com 3332 unit 1
first emoticon
Scott Fahlman in 1982 who proposed using !! after a joke, rather than the original
Economics
studies the forces that allocate resources to satisfy competing needs
Technocracy:
technological elite
TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM
technology drives social change
In 2009, Sir Tim established
the World Wide Web Foundation. The Web Foundation is advancing the Open Web as a means to build a just and thriving society by connecting everyone, raising voices and enhancing participation.
1990 also brought about
the first commercial dial-up Internet provider, The World. The same year, Arpanet ceased to exist.
Syncom
the first synchronous communication satellite, 1963
While Cyclades was eventually shut down, it did pioneer a key idea:
the host computer should be responsible for data transmission rather than the network itself.
Another major milestone during the 60's was the inception of Unix:
the operating system whose design heavily inTuenced that of Linux and FreeBSD (the operating systems most popular in today's web servers/web hosting services)
One of the most impressive developments of 1971
the start of Project Gutenberg. Project Gutenberg, for those unfamiliar with the site, is a global effort to make books and documents in the public domain available electronically-for free-in a variety of eBook and electronic formats.
The media scholar Henry Jenkins has been the leading voice among
those who have identified new media as forming a more participatory culture, in which the distinction between media producers and consumers becomes blurred into "prosumers." Fan fiction and YouTube mashups are probably the example most familiar to you today. This new participatory culture brings with it a need for new skills in both producing and interpreting media content.
The biggest innovation of 2007
was almost certainly the iPhone, which was almost wholly responsible for renewed interest in mobile web applications and design.
domain name system
was created in 1984 along with the Arst Domain Name Servers (DNS). The domain name system was important in that it made addresses on the Internet more human-friendly compared to its numerical IP address counterparts. DNS servers allowed Internet users to type in an easy-toremember domain name and then converted it to the IP address automatically.
The Arst bulletin board system (BBS)
was developed during a blizzard in Chicago in 1978
A 'ew Years later in a paper that summarized work in the field to that time, Katz, 'lumler, and Gur&vitch (1974) pointed out that the studies are concerned with:
(1) the social and psychological origins of (2) needs, which generate (3) expectations of (4) the mass media or other sources, which lead to (5) differential patterns of media exposure (or engagement in other activities), resulting in (6) need gratifications and (7) other consequences, perhaps mostly unintended ones. (p. 20)
1978 is also the year that brought the Arst unsolicited commercial email message
(later known as spam), sent out to 600 California Arpanet users by Gary Thuerk.
Java and JavaScript
(originally called LiveScript by its creator, Brendan Eich, and deployed as part of the Netscape Navigator browser - see comments for explanation) was Arst introduced to the public in 1995. ActiveX was launched by Microsoft the following year.
Katz, Gurevitch, and Haas (1973) see the mass media as a means used by individuals to connect themselves with others (or disconnect). They listed 35 needs taken "from the (largely speculative) literature on the social and PsvchoIogical functions of the mass media" and put them into five categories:- -
1 Cognitive needs (acquiring information, knowledge, and understanding) 2 Affective needs (emotional, pleasurable, or aesthetic experience) P3 ersonal integrative needs (strengthening credibility, confidence, stability, and status) 4 Social integrative needs (strengthening contacts with family, friends, etc.) 5 Tension release needs (escape and diversion) (pp. 166- 167)
They cite two Swedish researchers who in 1968 proposed a "uses and gratifications model" that included the following elements:
1. The audience is conceived of as active, that is, an important part of mass media use is assumed to be goal directed. 2. In the mass communication process much initiative in linking need gratification and media choice lies with the audience member. 3. The media compete with other sources of need satisfaction. (pp. 22-23)
Arpanet made its Arst trans-Atlantic connection in
1973, with the University College of London.
The beginning of TCP/IP
1974 -A proposal was published to link Arpa-like networks together into a so-called "inter-network", which would have no central control and would work around a transmission control protocol (which eventually became TCP/IP).
Usenet
1979 also ushered into the scene: Usenet, created by two graduate students. Usenet was an internet-based discussion system, allowing people from around the globe to converse about the same topics by posting public messages categorized by newsgroups.
The Well
1985-"The most infleuential online community in the world."
2000: The bubble bursts
2000 was the year of the dotcom collapse, resulting in huge losses for legions of investors. Hundreds of companies closed, some of which had never turned a proAt for their investors.
