College Comp Logical Fallacies

Loaded Question Example

"Do you think the governor should be taken out of office because of scandals?"

Etymological Fallacy Example

"Hector, why do you call your children 'kids'? Don't you see how offensive it is to call your children immature little goats?"

Personal Incredulity Example

"It's not possible that there was a man on the moon. How could a tiny capsule with relatively primitive computer technology travel millions of miles in space, travel through radiation, avoid space debris, land and then make it back to Earth?"

Special Pleading Example

"Officer, I know I was speeding, but I am headed to the school to pick up my ill child and bring them to the doctor"

Appeal to Tradition Example

"This law was written over 200 years ago. It has stood the test of time. To tamper with it or change it in any way would be wrong."

You Also (Tu Quoque) Example

"You don't actually believe smoking is bad since you smoke too"

Reification (Fallacy of Misplaced Concreteness, hypostatization)

A belief is thought of as real. Abstract idea that we convince people that it is true. (Kind of like Personification)

Bandwagon Appeal (Ad Populum)

A claim that an idea should be accepted because a large number of people favor it or believe it to be true.

Non Sequitur (Doesn't Follow)

A conclusion that doesn't follow logically from preceding statements or that is based on irrelevant data.

Loaded Question

A question that contains an assumption that is offensive. Trap the person into saying "Yes" or "No" and sounding guilty

Texas Sharpshooter Example

A recent study showed that the top 10 countries with female leaders had better work forces. Therefore female leaders cause better work forces. (Uses many different sources)

Appeal to Doubtful/False Authority Example

According to Gunther, childhood vaccines cause autism in children. (Gunther may not be a creditable source)

Quantification Fallacies Example

All financial experts agree that everyone should invest in technology stocks

Syllogistic Fallacies Example

All sharks are fish. All salmon are fish. Therefore all salmon are sharks

Misleading Stats

Although they are powerful for factual evidence, they can be misrepresented/discounted in an attempt to influence the audience

Circular Reasoning/ Begging the Question (Unsupported Assertion)

An argument in which the writer, instead of applying evidence simply restates the point in other language. The statement requires proof, makes audience/readers ask questions to clarify.

Fallacy Fallacy

An argument thats based on false claims, but logically coherent

Argument to the Person, Personal Attack (Ad Hominem)

An attack on the person proposing an argument rather than on the argument itself. Diverts attention from the facts of the argument by attacking the opponent.

Burden of Proof Example

An employee claims harassment without proof and argues that the employer can't prove that she wasn't harassed

No True Scotsman

Appeals to the "purity" of an ideal or standard as a way to dismiss relevant criticisms or flaws in your argument

Middle Ground

Argues a compromise between the arguers

Retrospective Determinism

Argues that because something happened it was inevitable. (Used for past events)

Appeal to Tradition

Arguing that a point must be correct because it has traditionally been so

You Also (Tu Quoque)

Asserts that an opponent's argument has no value because the opponent does not follow his or her own advice

Inflation of Conflict

Assumes the belief that the instances where scholars and scientists have differing opinions on a topic. Calls for credibility of the entire field into question

Gambler's Fallacy

Based on the false belief that separate, independent events can affect the likelihood of another random event. Or that if something happens often that it's less likely that the same will take place in the future

Hasty/Sweeping Generalization example

Because he benefited from home schooling, every child should be educated in this way

Red Herring Example

Beverly was yelling at Erica for getting a speeding ticket, but Erica started talking about how well her grades were in school

Incomplete Comparison Example

Carrots have much less sugar than a gallon of chocolate syrup

False Cause and False Attribution Example

Cause: I eat bananas everyday. One day I didn't and my house got broken into. I eat bananas every day now. Attribution: Janice showed me a book that proved scientists have empirical evidence for the existence of mermaids, but the book is now lost and I don't know the title

Appeal to Authority Example

Chandler eats cereal every morning because Michael Jordan does too

Appeal to Emotion

Claim based on sympathy rather on facts/logic

Slippery Slope

Consist of arguments the reason if something would happen (A), then something else would happen (B), so we should prohibit (A) from happening.

Quoting out of Context Example

Dwight said: "This is a fantastic movie, as long as you aren't looking for plot or character development." But it got changed to: "...a fantastic movie..."

Fallacy of Composition and Division Example

Each part of this table is cheap so the whole table must be sold for a cheap price

Appeal to Pity Example

Eat your veggies, there are starving children who don't have food

"Either...or" Fallacy Example

Either learn how to program a computer, or you won't be able to get a decent job after college

Quantification Fallacies

Error in logic where the quantifiers of the premises are in contradiction to the conclusions quantifiers. When the argument has a universal premise and a particular conclusion

Appealing to the People/ Argumentum ad Populum Example

Everyone in Cold Spring drives over the speed limit, so it shouldn't be against the law

Bandwagon Appeal Example

Everyone is getting the new iphone so I need to get it too

Appeal to Ridicule Example

Everyone should wear seatbelts. We should wear bibs and sleep in a bassinet

False Cause and False Attribution

False Cause refers to an argument where someone cites sequential events as evidence that event A caused event B. False attribution happens when someone appeals to irrelevant, unqualified, and biased info

