COM 101 exam 1
Theory of the Looking Glass Self
the idea that the self is accomplished by seeing ourselves as others see us. How successful we are is determined by how well others see us doing "I am what I think you think I am." You, the other, what you think of the other, what the other thinks of you, what you think the other thinks of you, what the other thinks you think of him or her
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
the idea that we use communication to predict and explain behavior of others Assumption: when we meet people we are concerned with reducing uncertainty and increasing predictability A person's motivation plays a role in how we approach that communication/relationship: incentives, deviance, prospect of future interaction Information seeking strategies: passive, active, interactive
expectancy violation theory
the idea that when social expectations are violated, attention to nonverbal communication is heightened, with either positive or negative effects
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
the language a speaker uses influences the way he or she thinks, surfer lingo, language and society are intertwined
· Define communication
the process of mutual creation of meaning, is breathtakingly simple and often maddeningly complex
Grammar
the rules describing the proper construction of phrases and sentences
Euphemisms
the substitution of vague or less emotionally charged words for more direct options
kinesics
the use of body motions to convey meaning
oculesics
the use of pupil dilation, eye movement, and eye contact in meaning making
facial expressions
the use of the face's mobility in communication
chronemics
the use of time to convey meaning/communicate
· What is encoding?
transforming a message into an understandable sign and symbol system
nonverbal immediacy
using nonverbal cues to indicate closeness/availability
silence
very powerful in relaying a message
Theory of Symbolic Interaction
we develop our sense of self through interaction, use social cues from S.O. to guide our behavior, communication and feedback from others develops who we are
Politeness theory
we use polite language to protect face (a person's image), to seem nice, to protect relationships
· How does communication influence identity?
what we communicate to others greatly influences how we are perceived (our identity): clothing, tattoos, jewelry, class, race, jargon, language You are what you communicate Symbolic interaction and Looking Glass Self
Syntactic Ambiguity
when a sentence can reasonably be interpreted in more than one way
Textual Analysis
Usually done from a specific POV, so work is subjective Lacks objectivity and generalizability Interpretivist or critical theorist
Axiology
Values in research, what is the proper role of values in research and theory building? 1. Keep values out of inquiry (objectivists) 2. Others say limit or embrace the values inherent in inquiry 3. Values should drive/be the center of inquiry
Frame analysis
We perform identities, directed by our frames, we present ourselves in various situations based on our experiences of those situations. We are actors and "All the world's a stage..." Frames: a specific set of expectations we use to make sense of the specific social situation we may find ourselves in, and as a guide to how we and others should act in this situation
Ontology
What is the nature of reality; what is knowable? Science of reality; study of what is real If something can be measured, it's real
Haptics
communicating through touch
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
criticism: complaints about the other contempt: an attack on the self-worth of another, often takes the form of insults (passive aggressive) defensiveness: denying responsibility for one's behaviors stonewalling: withdrawing from the dialogue to avoid conflict
affect displays
emotional gestures (shaking when you are anxious)
speech networks
exist within speech communities, people you regularly interact with
Adaptors
gestures used to fulfill a need (pushing hair out of your face)
Difference between hearing and listening
hearing is the physical process of receiving sounds physiological vs. cognitive, emotional, and behavioral
8 misconceptions about listening
hearing is the same as listening listening is easy, natural, and effortless listening is a difficult skill to learn listening is simply a matter of intelligence read more, listen better gender affects listening speaking is more important than listening listening is primarily a matter of understanding a speaker's words
Steps to become a better listener
identify what's useful be aware of what's NOT said be transactional expend energy know spare brain time focus on useful ideas resist distracting and unnecessary rebuttals use mnemonics take notes resist distractions identify green-flag versus hot button words keep an open mind evaluate the message not the speaker PRACTICE!
Identify the functions of language
instrumental: to get what is wanted or needed, most common regulatory: control the actions of others informative: provide and get information persuasive: change the attitudes, points of view, or thinking of those around us relational: establish, define, and maintain relationships imaginative: delight or entertain ritualistic: meet an important social convention or expectation expressive: state personal thoughts, feelings, and attitudes
Nonverbal communication
occurs when we relay messages and create meaning without the use of spoken words
· What are schemas? How are they related to stereotypes?
schemas are mental structures built from past experiences that we use to process new information and organize new experiences stereotypes are a type of schema that makes a generalization about people, places, or things
· What is the link between communication and perception?
selection of detail, organization, and interpretation. Perception is making meaning from the world around us, communication occurs when the receiver interprets and makes meaning from the message
Significant other and generalized other
significant others: may be formal or informal, or both, may be positive or negative generalized others: your sense of how others see you
What to do in conflict
1. Stay centered and do not polarize. Rid yourself of either-or thinking and do not assume the others motives are simple, wrong, or selfish. Be open 2. Maintain contact. Dialogue: full, honest, meaningful exchange of information and feelings, is very important in coming to a resolution 3. Recognize the existence of different conflict management styles 4. Identify your preferred conflict management styles. Resolution will come easier if each partner is aware of the other's conflict management style 5. Be creative and expand your style repertoire. Try new styles if your preferred method isn't working 6. Recognize the importance of the context of the conflict. Conflict happens for many reasons, often reasons that have little to do with the immediate interaction 7. Be willing to forgive
Operationalization
A behavior that, for the duration of the experiment, stands for the phenomenon of interest
Explain the role of nonverbal communication in creating meaning and identity
As with verbal, who we are and how we fit into the culture develop through the meanings we give signs and symbols and how we behave according to those meanings Get feedback from others on what our nonverbal communication is communicating
Explain the three steps of social-scientific inquiry
Ask scientifically testable questions Engage in systematic observation: experiments, observations, surveys, coding existing writings, etc. Develop answers: evidence based, must be able to explain results to others, especially if it was different from what was expected
What is the power of communication?