Also, the MP3 Ale format was accepted as a standard in 1991.
MP3 Ales, being highly compressed, later become a popular Vle format to share songs and entire albums via the internet.
1966
After several months of discussion, Taylor persuades Larry Roberts to leave MIT to start the ARPA network program.
new media economics
All the old models, plus -Personalization -Search ads Pay for timeliness Low publishing costs -Audiences supply content -Recycle old media content
Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
Also in 1988, Internet Relay Chat (IRC) was Arst deployed, paving the way for real-time chat and the instant messaging programs we use today.
Also in 2003, MySpace opens up its doors.
Also in 2003, MySpace opens up its doors. It later grew to be the most popular social network at one time (though it has since been overtaken by Facebook).
CAN-SPAM Act.
Another major advance in 2003 was the signing of the Controlling the Assault of Non-Solicited Pornography and Marketing Act of 2003, better known as the CAN-SPAM Act.
Arpanet
Arpanet was the first real network to run on packet switching technology (new at the time). On the October 29, 1969, computers at Stanford and UCLA The History of the Internet in a Nutshell https://www.webpagefx.com/blog/web-design/the-history-of-the... 2 of 28 6/7/17, 10:52 AM connected for the Arst time. In effect, they were the Arst hosts on what would one day become the Internet.
Price gouging Price slashing
At the expense of consumers To ruin competitors
USES AND GRATIFICATIONS 1 IN AN ELECTION CAMPAIGN
Blumler and McQuail (1969) used the uses and gratifications approach as the overall research strategy in a study of the 1964 general election in Britain. asked open ended questions on peoples reasons for watching political broadcasts.
The uses and gratifications literature has provided several ways of classifying audience needs and gratifications. McQuail, Blumler, and Brown (1972), working in England, suggested the following categories:
Diversion (escape from routine and problems; emotional release) Personal relationships (social utility of information in conversations; substitute of the media for companionship) Personal identity or individual psychology (value reinforcement or reassurance; self-understanding; reality exploration, etc.) Surveillance (information about things which might affect one or will help one do or accomplish something)
Decentralisation:
Decentralisation: No permission is needed from a central authority to post anything on the web, there is no central controlling node, and so no single point of failure ... and no "kill switch"! This also implies freedom from indiscriminate censorship and surveillance.
communication outlook in the 1960's
Domestically, data communication over the phone lines is an AT T monopoly. The 'Picturephone' of 1939, shown again at the New York World's Fair in 1964, is still AT&T's answer to the future of worldwide communications.
Email was Arst developed in 1971 by Ray Tomlinson, who also made the decision to use the "@" symbol to separate the user name from the computer name (which later on became the domain name)
The so-called Protocol wars began in 1986.
European countries at that time were pursuing the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), while the United States was using the Internet/Arpanet protocol, which eventually won out.
FEMINIST STUDIES
Feminist critics of the media have concerns that parallel those of political economists to some degree, but focus on the oppression of women by men rather than the oppression of the working class by the ruling class.
Consensus:
For universal standards to work, everyone had to agree to use them. Tim and others achieved this consensus by giving everyone a say in creating the standards, through a transparent, participatory process at W3C.
McLuhan: The medium is the message
Form, not content, matters The Global Village
Google went live in 1998, revolutionizing the way in which people And information online.
Stages of diffusion
Knowledge evaluation decision implementation reassessment
Non-discrimination:
If I pay to connect to the internet with a certain quality of service, and you pay to connect with that or a greater quality of service, then we can both communicate at the same level. This principle of equity is also known as Net Neutrality.
1998: First new story to be broken online instead of traditional media
In 1998, the Arst major news story to be broken online was the Bill Clinton/Monica Lewinsky scandal (also referred to as "Monicagate" among other nicknames), which was posted on The Drudge Reportafter Newsweek killed the story
Bottom-up design:
Instead of code being written and controlled by a small group of experts, it was developed in full view of everyone, encouraging maximum participation and experimentation.
Project Gutenberg beginnings
It began when Michael Hart gained access to a large block of computing time and came to the realization that the future of computers wasn't in computing itself, but in the storage, retrieval and searching of information that, at the time, was only contained in libraries.
1977 was a big year for the development of the Internet as we know it today.
