Combo with "Bio Quiz 5" and 1 other
lower Basal metabolic rate (BMR) and less tropic factors
Restricted food intake promotes longevity due to ____ and less ___ factors that promote cell growth
Testes
Male gonads; source of sperm and sex hormones.
Androstenone
Male sweat after exposure to oxygen- highly unpleasant by females
Bulimia nervosa
Marked by periodic gorging and purging by vomiting or using laxatives - more common than anorexia, although people with anorexia in particular don't always ask for treatment - usually starts when people are a little older, more common in girls - cyclial pattern of binging and puring - average binge session involves 1500 calories of food - symptoms include fatigue, headaches, puffy cheeks, loss of dental enamel - antidepressant medications appear effective in ___, not in anorexia
ACh
Membrane receptors for ___ open sodium channels which can trigger action potential in both directions that causes a twitch
Glomeruli
Structures found within the olfactory bulbs - ___ are spherical units containing mitral cells, where synapses occur;
Spinal cord, brain stem, hypothalamus
Temperature is regulated by a hierarchical system: ___ ___, brain stem, ____; Temperature sensitivity increases along the hierarchy: spinal cord about 3C; hypothalamus about .01C
Latent dream thoughts
Unconscious conflicted insinctual (ie., sexual or aggressive) wishes originating in childhood; motive force for dream, an attempt at fulfillment of these wishes - ___ ___ ___ transformed into manifest dream by primary process mechanisms, a primitive form of thinking predominant in dreams
10-14 days
Unlike other sensory cells, taste cells are replaced after ___ days;
FSH and LH
___ and __ promote increased release of testosterone by the testes; and stimulate estradiol production by the ovaries;
Surface
___ area determines heat loss
Taste
___ begins with chemicals dissolve in salive of mouth;
AgRP
___ competes for binding sites on the MC4R receptors, suppressing effects of alpha-MSH, thereby increasing feeding
Orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala
___ cortex and ___ are thought to encode information related to the reward value of food
Surface area/ Volume
___ determines heat generation;
Nucleus of the solitary tract (NST)
___ in medulla: no BBB so can detect glucose levels in blood (glucoreceptors); - glucoreceptors have been identified in the ____ - receives input from the taste system - communicates with the hypothalamus
Glucose
___ is the principal sugar used for energy.
Endotherms
___ like mammals and birds have the ability to maintain body temperature through internal activity, in addition to external factors.
Erectile dysfunction
___ occurs when men are unable to sustain an erection sufficient for satisfactory sexual activity; - parasympathetic neurons release ACh and NO into the tissues of the penis, which fill with blood; - Sidenafil citrate (Viagra) enhances the effects of NO on the penis;
Chronic pain; physical pain
___ pain is associated with increased activity in prefrontal areas, whereas ___ pain like a burn produces more activity in the thalamus
Stage 5
- a stage of sleep; - REM; brainwaves speed up and dreaming occurs; muscles relax and heart rate increases; breathing is rapid and shallow
Stage 4
- a stage of sleep; rhythmic breathing; limited muscle activity; brain produces delta waves
Temperature-insensitive
- a type of POA neuron - retain a relatively constant activity level
Cold-sensitive neurons
- a type of POA neuron - with temperature decrease, their firing rate increases; the inhibition from warm-sensitive neurons also decreases
Warm-sensitive neurons
- a type of POA neuron - with temperature increase their activity increases, also inhibiting cold- sensitive neurons
TRP2 receptor
- a type of receptor - detects even higher temperatures; - doesn't respond to capsaicin - is found on A delta fibers- large myelinated axons that register pain quickly;
Obestatin
- decreases appetite; - encoded by same gene as ghrelin, yet has an opposite effect - short term appetite suppression
Condensation
- in dreams, combining elements (people, objects, events)
Displacement
- in dreams, shifting emphasis from one element to another
Rapid-eye-movement sleep (REM)
-type of sleep - Characterized by small amplitude, fast-EEG waves, no postural tension, and rapid eye movements
Arcuate nucleus
A cluster of neurons involved with feeding located within the hypothalamus. - has 2 sets of neurons, opposing effects: NPY/AgPR neurons produce neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related peptide (AgPR) and POMC/CART neurons produce pro-opipmelanocortin (POMC=> alphaMCH) and cocaine-and amphetamine-related transcript (CART)
Interstitial nuclei of the anterior hypothalamus (INAH)
A collection of four small nuclei in the anterior hypothalamus, two of which (INAH-2 and INAH-3) appear to be sexually dimorphic. The size of INAH-3 might associated with male sexual orientation. - A cluster of 4 nuclei in the preoptic area of the human hypothalamus - INAH-2 and INAH-3 are twice larger in human males than females; INAH-3 is thought to be the human analog of the rat SDN-POA - Probably participate in sexual behavior;
Glycogen
A complex carbohydrate used to store energy in the liver. ___ is a form of glucose stored for a short term in the liver and muscles - it's regulated by the pancreatic hormone insulin
Turner syndrom
A condition caused by an XO genotype, characterized by frequent abnormalities of the ovaries and infertility. - Individuals with this syndrome have normal female external genitelia, but the ovaries develop abnormally; - random error, not heritable
Klinefelter syndrome
A condition in males caused by an XXY genotype, characterized by frequent problems with fertility, secondary sex characteristics, and verbal skills. - normal intelligence, some verbal cognitive difficulties; reduced fertility
Androgen
A steroid hormone that develops and maintains typically masculine characteristics. - ____ have a direct role in the masculanization of the human brain that is not dependent on aromatization intro estradiol; - ___ are related to competition- increase in anticipation of athletic competition; - long-term marriage correlates with lower __- levels;
Retinohypothalamic pathway
A pathway leading from the retina of the eye to the hypothalamus; provides light information necessary for the maintenance of circadian rhythms. - provides information about light to the SCN
Orexin
A peptide neurochemical produced in the lateral hypothalamus that stimulates eating; also known as hypocretin
Neuropeptide Y (NPY)
A peptide neurochemical secreted by the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus that initiates eating. - are produced by NPY/AgRP neurons
Rapid-eye-movement (REM_ sleep
A period of sleep characterized by desynchronous brain activity, muscle paralysis, eye movement, and storylike dream behavior.
non-REM sleep
A period of sleep characterized by slow, synchronous brain activity, reductions in heart rate, and muscle relaxation.