Proving Too Much Example

Fire is bad because there are many fires that burn property and cost lives

Argument from Analogy

Frequently ignores important dissimilarities between the two things being compared in an argument. The things being compared may not lead to the correct conclusion

Hasty/Sweeping Generalization

Generalization based on insufficient or unrepresented evidence. Sometimes called "Jumping to a conclusion". Occurs when you reach a conclusion with too little evidence

Appeal to Nature Example

Herbal medicine is nature, so it's good for you

Ignoratio Elenchi (Irrelevant Conclusion) Example

Hippos can't be dangerous to people because they are so calm and cute

Equivocation Example

I don't see how you can say you're an ethical person. It's so hard to get you to do anything; your work ethic is so bad. ("Ethical" got changed to a different meaning- "work ethic")

Anecdotal Example

I have never seen a happy marriage. Getting married is a bad idea

Appeal to Authority

If one creditable source says something that it should be true

False Analogy example

If we put humans on the moon, we should be able to find a cure for the common cold.

Red Herring

Introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion

Continuum Fallacy Example

Iv'e been able to swim across any body of water I've come across, so there is no body of water I wouldn't be able to swim across

Propositional Fallacies Example

Jennifer Aniston is in Friends or she is in Murder Mystery. Therefore she is in Friends and not Murder Mystery.

Shotgun Argumentation Example

Joey argues that he didn't do his homework because he had lost his backpack, and when he found it his notebook wasn't in there. It turned out that the dog had eaten Joey's notebook

Oversimplification Example

Lead poisoning can contribute to violent behavior. -> Many inner city children have dangerous levels of lead in their blood. -> Therefore, violent crime in the inner city can be solved by curing the lead problem

Fallacy of Composition and Division

Makes the assumption that one part of something will apply to the whole, or the whole must apply to all the parts

Appeal to Pity

Manipulates someone's feelings of pity or guilt in order to get them to support a point of view. Evoke sympathy

Missing the Point Example

Many welfare receivers are new immigrants. Therefore, we should reduce the number of immigrants

Non Sequitur Example

Mary loves children, so she will make an excellent school teacher. (Since Mary loves children doesn't mean that she will be a good teacher)

Kettle Logic Example

Monica was caught speeding says: I wasn't speeding. I didn't see the sign. There was no speed limit posted

Furtive Fallacy Example

Most evident in lengthy articles by historians and scientists of descriptions of people where there isn't good info to prove their claims

Kettle Logic

Multiple Arguments that don't line up or agree with each other. Together these arguments are not true but may be true by themselves

Gambler's Fallacy Example

My sister's first three children have been girls. The fourth one is sure to be a boy

Inflation of Conflict Example

My teacher says I should do all my homework but my parents only say I should do some. They don't know what they are talking about so I won't do any at all

Special Pleading

Occurs when the speaker ignores certain elements that are unhelpful for their claims or when one asks for special considerations to be given to them or one of their premises

Appeal to Doubtful (False) Authority

Often people will try to bolster arguments with references to famous people or experts; these are not valid though if the people cited have no experience on the issue. (Citing a "Creditable" source/person)

Burden of Proof ("onus probandi incumbit ei qui dicit, non ei qui negat")

On the person who makes the claim, not the one who denies/questions the claim. Occurs when someone who is making a claim out the burden of proof on another party to disprove what they are claiming

Bad Reasoning Example

Ostriches can't fly, so they aren't birds (Bad reason for why Ostriches are not birds)

Argument from Analogy Example

Overcrowded conditions in this city have forced people together like rats in a cage. Like rats, they will eventually turn on one another fighting and killing until balance is restored. It is therefore necessary that we vote to appropriate funds to build low-cost housing. (Overcrowding conditions cause people to act like rats so you should vote for low-cost housing) (Used in an argumentative setting)

Middle Ground Example

Pam says the sky is pink and Jim says the sky is blue so they compromise and say it's purple

Strawman Example

People who oppose gun control are potential terrorists. We can't allow terrorists to declare our laws. All guns should be banned. (Misrepresented the main topic)

Etymological Fallacy

Poses that a certain term's original meaning applies to its colloquial and modern understanding in current circumstances

Appealing to the People/ Argumentum ad Populum

Presumes that a proposition must be true because many believe it to be true

Ignoratio Elenchi (Irrelevant Conclusion)

Reaches a relevant conclusion but misses the point. Although the claims and conclusion may be logically valid, they don't address the point of the question

Appeal to Emotion Example

Real-estate commercial shows happy family moving into a new house.

Genetic Fallacy

Reasons that one can accurately judge something as good/bad based on where it comes from

Proving Too Much

Refers to an argument that reaches a conclusion that contradicts things that are known to be true or contradicts the premises in that argument

Ambiguity

Refers to the use of double meaning or unclear descriptive applied to misrepresented truth, then changing the meaning later. Saying something with multiple definitions/ways of interpreting it.