It's the year the Arst PC modem, developed by Dennis Hayes and Dale Heatherington, was introduced and initially sold to computer hobbyists.
With the popularity of emailing, the Arst modern email program was developed by
John Vittal, a programmer at the University of Southern California in 1975. The biggest technological advance this program (called MSG) made was the addition of "Reply" and "Forward" functionality
ETHNIC MEDIA STUDIES
Many of the same issues apply to minority racial and ethnic groups, including African-Americans, Latinos, and Asians. Many scholars (and political groups like La Raza) have criticized media for disproportionately showing AfricanAmericans, Latinos, and Arabs in such stereotypical roles as maids, criminals, or even terrorists.
Sir Tim Berners-Lee
March 1989, Tim laid out his vision for what would become the web in a document called "Information Management: A Proposal " He wrote: HTML: HyperText Markup Language. The markup (formatting) language for the web. URI: Uniform Resource Identifier. A kind of "address" that is unique and used to identify to each resource on the web. It is also commonly called a URL. HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol. Allows for the retrieval of linked resources from across the web. Tim also wrote the first web page editor/browser ("WorldWideWeb.app") and the first web server ("httpd")
oligopoly duopoly
Oligopoly is when a few fi rms dominate a market. A duopoly exists when two companies dominate a market.
One of the Arst major Internet worms was released in 1988.
One of the Arst major Internet worms was released in 1988. Referred to as "The Morris Worm", it was written by Robert Tappan Morris and caused major interruptions across large parts of the Internet.
1991 first webcam
One of the more interesting developments of this era, though, was the Arst webcam. It was deployed at a Cambridge University computer lab, and its sole purpose was to monitor a particular coffee maker so that lab users could avoid wasted trips to an empty coffee pot.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN USES & GRATIFICATIONS RESEARCH
One recent development has been a movement away from conceptualizing audiences as active or Passive to treating activity as a variable (Rubin, 1994). That is, sometimes media users are selective and rational in their processing of media messages, but at other times they are using the media for relaxation or escapism
1968
Roberts and the ARPA team refine the overall structure and specifications for the ARPANET. They issue an RFQ for the development of the IMPs.
1967
Roberts puts together his plan for the ARPANET.
1964 (work on secure packet switching networks)
Simultaneous work on secure packet switching networks is taking place at MIT, the RAND Corporation, and the National Physical Laboratory in Great Britain. Paul Baran, Donald Davies, Leonard Kleinrock, and others proceed in parallel research. Baran is one of the first to publish, On Data Communications Networks. Kleinrock's thesis is also published as a seminal text on queuing theory.
economies of scale
Sometimes media organizations combine their companies and slash staff. In the newspaper industry, many formerly independent local papers have been reorganized under common management so that a single advertising sales staff serves two papers instead of one. We call these effieciency measures economies of scale.
The first "Internet election" took place in 2008 with the U.S. Presidential election.
The Arst "Internet election" took place in 2008 with the U.S. Presidential election. It was the Arst year that national candidates took full advantage of all the Internet had to offer.
ENQUIRE
The European Organization for Nuclear Research (better known as CERN) launched ENQUIRE (written by Tim Berners-Lee), a hypertext program that allowed scientists at the particle physics lab to keep track of people, software, and projects using hypertext (hyperlinks).
the first personal computer
The experimental Alto computer, developed by the Xerox Corporation in the early 1970s, was the fi rst personal computer. It boasted a mouse, a graphical user interface, and a high-spe
The fi rst commercially available personal computer
The fi rst commercially available personal computer, the Altair, inspired a young computer hacker from Seattle by the name of William Gates to write a programming language for it, BASIC, and to found Microsoft Corporation. It also inspired young Steve Jobs to build the fi rst Apple II in 1977.
1991 brought some major innovations to the world of the Internet.
The first web page was created and, much like the first email explained what email was, its purpose was to explain what the World Wide Web was.
MUD (short for MultiUser Dungeon)
The precursor to World of Warcraft and Second Life was developed in 1979, and was called MUD (short for MultiUser Dungeon). MUDs were entirely text-based virtual worlds, combining elements of role-playing games, interactive, Action, and online chat.