Endogenous opioid receptors
A person's number of ___ ____ receptors influences pain sensitivity
Melanopsin
A photopigment used by non-image-forming (NIF) retinal cells. - sensitive to light - present in the retinohypothalamic nucleus and project to suprachiasmatic nucleus
Homeostasis
A physiological state of equilibrium or balance
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
A pituitary hormone that stimulates the adrenal glands.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
A pituitary hormone that stimulates the growth and function of the thyroid gland, which in turn increases metabolic rate.
Babinski reflex
A polysynaptic flexion reflex present in infants and in adults with neural damage, in which stroking the foot causes the toes to spread with the big toe pointing upward.
Reciprocal inhibition
A polysynaptic reflex that prevents the simultaneous contraction of flexors and extensors serving the same joint. In ____ ____, the activation of one muscle in an antagonistic pair inhibits the contraction of the other.
Withdrawal (flexion) reflex
A polysynaptic spinal reflex that produces withdrawal of a limb from a painful stimulus. ____ reflex pull a body part away from a source of pain
Paraventricular nucleus (PVN)
A portion of the hypothalamus involved with the regulation of hunger.
Hypothermia
A potentially fatal core body temperature below 31 degrees
Testis-determining factor
A protein encoded by the SRY gene on the Y chromosome that turns the primordial gonads into testes.
Myosin
A protein that makes up the thick filaments of the myofibril
actin
A protein that makes up the thin filaments of the myofibril - During a muscle twitch, ___ and muscle head move, not myosin!
5-alpha-reductase deficiency
A rare condition in which a child is born with ambiguous genitalia but develops male secondary sex characteristics at puberty. - it affects a male's ability to produce the enzyme 5-alpha-reductase; - are typically raised as females but develop secondary sex characteristics with male external genitalia and take male gender role;
Glucoreceptors
A receptor that is sensitive to the presence of glucose. - detectors of blood glucose level
Estrus
A regularly occurring period of sexual desire and fertility in some mammals.
Circadian rhythm
A repeating cycle of about 24 hours - daily rhythms
Free-running circadian rhythm
A rhythm that isn't synchronized to environmental time cues.
Muscle spindles
A sensory structure, provides feedback regarding muscle stretch Location: lie parallel to muscle fibers within a muscle Source to input to these cells: respond to stretch of associated muscle fibers; Fiber type: Ia sensory fibers Action produced: muscle spindles synapse with alpha motor neurons and spinal interneurons, allowing muscle contraction to adjust to muscle stretching.
Sleep spindle
A short burst of 12-14 cycle-per-second waves observed during NREM sleep.
Mechanoreceptor
A skin receptor that senses touch, pressure, or vibration. - ____ are found in the skin, blood vessels, joints, internal organs; - Within each ___ are unmyelinated axon fibers - appear to be somewhat specialized in the type of information they provide
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by the intrusion of REM sleep, and occasionally REM paralysis, into the waking state.
REM behavior disorder
A sleep disorder in which the normal REM paralysis is absent. - characterized by organized behavior, from an asleep person; - usually begins after age 50 and may be followed by beginning symptoms of Parkinson's disease - suggests damage in the brain motor systems, or degeneration of pons;
Sleep apnea
A sleep disorder in which the person temporarily slows down or stops breathing, then awakens gasping for air. - blood oxygen drops rapidly - muscles in chest and diaphragm may relax too much or pacemaker respiratory neurons in the brain stem may not signal properly. - ___ ___ may be accompanied by snoring - each episode of ___ ___ arouses the person to restore breathing, but may result in daytime sleepiness; - treatments include a removable tube in the throat or a CPAP (continuous positive airway pressure) machine, to prevent collapse of the airways;
Dyssomnia
A sleep disorder that involves difficulty initiating or maintainung sleep.
Parasomnia
A sleep disorder that involves the intrusion of unusual behaviors into sleep.
Agouti-related protein (AgRP)
A small protein secreted by the arcuate nucleus that initiates eating. - these neurons act of lateral hypothalamus and paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus to stimulate appetite and lower metabolism, promoting weight gain
Gamma motor neuron
A small spinal neuron that innervates the muscle spindles. Location: Ventral horns of the spinal cord, some cranial nerve nuclei Source of input to these cells: motor cortex, brainstem Action produced: ___ ___ neurons contract the muscle spindle to match spindle length to surrounding muscle fibers.
Ib sensory fiber
A small, slower alpha-alpha sensory axon that connects the golgi tendon organs to neurons in the spinal cord.
C fiber
A small, unmyelinated fiber (receptors) that carries information about temperature, itch, and dull, aching pain to the CNS. - free nerve endings
Mirror neurons
A special motor neuron that responds to a particular action, whether that action is performed or simply observed,
alpha motor neurons
A spinal motor neuron directly responsible for signaling a muscle fiber to contract.