Continuum Fallacy (Fallacy of the beard, line-drawing fallacy, fallacy of the heap, the sorites fallacy, the bald man fallacy)

Rejects a claim because it's not precise. Fallacious because it's vague, in-between, or unclear

No True Scotsman Example

Ross doesn't read books. No real man doesn't read books. Ross isn't a real man

False Cause Example

Since Governor Smith took office, unemployment for minorities in the state has decreased by 7%. Governor Smith should be applauded for reducing unemployment among minorities

Argument/Appeal to Ignorance Example

Since you can't prove your innocence, you must be guilty

Argument from Repetition

Someone repeating a statement often in hopes that the listener will begin to accept it as truth instead of providing evidence

Texas Sharpshooter

Speaker chooses a cluster of data that will have something in common but generally not true together

Bad Reason Fallacy

Stems from the claim that because of the reasons given for a certain conclusion are bad therefore the conclusion must be incorrect. It supposes that it isn't possible to give a bad reason for a correct conclusion. The reason A given for argument B is bad, therefore conclusion B in't valid

Circular Reasoning/ Begging the Question Example

Students shouldn't be allowed to park in lots now reserved for faculty because those lots should be for faculty only

Argument from Repetition Example

Stupid people are so annoying. They prove their stupidity by saying stupid things

Logical Fallacies

Subtle flaws in an argument

False Analogy

The assumption that because 2 things are alike in some respects, they are alike in others

False Cause (Post Hoc, Coincidence vs Causality)

The assumption that because one event follows another, the first is the cause of the second. Event A caused event B.

Reification Example

The call of Mother Nature to go live in the woods. (Mother Nature is a belief)

Genetic Fallacy Example

The local newspaper printed that article, so everything in it must be true. (Where the info originally came from)

Furtive Fallacy

The outcomes seem to have been caused by the wrongdoings of the decision makers involved

Missing the Point

The premises of an argument to support a particular conclusion-but not the conclusion that the arguer actually draws.

Argument to the Person Example

The public school system shouldn't take Dr. Mason plan for improving county heal services seriously because he is overweight and a smoker. (Attacking Dr. Mason)

"Either...or" Fallacy/ False Dilemma

The suggestion that only two alternatives exist when in fact there are more.

Oversimplification

Thinking/saying that event "A" can simply cause event "B" without much justification

Incomplete Comparison

Two things that are compared that aren't really related. Also happens when conclusions are made with incomplete info

Appeal to Ridicule

Used to claim in attempt to disapprove the argument since it isn't worth entertaining. Instead of arguing you just make fun of the person/topic

Anecdotal

Uses a personal experience or an isolated example instead of actual facts

Proof by Verbosity (Argumentum Verbosium, Proof by intimidation)

Using complicated language for where other people can't understand them. Where they sound smart so they have to agree with them

Proof by Verbosity Example

Wallop solved a cross word puzzle in 5 minutes, won an education award, and gave lectures about dinosaurs at a prestigious college, so I doubt that his claim isn't true about evolution

Slippery Slope Example

We cannot unlock Phoebe from the closet because if we do, she will want to roam the house. If we let her roam the house, she will want to roam the neighborhood. If she roams the neighborhood, she will get picked up by a stranger in a van, who will sell her in slavery in some other country. Therefore, we should keep her locked up in the closet.

Circular Reasoning Example

Whatever is less dense than water will float because such objects won't sink in water

Retrospective Determinism Example

When Hitler decided to invade the Soviet Union, it was game over for the Germans. This was because the German army couldn't survive the cold winter or cope with the vast amount of land

Quoting out of Context (Contextomy)

When an original phrase is distorted or that a claim is misconstructed from its original meaning

Syllogistic Fallacies

When logical fallacies occur in the syllogisms of deductive reasoning. Occurs when a reference to something general then makes a conclusion about something specific

Personal Incredulity

When one finds a concept difficult to understand or simply doesn't fathom how it works, then they conclude that it's likely untrue

Strawman

When one misrepresents an argument so that it becomes easier to attack

Shotgun Argumentation

When someone fires many arguments at the same time so the opponent can't answer all of them

Equivocation

When the meaning of a key term changes at some point in the argument. Makes it seem as if a conclusion follows from premises when it doesn't (Changing a main word in an altering way)

Circular Reasoning

When the one reasoning begins with a claim they are trying to conclude with

Argument/Appeal to Ignorance

When you argue that your conclusion must be true, because there is no evidence against it. It wrongly shifts the burden of proof away from the one making the claim. (Since something hasn't been proven false, it must be true)

Fallacy Fallacy Example

Whenever it rains the sky is cloudy. The sky is cloudy now, so it must be raining.

Propositional Fallacies

Where an error in logic takes place due to compound propositions (statement), in order for a compound proposition to have a true value each component proposition must also be true

Appeal to Nature

Where something is perceived as good/bad because it is natural/unnatural

Misleading Stats Example

Women will never be competent firefighters; after all, 50% of the women in the city's training program failed

Ambiguity Example

You should bring your book or a computer and a notebook. (Could mean brining a book, or computer and notebook, or book and notebook)