colonialism and independence in Africa- main questions
What factors determined how colonial powers responded to demands for independence?
A big factor was obviously the economic potential/production of the colony. European powers were reluctant to release nations which had high export/import rates. They also did not want to lose control of colonies with high populations of white settlers, as in the case of Algeria for France, because those settlers would lose their privilege and face being mistreated.
Compare the winning of independence in different African colonies. What are the specific economic and political conditions that shaped independence?
British west Africa: Ghana- Educated, wealthy businessmen formed the UGCC and invited Nkrumah to lead it. He had been educated in the US and inspired by Pan African movements, so he pushed for demonstrations and other group action to achieve independence. He formed his own party, the much more radical CCP. After brief bouts in and out of jail, he became leader of government business in Parliament, negotiated a new constitution, and became PM once the CCP was elected as the main party. Thus, in 1957, the Gold Coast became independent Ghana. Nigeria- Motivated by Ghanaian motions towards independence, political parties began to form in the much larger country of Nigeria. However, it was a very divided effort as the country was already split into eastern Igbo and western Yoruba groups, and Britain had decided to rule the north and south as two regions. So there was much indecision, because the parties that begun to form were regionally based and focused on the interests of each socioeconomic group. The parties could not decide what form they ultimately wanted their government to take. Finally, a federal rule was decided upon, and Nigeria became independent in 1960. Sierra Leone/The Gambia- 1961 // There was debate over combining the Gambia with Senegal, but this was fought by Gambian nationalists, and the country gained independence in 1965. French West/Equatorial Africa: France was determined to control its colonies' slow movements towards independence, and its assimilated people were agreeable, as long as they were to be treated equally, which turned out to not be the case. The 10-person delegation to the Assemblée Nationale that they were allowed only gave them 2.5% of the seats, when population-wise they should've had around 50%. Despite disputes between what form each colony ultimately wanted the government to take, France did slowly reform their colonial administrations. With the mounting pressure in Algeria, De Gaulle issued an ultimatum in 1958: Oui ou Non? The only colony to answer "non" was Guinea, which was mercilessly separated from France and only managed independence thanks to Soviet and Ghanaian aid. The leaders of the other colonies began to press France for help, and in 1960, the "year of Africa," 13 colonies became independent. Maghreb: Morocco/Tunisia- March 1956 Algeria- After suffering violence in return for peaceful protest, Algerian nationalists decided that colonial reform was not enough. The Algerian FLN launched a war against their colonizers in 1954. In 1955 they killed 70 white settlers, and the French colonial govt. realized they meant business. They brought in thousands of troops from France, and bitter fighting ensued. Thousands of French soldiers died and in turn they killed hundreds of thousands of Algerians, many of whom were innocent of resistance. Despite disunity within the Algerian army and the colony, France was finally forced to negotiate independence, and Algeria became free in 1962. Algeria's first president was Ahmed Ben Bella, who was so dependent on the military that he was easily overthrown by a bloodless coup d'etat. Tanzania- Political unrest began when white settlers kicked Tanganyikan farmers off of their land in 1951, and Tanganyikans are forced to become squatters as they can no longer farm. In 1954, Julius Nyerere founded the Tanganyikan African National Union. Under Nyerere's leadership, TANU soon became a country-wide political party and eventually the winning party in the parliamentary election of 1958, an event that was instrumental in the country's gaining of independence three years later. Ruanda- In the Belgian territory of Ruanda, political activity and nationalist parties were allowed because Belgium was supposed to be setting Ruanda up for independence. The minority ethnic group of the Tutsi had been favored by Belgian officials. This Tutsi privilege outraged Hutu intellectuals who seized power from the minority. The Hutu were soon backed by Belgium, and a Belgian-sponsored revolution in which hundreds of Tutsi were killed occurred. Hutu leaders then pushed for independence, and it was granted in 1962. Kenya- Also called the "Mau-Mau," the KLFA was a Kenyan military uprising towards the goal of independence from colonizers. Their struggle began in the forties with arson, labor strikes, and other sabotage of farm life, but eventually grew into more organized forms of protest and developed into a regimented group with bathing ceremonies to promote unity. The aim of the KLFA was not to actively fight the government but instead to strike fear into the white settlers and encourage them to leave the land they occupied. Conflict heightened in 1952, when the KLFA attacked white settlers and Africans they considered collaborators. The colonial administration imprisoned nationalists, but they did not realize the movement was a grassroots one not necessarily dependent on eloquent leaders. And although the movement was technically defeated in the mid-fifties, the movement did much for helping political reform in Kenya. Britain allowed African majority rule for self-governing Kenya in 1960, led by Jomo Kenyatta, one of the nationalists who had been jailed in 1952. Previously imprisoned nationalists were freed and free to take up leadership positions, and Kenya gained independence in 1963.