Ventromedial pathway
A spinal motor pathway originating in the brainstem and carrying commands for subconscious, automatic movements of the neck and torso. Location: ventromedial spinal cord Principle connections: Brainstem to spinal motor neurons Functions: Maintain posture; carry out reflexive responses to sensory input
Polysynaptic reflex
A spinal reflex that requires interaction at more than one synapse.
Monosynaptic reflex
A spinal reflex, such as the patellar reflex, that requires the action of only one synapse betweens ensory and motor neurons.
Estrogen
A steroid hormone that develops and maintains typically female characteristics. - produced at the beginning of the ovulatory cycle are important for female proceptive behavior; - a female without ovaries will respond proceptively to a combination of ____ and progesterone treatments; - ___ can increase the level of serotonin
Otolith
A stone made of calcium carbonate that is attached to the hair cells in the ____ organs. - The utricle and saccule contain hair cells, whose cilia extend into a gelatinous layer covered by ____;
Otolith organ
A structure in the inner ear vestibular system that provides information about the angle of the head relative to the ground and about linear acceleration. - includes the saccule and utricle;
Golgi tendon organ
A structure located in the tendons of muscles that provides information about muscle contraction. Location: Junctions between muscles and tendons Source of input to these cells: respond to tension in muscle Fiber type: Ib sensory fibers Action produced: ___ ___ organs synapse with spinal interneurons, inhibiting activity of alpha motor neurons, reducing contraction.
Golgi tendon organs
A structure located in the tendons of muscles, provides info about muscle contraction
Alpha fetoprotein
A substance circulated by rats that deactivates estradiol and prevents maternal estradiol from masculinizing female pups.
Hypothalamus
Brain structures involved in hunger
Nucleus accumbens and dorsal striatum
Brain structures that regulate the motivational and incentive properties of food
Insula
Brain strucutre that processes information related to the taste of food and its hedonic valuation
Papillae
Bumps on the tongue containing taste buds and taste receptors. - ___ contain somewhere between 1-100 taste buds - taste buds only live for about 10 days, after which time they're replaced;
Secondary sex characteristics
Characteristics related to sex that appear at puberty, including deepening voice and facial hair growth in males and widening hips and breast development in females.
Pyrogens
Chemical produced by bacteria/ viruses that lead to fever - enter brain near the hypothalamus- BBB is relatively weak - ____ stimulate the release of prostaglandin E2
Olfactory cortex
Cortex in the frontal lobe that responds to the sense of smell.
Primary somatosensory cortex
Cortex located in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe that is responsible for the initial cortical processing of somatosensory input. - only active when we experience the pain ourselves.
Binge eating
Gorging with more food than is necessary to satisfy hunger
decreases
Hunger decreases/increases metabolic rate
Adipose tissue
Lipids (fat), for longer-term storage, are deposited in ___ ___
Otoacoustic emissions; finger length pattern; eyeblinks; skeletal features;
List the things that fetal androgen exposure markers include; - such measures indicate that many (not all) lesbians were exposed to slightly more androgens than heterosexual women; - fetal androgen exposure is not as well understood in homosexual men;
Basal ganglia
Location: Forebrain; Principle connections: Motor cortex, thalamus Functions: Choice and initiation of voluntary movements
Cerebellum
Location: Hinbrain Principle connections: Spinal motor neurons, forebrain motor systems Functions: sequencing of complex movements, muscle tone, balance, and coordination
Primary motor cortex
Location: Precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe Principle connections: other cortical areas, basal ganglia, brainstem, spinal motor neurons Functions: Inititiation of voluntary movements
Secondary motor cortex
Location: Rostral to the primary motor cortex Principle connections: Thalamus, primary motor cortex Functions: Managing movements strategies
ACC
Location: rostral portion of the gyrus dorsal to the corpus callosum Principle connections: red nucleus and spinal motor neurons Functions: selection of voluntary movement based on prior reward
Sleep enuresis
bed wetting; associated with SWS
Hot flashes
Spontaneous sensation of warmth, often associated with perspiration, palpitations, and anxiety; can interfere with daily activities or sleep, requiring treatment
Excitement; Plateau; Orgasm; Resolution
Stages of sex
Testosterone and FSH
___ and __ cause sperm to mature;
Odorant
An ___, dissolved in mucus, interacts with receptors on the cilia and dendritic knob;
Alpha-alpha fibers
- A class of axons; - Feedback from muscle fibers
Alpha-beta fibers
- A class of axons; - Mechanoreceptors of skin: Meissner's corpuscles; Merkel's disks; Pacinian corpuscles; Ruffini's endings
Posterior hypothalamus
- One of the two areas of the hypothalamus that participates in temperature regulation; - promotes heat conversation - shivering; construction of blood vessels
NPY/AgRP
- ___ neurons exert effects through the PVN and LH;
XYY
- a condition - tall, lean with acne and some subtle physical abnormalities; - Intelligence slightly below XY males - Fertile, but higher likelihood of producing abnormal sperm - May correlate with higher rates of antisocial and property (not violent) criminal behavior, but this is more likely due to lower intelligence;
Hypothalamic system
- a neural system underlying sleep - affects the other three
Basal forebrain system
- a neural system underlying sleep - displays SWS
Pontine system
- a neural system underlying sleep - triggers REM sleep
Stage 3
- a stage of sleep - deep sleep begins; brain begins to generate slow delta waves
Stage 1
- a stage of sleep - light sleep; muscle activity slows down; occasional muscle twitching (myoclonia); alpha rhythm and vertex spike
Stage 2
- a stage of sleep' breathing pattern and heart rate slows; slight decrease in body temperature; sleep spindles and K complexes;
Gate theory of pain
- input from touch fibers compete with input from nocireceptors for activation of cells in the substantia gelatinosa; - activation of the touch fibers effectively reduces the amount of pain information that can reach the brain; - e.g. rubbing elbow to lessen the pain
Receptors
- most taste buds contain somewhere between 50-150 taste _____ cells; - ____ for all five taste qualities are found in all areas of the tongue; - Although taste ___ don't have a true axon, they're able to contact and influence taste fibers serving the tongue;
POMC/CART
- neurons the produce pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC=> alphaMCH) and cocaine- and amphetamine-related transcript (CART) - these neurons inhibit appetite and raise metabolism, promoting weight loss - are related to the decrease of eating by amphetamines and ritalin
Myosin filament
- thick filament
Actin filament
- thin filament
Type IIa (medium) and Type IIb (fast twitch)
- type of fiber that are in arms, shoulders - use anaerobic metabolism - participate in brief, powerful movements
Type I fibers (slow twitch)
- type of fiber that are in legs, back - use aerobic metabolism - participate in endurance movements
Slow-wave sleep (SWS)
- type of sleep - can be divided into four stages and is characterized by slow-wave EEG activity
Nightmare
A REM dream with frightening content.