Be human: communication is our primary means of interaction Exchange information Build and maintain relationships Have influence Becoming a better communicator allows you to create a personally meaningful reality and grants you control over the meanings that will come to define you
Postpositivists
Believe human communication is not quantifiable but still attempt to adopt traditional research methods to study it. Devotion to using quantifiable, observable, measurable phenomena while recognizing that humans in a social world aren't as predictable or constant as the measurable elements of the physical world Postpositivist theories seek explanation, prediction, and control
Positivists
Believe that only that which is quantifiable is worthy of study and the advancement of knowledge World is real, tangible Objectivists Quantifiable, observable, measurable phenomena
Critical Theory
Believe they already understand the world, so they concern themselves with effecting change Where we are from and our experiences impact how we communicate Values drive research
physical appearance
Communicate through clothing, height, weight, body adornments (tattoos, piercings, accessories), skin color, ethnicity, hairstyle and color, shape, attractiveness, and hygiene
Experiments
Complete control over inquiry, permit precision, and are repeatable Lacks generalizability postpositivists and critical
Conflict
Conflict: "an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties, who perceive incompatible goals, scarce rewards, and interference from the other party in achieving their goals." Relational conflict is a communication behavior: YOU HAVE TO TALK ABOUT IT
Relational Dialectics Theory
Dialectics: two different things can be true simultaneously Relational tensions between opposing forces that need resolution Assumptions: Meanings emerge from opposing discourses. we are social beings, we need social interaction, but we also need to be with our SO Interpretation occurs both in the moment and over time. The interpretation of competing discourses constitutes social reality. There's no one way to do it right Connection-autonomy dialectic: tension between the need to remain connected and the need to be independent. Certainty-uncertainty dialectic: tension between the need for comfort and security and the need for novelty and excitement. Openness-closedness dialectic: tension between being able to say anything and the need for discretion
Social Exchange Theory
Economics Assumption: people assess their relationships in a cost-benefit manner Benefits - cost = value Comparison level: Expectations of what we think we should get comparison levels of alternatives: the likely outcomes of other relationships
stages of interpersonal conflict
Erich Brahm Latent conflict: uneasy peace/unspoken truce Emergence: conflict open/acknowledged Escalation: intensity increases Stalemate: neither side prevails nor backs down (hurting stalemate: when stalemate becomes more harmful than just ending the conflict) De-escalation and negotiation: reduction in conflict due to communication Settlement/resolution: removing underlying causes of the conflict Reconciliation: making up
· Be able to explain the power of culture
Field of experience: combination of cultures, influences how you perceive things, determines what is popular and what isn't, defines our reality
Epistemology
How do we create knowledge, how is knowledge best created and expanded? Scientific method
Specification of Ignorance
In science, every answer should produce new questions
Cultural meaning
Influenced and judged by the culture in which it exists In England, "a rubber" is an eraser. In America, "a rubber" is a condom
Types of listening
Informative Appreciative Relational Critical: analyze Discriminative: sift out important information
Structure of language
Language: system made up of formal units combined in systematic ways to cooperatively make meaning Syntax and grammar, words, sound, and symbols
What are the different models of communication
Linear model: messages travel in a straight line; source, medium, receiver source-dominated model: primarily within a source's control Interactional Model: New communication model created that stresses communication is an interaction. Participants in a conversation become interpreters, working to encode and decode messages transactional: a representation of the elements of communication as interdependent and the process of communication as ongoing and dynamic
Situational meaning
Meaning made through specific forms of language that occur or are excluded in various contexts. In given context by including or excluding specific language For different people, the same word can mean something different based on the situation
·What are two approaches to generating knowledge?
Objectivist position: scientific method-based (propose a hypothesis, test it, and document the study), everything not based on science is not valid Typically quantitative Subjectivist position: getting close, argues that the best way to generate and expand knowledge is through closing the gap between knower and known; studying communication from the POV of the communicator
Identify the barriers to successful listening
Physical noise Psychological noise: created by listeners mindset, biased listening Physiological: physical discomfort, fatigue, hunger, etc. Semantic: linguistic influences, language, accent, jargon, errors in connotative meaning External distractions: other than physical noise, not part of the message itself, Nonverbal distractions, Nonverbal fillers, Information overload Counterproductive listening styles: fakers, dependent, interrupters, self-conscious, intellectuals
· What are the three perspectives on nature of reality?