Discuss regional variation in the development and implementation of colonial rule. How was colonialism maintained? What types of economic, political and education systems existed in colonial Africa?
Colonialism was maintained through various forms of ruling, the most general being the (British) method of Indirect Rule, and the (French) idea of Direct Rule (and assimilation). Indirect Rule consisted of using the already in place African officials to do the colonizer's dirty work, i.e., legal duties that would have been inconvenient and costly for the colonizer. This way, any unpopular decisions could be blamed on the African, plus, the edge of colonial rule was blunted by an in-between. Indirect Rule thus used customary law to its advantage, dropping the brunt of legal work onto the backs of "chiefs." However, in French colonies, chiefs had little to no traditional power of religion or authority, and were essentially government officials.
How did WWII reshape relationships between Africa & European colonial powers?
During WWII, Ethiopia was colonized for the first time. Italian rule in Ethiopia was brutal and violent, though it was met with armed resistance. The LoN's passiveness regarding this treatment led the exiled Ethiopian leader to warn them about the terrible precedent they were setting. Finally, in 1941, once Italy had started impinging on their colonies, Europe acted, sending black and white reinforcement troops from their respective colonies. In a few months, Ethiopia was liberated and Haile Selassie was leader once again. French speaking Africa was conflicted between the Nazi-allied Vichy government, and the Free French government in exile. Colonial authorities tended to recognize Vichy, while the "subjects" considered themselves a part of Free France. However, once the Allies invaded Vichy north Africa, the colonies united in their support of Free France. Some colonies, notably South Africa, began to produce their own food, clothing, machinery, etc with the shortage of imports from Europe, causing a boom in manufacturing, but also a job crisis when combined with the rural exodus also taking place. Transportation infrastructure both commercial and military was also improved upon by the colonizers who were leaning on the ports and airports more than ever in the wartime. Unlike in WWI, the colonizers could no longer force Africans to fight. Instead they were persuaded through propaganda and information about the nature of the war, and the "volunteer" aspect was emphasized (although recruitment was still mostly conscription and thus forced). Africans responded in kind to this more informative approach by beginning to speak up about injustices they suffered in the colonies, and movements towards independence slowly began. The African-led liberation of Ethiopia encouraged this newfound struggle, because it made Africans realize they had the power to free themselves. Plus, the return of soldiers who had fought alongside European troops helped them to realize that not all of Europe was the oppressive elite they had come to know in the colonies, giving them a broader worldview which was then applied to colonial politics. Finally, the end of the war forced the Allies to confront how indebted they were to Africa, leading to the reform of colonial policy and the removal of some of the most unfair rules (such as the indigénat in French colonies).
What were the political and economic issues that divided political leaders in the Belgian Congo? What role did the UN and the US play in the early stages of independence in the Congo?
Each political party was regional, much like in Nigeria, and they were also split by ethnicity. Thus, it was difficult for a party to garner more than local support. The United States influenced the UN into not interfering in the chaos of the freshly independent Congolese government and the succession of Katanga. This non-interference meant that UN peacekeepers essentially did nothing to stop fighting between regions of the Congo and the collapse of the new government. Later on, when Lumumba asked the UN for help, the United States and Britain agreed with Belgium and feared Lumumba would install a socialist system in Congo. The UN did not try and prevent Katangan succession OR remove Belgian soldiers from Congo. In fact, the UN supported the Belgian plan to undermine Lumumba's nationalist government and rebuild its colony in Katanga. They did nothing to prevent Lumumba's assassination or protect him in any way. The UN did not interfere to end the succession until two years later in 1962, and even so, the traitorous Tshombe was even president of Congo for several years before being discredited for corruption.
What development efforts were made by Europeans in African colonies after WW II?
Economic: In the 40's, Britain and France both created funds for economic and social development in the colonies. However, they did not do much, because most of the funds went to already-developed areas of white settlement, and there was not enough focus on the rural areas that really needed help. And since Europe was trying to profit as much as possible, much of the money went into developing more efficient means of exporting raw materials and importing European goods. Social: Increasing amounts of money were spent on social welfare, including the development of hospitals in administrative areas with a focus on preventing illnesses. There was a focus on education, but unfortunately only primary education, and only 3-4% of Africans attended middle school. No universities were built in French colonies, either, because in line with assimilation policies, it was assumed that educated Africans would go to study in France. Political: France and Britain intended to move the colonies towards internal self-government very slowly while keeping them within their own extended empires, but were not prepared for the fast-paced political atmosphere of independence-hungry colonies.
How did French West African colonies respond to the French ultimatum ("Oui" or "Non")? Why were the French unwilling to grant independence in Algeria? What were the effects?