Hypnogogic hallucination
A REM-type dream that intrudes into the waking state prior to the onset of sleep.
Hypnopompic hallucination
A REM-type dream that intrudes into the waking state upon awakening.
Phase shift
A ____ ____ is the shift in activity pattern in response to a synchronizing stimulus, such as light or food
Reflex
A ____ is an involuntary response to a stimulus. - it's an automatic and stereotypical response, usually including a very simple movement - involves neurons at the organ and spinal cord levels; - ___ are much faster than brain-rolled movements - although ___ can occur without brain influence, the brain can control and affect spinal ___ - spinal ____ protect us from injury, maintain posture, and coordinate the movement of limbs
Z line
A boundary line for each sarcomere within a myofibril.
Delta wave
A brain waveform having 1-4 cycles per second that occurs during stages 3 and 4 of NREM sleep.
Beta waves
A brain waveform having 15-20 cycles per second, associated with high levels of alertness during wakefulness. - characterized by highly desynchronized, rapid, irregular, low-amplitude waves - during this, person will be actively thinking and very alert
Theta wave
A brain waveform having 4-7 cycles per second found primarily in lighter stages of NREM sleep.
Alpha wave
A brain waveform having 9-12 cycles per second, associated with less alertness and more relaxation than beta activity during wakefulness. - slow, large, more regular than beta waves - person is awake but quite relazed
K-complex
A brief burst of brain activity occurring during stage 2 slow-wave sleep.
Fever
A carefully controlled increase in the body's thermal set point that is often helpful in ridding the body of disease-causing organisms - ___ can help the body fighting diseases, since many disease causing organisms are more sensitive to temperature than the host
Anaerobic metabolism
A chemical process that doesn't require oxygen.
Aerobic metabolism
A chemical processes that requires oxygen.
Pyrogen
A chemical produced by bacteria or viruses that contributes to the production of a fever. - ___ target in the brain is located in the hypothalamus - blood-brain barrier relatively weak near POA, which allows ___ to exit the blood supply and enter the tissue; once in the POA, ___ stimulate the release of prostaglandin E2, which in turn inhibits the firing rate of warm-sensitive neurons; due to reduced activity of these central thermoreceptors, the body responds by producing and retaining heat, leading to increased heart rate, shivering etc.
Aromatization
A chemical reaction resulting in an aromatic compound, characterized by a six-carbon ring; e.g. the enzyme aromatase transforms testosterone into estradiol.
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
A condition in which a fetus is exposed to higher-than-normal androgens, resulting in masculinization of external genitalia and some cognitive behaviors in affected females. - Adrenal glands produce excess androgens. The newborn may have an intersex appearance; - No testes are present and ovaries are normal, despite appearance of external genitalia; - Minor effects on behavior and sexual preference; - Females with ___: more frequently describe themselves as tomboys; engage in more male-interest play; are more likely than other women to engage in bisexual and lesbian behavior
Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)
A condition in which a genetic male fetus lacks androgen receptors, which leads to the development of female external genitalia and typically female gender identity and sexual behavior. - Tissues are "blind" to androgens, so the Wolffian system doesn't develop; Anti-Mullerian hormone prevents development of female internal organs; - outward appearance and gender identity is typically female;
Intersex
A condition in which elements of both male and female development occur in the same fetus.
Postpartum depression
A condition in which mothers who have recently given birth experience feelings of depression due to their rapidly changing hormonal environment.
Premenstural dysphoric disorder (PMDD)
A condition in which premenstrual mood changes are unusually severs.
Premenstrual syndrom
A condition in which some women experience physical and psychological symptoms immediately prior to the onset of menstruation.
Polio
A contagious viral disease that attacks the spinal motor neurons, producing paralysis. Symptoms: Damage to spinal motor neurons leading to mild to severe muscle paralysis Ccauses: Virus Treatments: Prevented by immunization
Ultradian cycle
A cycle that occurs several times in a single day.
Parkinson's disease
A degenerative disease characterized by difficulty in moving, muscular tremors, and frozen facial expressions. Symptoms: Progressive difficulty initiating movement Causes: Possible link to exposure to toxins Treatments: Fetal cell implants, electrical stimulation, surgical removal of sections of the basal ganglia or thalamus, meds; gene therapy and stem cell implants under investigation.