EMPIRICAL TESTS OF THE USES AND GRATIFICATIONS THEORY Bryant and Zillmann (1984) conducted an experimental study of whether an individual's mood influences the selection of television programs. These researchers investigated the selection of exciting and relaxing television programming by students who, prior to an opportunity to choose their viewing, had been purposely either stressed or bored
The researchers concluded that "the findings lend strong support to the utility of the selective exposure propositions" and that "subjects make intelligent program choices . . . when using television exposure as a means for alleviating boredom and stress" It was a controlled experiment and provided data that did not rely on self-report, one of the criticisms of much of the earlier work in uses and gratifications.
The term "social media"
The term "social media", believed to be Arst used by Chris Sharpley, was coined in the same year that "Web 2.0" became a mainstream concept.
CRITICISMS OF THE USES AND GRATIFICATIONS THEORY
The uses and gratifications approach has drawn some criticism, particularly fof being nontheoretical, for being vague in defining key concepts (for examP1e' "needs"), and for being basically nothing more than a data-collecting strategy
why do media exist?
To earn profits for media owners yTo maintain the social order yTo help society function yMedia just spread, like a disease yTo spread culture or determine culture?
Universality:
Universality: For anyone to be able to publish anything on the web, all the computers involved have to speak the same languages to each other, no matter what different hardware people are using; where they live; or what cultural and political beliefs they have. In this way, the web breaks down silos while still allowing diversity to flourish.
post modernism
We have moved from an era of economic determinism, in which economic phenomena determine all others, to a time of cultural determinism (Baudrillard, 1983). Now messages carried by communications technologies take on new meanings, different from or even opposed to what was originally intended.
The law of supply and demand
describes the relationship among the supply of products, prices, and consumer demand.
FRAMING
Whereas the media's agenda setting tells us what topics to think about, the framing of issues tells us how to think about those topics.
1995 is often considered the first year the web became commercialized.
While there were commercial enterprises online prior to '95, there were a few key developments that happened that year. First, SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) encryption was developed by Netscape, making it safer to conduct Vnancial transactions (like credit card payments) online
The Arst widely downloaded Internet browser, Mosaic, was released in 1993.
While Mosaic wasn't the Arst web browser, it is considered the Arst browser to make the Internet easily accessible to non-techies
wikipedia
With the dotcom collapse still going strong, Wikipedia launched in 2001, one of the websites that paved the way for collective web content generation/social media.
Political economy
analyzes patterns of class domination and economic power.
Genres
are distinctive styles of creative works. The term is also used to represent different types or formats of media content.
Barriers to entry
are obstacles companies must overcome to enter a market.
Marginal costs
are the incremental costs of each additional copy or unit of a product.
Profits
are what is left after operating costs, taxes, and paybacks to investors.
Classical economists
believe that media institutions, as well as the cultures and societies in which they exist and the media consumption behavior of individuals refl ect economic forces. For these economists, our purchase of Microsoft's Xbox 360 results from a cold and calculated economic comparison of its price and features to Nintendo's Wii and the costs of other competing entertainment alternatives, rather than from our passion to play games.
Production effi ciencies are hard to come by in the electronic media because
each movie, television program, or home page is an original product. Yet the incremental, or marginal, cost of each additional copy is very low after that fi rst copy is made.
The gatekeeping theory (Shoemaker, 1991; White, 1949)
emphasizes the crucial role of the so-called gatekeepers, the media managers and editors who can either open or close "the gate" on a story or shape how it is presented.
Critical studies
examines the overall impact of media.
Technological determinism
explains that the media cause changes in society and culture.
1984, Apple's Macintosh
introduced high-resolution graphics and multimedia to personal computers. Apple's HyperCard software popularized the hypertext concept, the "linking" function that makes it possible to navigate by "mouse clicking" on keywords or icons in a nonlinear method, made familiar by links on the Web.
A copyright royalty fee
is a payment for use of a creative work.
Culture
is a group's pattern of thought and activity.
Popular culture
is made up of elements massproduced in society for the mass population.
Diffusion
is the spread of innovations.
Hegemony
is the use of media to create a consensus around certain ideas, so that they come to be accepted as common sense.
The uses and gratifications approach
it was first described in an article by Hihu Katz (1959) in which he was reacting to a claim by Bernard Berelson (1959) that the field of communication research appeared to be dead. Katz argued that the field that was dying was the study of mass communication as persuasion. He pointed out that most communication research up to that time had been aimed at investigating the question "What do media do to people?" Katz suggested that the field might save itself by turning to the question "What do people do with the media?"