Most said "Oui," because despite having independence as an eventual goal, they felt they needed help from France to achieve stability. However, Guinea was the one nation which wanted to cut its ties with France, and France did so mercilessly and without compunction, destroying Guinean infrastructure with the removal of its administrators, even going so far as to destroy phone lines and files. Despite all of this, De Gaulle ended up granting independence to the other 13 colonies two years later anyway.
What are the various ways that Africans responded to European colonialism?
RESISTANCE: a. Military -Armed resistance b. Religious -Africans' faith in their ancestors and gods bolstered their courage in resisting -Built unity among people to mobilize them -Came from Christianity, Islam and indigenous religions -Source of nationalism c. Other -Migration of certain groups/people COLLABORATION: African countries allied themselves with the Europeans against their old rivals without realizing that in the conquerors' eyes, they were signing away their rights. Some Africans collaborated with their colonizers in order to gain favor with the nations and/or so as to gain power over a neighboring group. In areas of indirect rule, some Africans became administrators of the colonial government, for personal benefit or protection of their community.
What were the social, political and economic effects of World War I & the Treaty of Versailles on African colonies and African people?
Social: After the war, population dropped significantly in European colonies due to the deaths of African troops conscripted to fight in both Europe and in the colonies. There was also a massive rural exodus and urbanization, as the people in rural communities had had both their resources and production means devastated by the needs of the war, and those who had once lived there now applied for jobs in the colonial administration in urban areas Economic: Though there was some economic gain for the industries of the colonies, it was not nearly enough to combat the losses. Young, abled African people were depleted as a population due to conscription, and so could not produce for their colonies. Political: The chaos of the war within the colonies prompted some uprising against colonizers, however, these rebellions were quelled, with Britain even moving to conquer the territory of Darfur. Post-war, though, was when ideas of independences started to form in Africans' minds, as Woodrow Wilson's speech prompted the formation of several African political parties who took it as a push towards independence. However, these parties were not allowed to attend the Versailles Conference, where the League of Nations was formed. The league entrusted former German colonies to the winning side with instructions to Britain, France, and Belgium to gradually gear them towards self-governance, but this was ignored and they were treated much the same as the other colonies.
How did the international community learn about and respond to the atrocities that took place in the Congo Free State?
The Casement report of 1904 did much to educate the public on the truth of Leopold's rule in the Congo. Many humanitarian groups formed with the goal of advocating for the Congolese as Europeans learned of what was happening in the CFS and more European agents spent time there to see what was going on firsthand. The Congo Reform Association formed by the author of the report was one of these such groups. There was much debate in Britain about what course of action the country should take ( 1, 2, 3,), but eventually it called for the powers who had been present at the Berlin Conference to review Leopold's rule. The Belgian parliament reviewed the Casement Report and confirmed its claims; by 1908, control of the CFS was handed over to Belgium, and it became Belgian Congo.
What was the significance of the Cold War?
To a newly independent nation like Congo, communism was idealized because the oppression the people faced at the hands of their colonizers led them to want people-centric government. Although the US is pro-democracy and thus anti-colonialism, the main colonial powers are on the US' side in the Cold War and so the US is reluctant to push for independence. For Russia, colonialism is a representation of capitalism at its worst, Europeans exploiting poor defenseless people for profit and power, and is thus condemned. So, African nations, upon gaining independence, are likely to not support the United States against Russia, and some do actually align themselves with Russia.
What factors led to the "scramble for Africa"? What were the specific motives and territorial interests of various European powers for colonialism?
When Germany, France, and the US caught up to Britain in industrial technology, Europe's markets became oversaturated with manufactured goods, so many companies turned to investing in Africa. It was quickly realized that the way to beat out British trade was to establish "protected" colonies in Africa where the British would not be able to infringe on trade. Europeans also believed that the unknown lands of interior Africa contained huge amounts of natural resources like rubber, diamonds, gold, and vegetable oils. A sense of nationalism was also a driving force behind European conquests, as possession of African colonies became a source of national prestige and countries conquered bits of Africa as consolation prizes when they lost territorial squabbles within Europe. There was a sense of European right to colonize African people because of the belief that they were "saving" the "uncivilized" African people. Europeans didn't see Africans as having any kind of organized religion or society, so they believed they were helping them through the spread of Christianity and "civilization." Finally, African nations had two fundamental disadvantages when facing European conquest: Europe was aware of traditional African rivalries thanks to years of trade, and so were in a position to exploit rival kingdoms and countries. African countries allied themselves with the Europeans against their old rivals without realizing that in the conquerors' eyes, they were signing away their rights. Also, their outdated weaponry was no match for European guns, as restrictions were placed on selling newer models to Africans.