ALS (Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis)
A disease in which motor neurons of the spinal cord and brainstem progressively deteriorate, leading to death. Symptoms: General weakness, muscle atrophy, cramps, muscle twitching Causes: Possible link to genetic inheritance, possible link to viral infection Treatments: None currently approved; use of meds to slow the progression of the disease under investigation
Cataplexy
A feature of narcolepsy in which REM muscle paralysis intrudes into the waking state - sudden loss of muscle tone, even while awake, leading to collapse
Sleep paralysis
A feature of narcolepsy in which REM muscle paralysis occurs preceding or following actual sleep - brief inability to move just before falling asleep, or just after waking up
Ovum
A female reproductive cell, or egg.
Olfactory tract
A fiber pathway connecting the olfactory bulbs to the olfactory cortex.
Sex-determining region of the Y chromosome (SRY)
A gene located on the short arm of the Y chromosome that encodes for testis-determining factor. - responsible for the development of testes- codes for a testis-determining factor; - without an ___ gene, an ovary forms; the default condition of living things is to be female
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes
A gene that encodes our immune system's ability to recognize intruders; might account for female human preferences for male odors;
Huntington's disease
A genetic disorder beginning in middle age that results in jerky, involuntary movements and progresses to psychosis and premature death. Symptoms: Involuntary, jerky movements: depression, hallucinations, delusions Causes: Abnormalities in the gene that encodes for the protein huntington Treatments: Experimental gene replacement, stem cell implants, and meds under investigation.
Substantia gelatinosa
A group of cells in the outer gray matter of the dorsal horn that receive synapses from pain fibers. - they release glutamate and Substance P
Cholinergic mesopontine nuclei
A group of cells located at the border of the pons and midbrain that use ACh as their major neurotransmitter and participate in the maintenance of wakefulness. "Meso" refers to mesencephalin, or midbrain, and "pontine" refers to the pons.
Muscular dystrophy
A group of diseases characterized by extreme muscle development followed by muscle wasting, due to abnormalities in the protein dystrophin. Symptoms: Progressive muscle degeneration Cuases: abnormalities in the gene that encodes for the protein dystrophin Treatments: None currently approved; gene replacement and muscle cell replacement under investigation
Basal forebrain
A group of structures near bottom of the front of the brain, including nucleus basalis, diagonal band of Broca, and medial septal nuclei
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
A gut hormone released in response to the consumption of fats that also acts as a central nervous system neurotransmitter that signals satiety. - eating fats stimulates duodenum to release ___ which promotes release of insulin; contracts gallbladder, releasing bile; may be brain neurotransmitter signaling satiety: ___ antagonists initiate eating - ___ promotes release of insulin by the pancreas and contracts the gallbladder to release bile to help break down fats - ___ contributes to feelings of satiety - also functions in the brain as a neurotransmitter related to satiety - ___ antagonists increase eating, indicating that ___ has an inhibitory effect on feeding behavior
Progesterone
A hormone produced in the corpus luteum that prevents the development of additional follicles and promotes the growth of the uterine lining.
Ghrelin
A hormone produced in the stomach that stimulates feeding behavior. - released into blood by endocrine cells in pancreas and stomach lining; - besides stimulating growth hormone release, __ is an appetite stimulant; acts on our reward system - levels of ___ rise during fasting and fall after a meal, except in obese subjects- they remain high - stimulates NPY/AgRP neurons, leading to an increase in appetite
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
A hormone release by the hypothalamus that stimulates the release of two gonadotropic hormones: luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) by the anterior pituitary gland. - influences onset of puberty - regulates sperm production in males and the menstrual cycle in females;
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
A hormone released by anterior pituitary that stimulates the development of eggs in the ovaries and sperm in the testes
Cortisol
A hormone released by the adrenal glands that promotes arousal. - normally high early in the morning and lower at night - higher levels of ___ are associated with higher blood pressure, higher heart rate, and the mobilization of the body's energy stores
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
A hormone released by the anterior pituitary that signals the male testes to produce testosterone and that regulates the menstrual cycle in females.
Growth hormone (GH)
A hormone released during stages 3 and 4 of slow- wave sleep that promotes growth, increases in bone and muscle mass, and immune system function.
Anti- Mullerian hormone
A hormone secreted by the fetal testes that causes the degeneration of the Mullerian system.
Melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH)
A hormone that interacts with leptin and plays a role in the regulation of eating.
Lateral Pathway
A large collection of axons that originates in the cerebral cortex, synapses on either the red nucleus or alpha motor neurons, and controls voluntary movements. Location: lateral spinal cord Principle connections: motor cortex to spinal motor neurons Functions: voluntary fine movements of hands, feet, and outer limbs
Ia sensory fiber
A large, fast sensory axon that connects a muscle spindle to neurons in the spinal cord.
Pyramidal cell
A large, pyramid-shaped neuron found in the output layers (layers III and V) of the cerebral cortex, including primary motor cortex.
Hyperthermia (heat stroke)
A life threatening condition in which core body temperature increases beyond normal limits in an uncontrolled manner.
Prostaglandin
A lipid that activates pain receptors
Myofibril
A long fiber strand running the length of a muscle fiber that is responsible for contraction.
Anabolic steroid
A male steroid supplement with a variety of medical applications that is also frequently abused by athletes and bodybuilders. - These steroids have legitimate medical uses- malnutrition and other tissue loss; build strength and muscle mass - Side effects: acne, enlargement of penis or clitoris; deepening voice; unusual hair growth or loss; psychological disturbances; breast enlargement in males; high blood pressure; kidney disease
Body mass index (BMI)
A measure comparing height and weight that is used to determine underweight, healthy weight, and obesity.
