated ➢ Using a story with parallels to the checkerboard problem, 348

The Russian Marriage Problem In a small Russian village, there were 32 bachelors and 32 unmarried women. Through tireless efforts, the village matchmaker succeeded in arranging 32 highly satisfactory marriages. The Village was proud and happy. Then one drunken night, two bachelors, in a test of strength, stuffed each other with pierogies and died. Can the matchmaker, through some quick arrangements, come up with 31 header sexual marriages among the 62 survivors? (adapted from Hayes, 1978, p. 180)

Analogical transfer, 349

The application of problem-solving strategies experienced in solving one problem to the solution of another, similar problem.

MODERN RESEARCH ON PROBLEM SOLVING: THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH ➢ The Importance of How a Problem is Stated, 345

The demonstration of the mutilated checkerboard problem helps recognize this principle. Remember the Gestalt idea that adopting the correct problem representation is a key to successful problem solving.

THE GESTALT APPROACH: PROBLEM SOLVING ➢ Restructuring & Insight, 337

The gestalt psychologist introduced the idea that restructuring is associated with insight--the sudden realization of a problem's solution.

MODERN RESEARCH ON PROBLEM SOLVING: THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH Key Terms for Newell-Simon Approach, 343

The idea of problem solving as a search is described by the Tower of Hanoi problem

Problem space, 343

The initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem.

Restructuring, 337

The process of changing a problem's representation. According to the Gestalt psychologists, restructuring is the key mechanism of problem solving.

Structural features, 352

The underlying principle of a problem. For example, in the radiation problem, needing high intensity to fix something surrounded by material that could be damaged by high intensity. Contrast with Surface features.

Analogical problem solving, 349

The use of analogies as an aid to solving problems. Typically, a solution to one problem, the source problem, is presented that is analogous to the solution to another problem, the target problem.

Divergent thinking, 358

Thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential solutions. Can be contrasted with Convergent thinking.

USING ANALOGIES TO SOLVE PROBLEMS ➢ Analogical Problem Solving and The Duncker Radiation Problem Koh and Holyoak 1987 Study Effect of Varying the Structural Features, 352 The Lightbulb Problem-2 versions

Version 1--source & target problems have similar structural features. Version 2--source & target problems have different structural features. Making structural features more obvious and similar aids analogical problem solving

Group brainstorming, 360

When people in a problem-solving group are encouraged to express whatever ideas come to mind, without censorship

MODERN RESEARCH ON PROBLEM SOLVING: THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH ➢ Newell and Simon's (1972) Approach: Direct search strategy, 343

When problem solving, we do not have a picture of the problem space, but need to search to find a solution through a strategy called: • Means-end analysis: primary goal is to reduce differences between initial and goal states, which is achieved by creating subgoals: intermediate states that are closer to goal

MODERN RESEARCH ON PROBLEM SOLVING: THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH The Importance of How a Problem is Stated ➢ Kaplan and Simon (1990) study, 347

• Conditions differed in how much information provided about the squares • Easier to solve when information is provided that points toward the correct representation of the problem • To achieve a better understanding of subjects' thought processes as they were solving the problem, they used a technique Simon introduced called the think-aloud protocol. • Think-aloud protocol revealed a shift in how a person perceives elements of the problem

HOW EXPERTS SOLVE PROBLEMS ➢ Expertise Is Only An Advantage In The Expert's Specialty

• Experts advantage only holds within their field of specialty because they possess a larger and better organized store of knowledge about their field • Disadvantage is they are less likely to be open to new ways of looking at a problem

THE GESTALT APPROACH: PROBLEM SOLVING ➢ Representing a Problem in the Mind, 336

• How is the problem presented? • How is it represented in the mind varies in different people • Central to Gestalt approach is that success in solving a problem is influenced by how it is represented in the person's mind. • They devised a number of problems to illustrate restructuring & factors that pose obstacles

THE GESTALT APPROACH: PROBLEM SOLVING ➢ Restructuring & Insight Metcalfe and Wiebe (1987) Experiments, 337

• Insight: triangle problem, chain problem • Non-insight: algebra • Warmth judgments every 15 seconds • Insight problems solved suddenly • Non-insight problems solved gradually

CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING ➢ Generating Ideas, 360

• Linus Pauling said you need to have many ideas in order to find the good ones, which is the difficult part • Ideas depend on having a base knowledge; like the Wright brothers (physics, mechanics, bicycles) • When thinking requires flexibility and rejecting accepted procedures, too much knowledge can hinder (like experts-example of car mechanic rather than a doctor who invented the device for birthing)

CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING ➢Practical Creativity? Examples Of Creative Analogical Problem Solving, 358

• Velcro from examining why burrs were sticking to pants and dog fur • Removing cork from bottle with inflated bag to removing baby from birth canal

CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING ➢ Generating Ideas Results from studies, 362

•You don't have to be an "inventor" to be creative •Processes involved in creative cognition are similar to other areas of cognition: • the generation effect (p. 182) People remember material better when they generate it themselves • advantage for self-generated material also occurs for retrieval cues (p. 189) • To keep an open mind--avoid fixations that limit creativity • some people are better at this because of traits that allow them not to get stuck in old ideas and more open to new ones