Realist position: the world is real, tangible, and measurable (what we can touch is reality) Spirituality and religion are not real, beliefs are not tangible so it doesn't exist Nominalist position: reality exists only to the extent that we humans are able to experience it through the names and labels we give to the things we find in it. There is no such thing as "love"; it is not tangible. It only exists because we have given it a name Social construction position: reality is a combination of the real world and our experiences with it. Naming things such as love is making meaning (communication) of the things we experience
Interpretive
Recognize the subjectivity inherent in human interaction and believe it needs to be understood, not quantified Not interested in numbers/statistics, interested in understanding human interaction Goal is to understand how and why behavior occurs in the social world and how it is transacted through communication
Surveys
Results can be generalized, can be conducted over time, test a large number of variables Cannot demonstrate causality, lose some control over inquiry, can be untrustworthy because they are self-reported
Compare and Contrast verbal and nonverbal communication
Similarities: influenced by rules, symbolic, influenced by culture, intentionality Differences: more honest, flows continuously, uses all five senses
What are the components of effective listening?
The HURIER model Hearing, Understanding, Remembering, Interpreting, Evaluating, Responding
Social meaning
The meaning made by our choice of word and sound alternatives when speaking with a specific group of people
Ethnography
The study of human social interaction from inside specific human cultures
Passive Aggressiveness
a deliberate and masked way of expressing disrespect:
Theory
a unified, coherent, and organized set of explanations, concepts, and principles describing some aspect of the world. NOT A FACT
Dyad
a unit of two people communicating as opposed to a group
Ladder of Abstraction
a visual representation of using various levels of abstraction to make different types of meaning. Moving from the bottom up on the ladder, language becomes more abstract. As it does so, it becomes richer in connotation and more open to interpretation Bottom is more concrete. As you go up more abstract
Denotative meanings
a word's explicit meaning, the one that directly comes to mind when used by a specific speech community
Connotative meanings
a word's more implicit meaning, usually emotionally or culturally enriched meaning Sometimes when we intend the connotative meaning people from other cultures misunderstand and use the denotative meaning Ex. calling someone "crazy" as in wild may make a foreigner upset because they think you are calling them mentally insane
Listening
actively making meaning from the spoken messages of others
types of conflict
affective conflict: acknowledge incompatibility of emotions and feelings conflict of interest: incompatibility in preferences for course of action value conflict: differences in their deeply held feelings about the worth or importance of significant aspects of their lives cognitive conflict: incompatibilities in people's perceptions about something of importance goal conflict: incompatibility in the individual outcomes they hold for a given plan or action
vocalics
all the sounds and rhythms except for actual words that come out of our mouths, also called paralanguage
Symbols
arbitrary indicator of something else; relatively subjective and abstract. Symbols are more open to negotiation and more dependent on the context in which they are used. Ex. heart Denotative meaning: dictionary definition Connotative meaning: emotion/culture
Conflict Management Styles
integrating: high concern for yourself and other obliging: little concern for self, great concern for other dominating: higher regard for self than other avoiding: low concern for self and other compromising: modern concern for both
What is decoding?
interpreting signs and symbols
artifacts
objects that we use to identify ourselves
Proxemics
our use of space and distance to make meaning
Speech Communities
people who speak the same language and who not only "interact by means of speech," but also agree on the "proper" and "improper" use of language Idioms, lingo/jargon, knowing when it is appropriate to use certain phrases/words
Describe the value of relationships
physiological and psychological welfare, attachment, reassurance of worth, guidance, reliable alliance, social integration, opportunity to provide nurturance
Content Analysis
quantitative textual analysis that depends not on the researchers' deep reading, but on their objective categorization and accurate measurement based on their deep reading Interpretive
Social Penetration Theory
relationships move from initial interaction to greater stability through interpersonal communication The Onion Theory Assumptions: Relationships progress from non-intimate to intimate, progress is generally systematic and predictable, Relational development includes depenetration and dissolution (deterioration of the relationship), self-disclosure is at the heart of development (heart of theory) guided by our culture's norm of reciprocity: the expectation that revelations about oneself will produce responses of similar information Relationships, like onions, have depth (how personal is the shared information) and breadth (the number of topics that can safely be discussed) 4 stages: orientation, exploratory affective exchange, affective exchange, stable exchange
Signs
something that signals the presence of something specific, more or less an objective substitute for that thing. When you see a red octagon you objectively know it means to stop
negative politeness
speaker expresses their reluctance to impose on listeners
Syntax
systematic combining, the occurrence and ordering of words and sounds to convey an intended meaning
environmental factors
temperature, weather, smells, lighting, and designs use environmental factors to communicate messages in a visually effective way
Self-disclosure
the act of revealing one's personal thoughts, preferences, feelings, and experiences to another person. Verbal and nonverbal, intentionality (sometimes not intentional, reciprocity, comfort, drunk) and choice, builds trust, there are risks Reasons not to self-disclose (risks): To avoid hurt or rejection, To avoid conflict, protect a relationship, or both, To keep your image intact and maintain individuality, To reduce or forget about stress (jump between talking about it and ignoring it, balance)