Encapsulated receptor
A mechanoreceptor in which the axon fibers are surrounded by a fluid-filled capsule formed of connective tissue.
Trigeminal lemniscus
A pathway carrying pain and temperature information from the spinal trigeminal nucleus to the thalamus.
pre-SMA
A motor area located in the gyrus rostral to the precentral gyrus; this area participates in holding a motor plan until it can be implemented; formerly referred to as the premotor area (PMA). - Location: rostral to the primary motor cortex - Principle connections: Thalamus, primary motor cortex; Functions: Managing movements strategies
slow-twitch fiber
A muscle fiber containing type I myosin filaments and large numbers of mitochondria that contracts slowly using aerobic metabolism; primarily responsible for movement requiring endurance
Fast-twitch fiber
A muscle fiber containing type IIA and type IIb myosin filaments that contains few mitochondria, uses anaerobic metabolism, and contracts rapidly; primarily responsible for movement requiring explosive strength.
Myoclonia
A muscle jerk occurring in early stages of sleep.
Flexor
A muscle that acts to bend a joint.
Extensor
A muscle that acts to straighten a joint.
Alpha- delta fiber
A myelinated fiber that carries information about cold and sharp pain to the central nervous system. - Pain, temperature receptors of skin: free nerve endings
Sarcomere
A myofibril segment bound on either side by a Z line and spanned by thin filaments.
Cold fiber
A nerve ending in the skin that responds to cold. - begin to respond at skin temperatures of about 30C and increase their response rate until the skin temperature decreases to about 10C
Warm fiber
A nerve ending in the skin that responds to heat. - begin to fire at about 30C and increase firing rates as temperature increases to about 45C
Thermoreceptor
A nerve ending in the skin that responds to surface temperature. - are distributed in irregular patterns across the surface of the skin; - spots that are approx. 1 mm in diameter respond to either hot or cold, not to both;
Nocireceptor
A nerve ending that responds to painful stimuli. - ___ respond to a variety of stimuli associated with tissue damage; - some ___ respond most vigorously to mechanical injury such as the damage caused by a sharp object; - some ___ respond to extreme temperature - some ___ appear to respond to both mechanical stimulation and temperature;
Trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V)
A nerve that carries sensation from mechanoreceptors, temperature receptors, and pain receptors in the skin of the face, mouth, tongue, and the dura mater of the brain.
Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (alphaMSH)
A neurochemical originating in the arcuate nucleus, believed to inhibit feeding behavior.
Cocaine-and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART)
A neurochemical, originating in the arcuate nucleus, believed to inhibit feeding behavior.
Substance P
A neurotransmitter substance associated with the sense of pain that also serves as a stimulus at some nocireceptors. - ___ appears to stimulate structural changes in the dendrites of the cells in the substantia gelatinosa; these changes might account for adaptations to pain based on personal experience;
Merkel's disk
A nonencapsulated, slow-adapting mechanoreceptor with large receptive field that provides information about pressure and vibration.
Ruffini's ending
A nonencapsulated, slow-adapting mechanoreceptor with large receptive field that provides information regarding stretch.
Merkel's disk
A nonencapsulated, slow-adapting mechanoreceptor with small receptive field that provides information primarily about pressure.
Spinal trigeminal nucleus
A nucleus in the brainstem that receives pain and temperature information from the head and neck.
Sexually dimorphic nucleus of the POA (SDN-POA)
A nucleus in the preoptic area of the hypothalamus that is larger in male rats than in female rats. - lesions reduce male sexual behavior - At birth, the size of the _____ is the same in male and female rats. Exposure of androgens masculinizes the brain, and the size of the _____ starts to grow rapidly - A newborn castrated male -> ____ much smaller than normal males - A newborn female injected with testosterone -> ____ much larger than normal females Castration of older males / injection to older females -> doesn`t affect the size of the ______ -> responds only to early hormonal effects (i.e. critical period)
Glucogan
A pancreatic hormone that converts glycogen into glucose. - mediates glycolysis, the process of converting glycogen back into glucose when blood glucose levels drop
Insulin
A pancreatic hormone that facilitates the movement of sugars from the blood supply into the body's tissue. - Glycogen is regulated by the pancreatic hormone ____ - ___ is released immediately following a meal - ___ helps store glucose as glycogen and assists in moving glucose from the blood supply into body cells; - ____ levels lowest during long periods of fasting
Preoptic area (POA)
A part of the hypothalamus involved in a number of regulatory functions. - contains three types of neurons: warm-sensitive-increase firing rate and inhibit cold-sensitive neurons as core temperature increases; cold-sensitive; temperature-insensitive: retain a fairly steady rate of responding under all temperature conditions; - promotes heat loss (perspiration; dilation of blood vessels)
Leptin
A substance secreted by fat cells that helps the body regulate its fat stores. - high __ levels might inhibit the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus - high __ levels stimulate arcuate nucleus, which releases alphaMSH (via POMC) and CART; - low ____ levels activate the arcuate nucleus to release neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti related peptide (AgRP) to initiate feeding - genetic defects in __ production or sensitivity give a false reporting to body fat, causing animals to overeat; unfortunately, obese humans don't respond to __ (resistance) - ___ activates POMC/CART neurons but inhibits NPY/AgRP neurons, so __ suppresses hunger; long-lasting effect - when body far levels are high, higher concentrations of ___ are found in the blood
Vertigo
A subtype of dizziness in which a patient inappropriately experiences the perception of motion (usually a spinning motion) due to dysfunction of the vestibular system;
Neuromuscular junction
A synapse formed between an alpha motor neuron axon terminal and a muscle fiber.
Anorexia nervorsa (AN)
A syndrome in which individuals severly deprive themselves of food - has the highest mortality rate of any psychiatric disorder - affects all races and age groups (although usually reported in white adolescent females) - mortality rate is 4.0% - males account for 5-10% of cases - usually starts in mid-teens - genetic factors seem to be important especially in ___ - elevated CART levels - maintain 85% or less of normal body weight - disturbed body image - amenorrhea, lanugo, increased sensitivity to cold, yellowed skin, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal problems are common - treatment is family therapy for adolescent ___ - may require hospitalization
Neglect syndrome
A syndrome that results when the primary somatosensory cortex is damaged and is characterized with difficulty perceiving either a part of the body or a part of the visual field;
Critical period
A time segment during development in which a particular experience is influential and after which the same experience has little or no effect (in rats - a few days following birth)
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
A type of depression that results from insufficient amounts of daylight during the winter months.
Smooth muscle
A type of muscle found in the lining of the digestive tract, within arteries, and in the reproductive system; controlled by the autonomic nervous system
Striated muscle
A type of muscle named for its striped appearance; including cardiac and skeletal muscles
Cardiac muscle
A type of striated muscle found in the heart.
Skeletal muscle
A type of striated muscle that is attached to bones and is responsible for the majority of body movements.
Glucose
A type of sugar found in foods that is a major source of energy for living organisms. ____ is the principal sugar used for energy
Set point
A value that is defined by regulatory systems, such as core temperature or a particular body weight.
Corpus luteum
A yellow mass of cells in the ovary formed by a ruptured follicle that has released an egg.
Brainstem (Reticular) system
Activates the forebrain - a neural system that underlies sleep
dilation
Alcohol causes ___ of blood vessels
- muscle spindles; - golgi tendon organs; - brainstem and motor cortex neurons - spinal interneurons
Alpha motor neurons receive input from ___ (4 things)
Night terror
An NREM episode in which the individual is partially aroused, disoriented, frightening, and inconsolable.
Testosterone
An androgen produced primarily in the testes. - ___ levels affect the rate of initiation of sexual activity by women- but seemingly not the rate of receptivity; - ___ also masculinizes other structures in utero: prostate gland, scrotum, penis; - 5 alpha-reductase is an enzyme that converts ___ into the more powerful 5alpha-dihydrotestosterone, necessary to form male genitalia - ___ levels probably have the most influence on female sexual interest;
5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone
An androgen secreted by the testes that masculinizes the external genitalia.
Endotherm
An animal that can use internal methods, such as perspiration or shivering, to maintain body temperature. e.g. mammals, birds;
Diurnal
An animal that is active during light
Nocturnal
An animal that is active during the dark
Ectotherm
An animal that relies on external methods, such as moving into the sun or shade, for maintaining body temperature. e.g. amphibians, reptiles, fish
Pons
An area of the ___ near the locus coeruleus, is responsible for REM sleep
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
An area of the hypothalamus located above the optic chaism; - the body's master internal clock; - responsible for maintaining circadian rhythms. - body's internal master clock; - only active during day - not dependent on input from other structures to maintain its rhythms - the ___ acts as a master clock that coordinates the activities of other internal, peripheral clocks that exist in most body cells - both regulates and responds to the hormone melatonin
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
An area within the hypothalamus that participates in satiety. - lesions of this area produce weight gains and "picky" eating; lesions may disrupt pathways linking PVN and NST - __ lesions result in excess insulin production => ___ important for satiety
Myasthenia gravis
An autoimmune condition caused by the degeneration of ACh receptors at the neuromuscular junction, resulting in muscle weakness and fatigue. Symptoms: muscle weakness, fatigue Cuases: autoimmune damate to the nicotinic ACh receptor Treatments: meds that inhibit the immune system or AChE
Bulimia nervosa (BN)
An eating disorder characterized by cycles of bingeing and purging.
Anorexia nervosa (AN)
An eating disorder characterized by voluntary self-starvation and a grossly distorted body image.
Coolidge effect
An effect that refers to the fast resumption of mating behavior, with a different partner;
Meissner's corpuscle
An encapsulated, fast-adapting mechanoreceptor with small receptive field that responds primarily to pressure. - are found in the junction of the epidermis and dermis;
Pacinian corpuscle
An encapsulated, rapidly adapting mechanoreceptor with large receptive field that provides information about pressure and vibration. - are found in deep in the skin, joints, and digestive tract
Estradiol
An estrogen hormone synthesized primarily in the ovaries.
Zeitgeber
An external cue for setting biological rhythms. - cue that an animal uses to synchronize internal clocks with the environment ("time-giver"); e.g. light; availability of food
Muscle fiber
An individual muscle cell - Skeletal muscles are made up of individual long, thin ___ ___ - containing many nuclei - surrounded by an excitable membrane, similar to that of a neuron
Melatonin
An indoleamine secreted by the pineal gland that participates in the regulation of circadian rhythms.
Secondary somatosensory cortex
Areas in the parietal lobe adjacent to primary somatosensory cortex that process a wide variety of complex somatosensory inputs.
high temperatures; low
At ___ temperatures, protein function is disrupted; At __ temperatures; reactions slow down; cell membranes are damaged except in some species that produce "antifreeze"
Spinal cord; VP nucleus of the thalamus
Axons from the vestibular nuclei connect with ___ ___ and higher levels of the brain; and the __ ___ nucleus of the ___;
Primary somatosensory cortex; Primary motor cortex;
Axons from the vestibular nuclei that connect with the VP nucleus of the thalamus go to the ____ ____ cortex and ___ ____ cortex;
posture; balance
Axons from the vestibular nuclei that connect with the spinal cord and higher levels of the brain adjust our ___ to keep our ____;
Hypothermia
Below 35C, causing uncontrolled shivering, pain, etc. - In lower temperatures (below 31C) pupils dilate, drunkenness behavior, consciousness lost
T2R
Bitter is detected by ___ receptors; - each bitter taste cell produces most types of the bitter receptors; the high sensitivity may have evolved to signal toxicity;
Hyperthermia
Body temperature above 40C, causing confusion, fainting; sweating stops; - caused by illness or from extreme physical activity in hot weather
cranial nerve nuclei
Cranial nerves (ie., trigeminal & facial nerves) carry touch and pain info from face, mouth, tongue, and dura mater directly to ___ ___ __ in brainstem, and from there to thalamus
Turbinates
Curved surfaces in the nasal cavity called ___ direct air flow
Neural damage
Damage to nerve endings; over sensitivity of these nerves;
Sexually dimorphic
Displaying structural differences between the sexes.
Hypothalamic
Drugs that modify the ____ appetite system may be good in obesity treatment.
Hypothalamic appetite system
Drugs that modify the _____ appetite system may be good in obesity treatment.
One type; limited number
Each olfactory receptor cell possesses only __ type of odorant receptor, and each receptor can detect a ___ number of odorant substances;
Sex determination
Early developmental process that determines if a person will be male or female
Duodenum
Eating fats stimulates ___ to release cholecystokinin (CCK)
Periaqueductal gray
Electrical stimulation of the ____ generally produces a significant reduction of pain; - ___ appears to be the location for a large number of opioid receptors, and opiates such as morphine probably achieve pain relief through their actions in the ___;
Orbitofrontal cortex
Emotional qualities of taste are probably encoded in the ___ cortex.
Jet lag
Fatigue, irritability, and sleepiness resulting from travel across time zones.
Ovaries
Female gonads; the source of ova and sex hormones.
Spinothalamic pathway
Fibers that carry pain and temperature information from the substantia gelatinosa to the thalamus.
Smell; texture;
Flavor adds contribution of __, hot and cool and ___
contracts, relaxes; relaxes, contracts;
Flexor ____ and extensor ___ to bend a joint; Flexor ___ and extensor ____ to straighten a joint
Androstenol
Fresh male sweat- attractive to females
histamine; wakefulness
GABA suppresses ___ activity in the tuberomammillary nucleus, which suppresses ____.
Arcuate nucleus and ventromedial hypothalamus
Ghrelin has receptors in ____ nucleus and ___ ___
Glabrous skin
Hairless skin
Desynchronous
Having different periods and phases; in EEG, represents high levels of brain activity.
Synchronous
Having identical periods and phases; in EEG, represents relatively low levels of brain activity.
BMI
Height-to-weight ratio
Specific
Identifying an odor totally depends on having a ___ receptor protein that binds it
Sperm
If ____ has Y chromosome- male; X chromosome- female
25 hours
In the absence of external cues that synchronizes sleep (e.g. job, light, food), humans have a free-running period of about ___ hours; varies with age
Fever
Increase in body temperature from the core (set point) temperature - ___ can help the body fighting diseases, since many disease causing organisms are more sensitive to temperature than the hosts
Inner ear
The sensory organs or the vestibular system are found in the ___ ear, adjacent to the structures responsible for audition.
Spinal cord motor neurons
Input to the ___ ___ ___ neurons provides a means to adjust our posture to keep our balance;
Maintenance insomnia
Insomnia in which the individual cannot stay asleep during the night.
Onset insomnia
Insomnia in which the individual has difficulty getting to sleep at bedtime.
Orexin signaling
Interfering with ____ signaling leads to narcolepsy.
Primary process mechanisms
Latent dream thoughts transformed into manifest dream by ___ ___ mechanisms, a primitive form of thinking predominant in dreams.
Supplementary motor area (SMA)
Motor area located in the gyrus rostral to the precentral gyrus; involved with managing complex sequences of movement
Spinal nucleus of the bulbocavernous (SNB)
Motor neurons in spinal cord that innervate the male rat's bulbocavernous muscles in the penis which are missing in adult female rats; - male rats have more motor neurons than females do; - at birth, they exist in both males and females - during the critical period, the low levels of androgens in female rats cause most of the ___ neurons and muscles to die;
joints
Muscles interact at ___ - muscles can only contract
1. Medulla => Posterior hypothalamus => Basal forebrain 2. Cholinergic mesopontine nuclei => thalamus => cortex
Name the 2 main pathways that are essential to wakefulness
- Breast development - Maturity of external genitalia - Maturity of the uterus - Changes in quantity and distribution of fat - In both makes and females. estradiol slows skeletal growth
Name the female secondary sex charactersitics
- Muscular development - Maturity of external genitalia - Facial hair - Enlargement of the larynx (deepens voice) - Regulation of sperm production (along with FSH and LH) - Later: Baldness
Name the male secondary sex characteristics
Type II fibers
Neurons serving type __ fibers have larger cell bodies, innervate more fibers and produce greater force
Type I fibers
Neurons serving type ___ fibers have small cell bodies, innervate few fibers and produce little force
Intralaminar nucleus
One of many nuclei in the thalamus that receive some pain and temperature input.
Follicle
One of several clusters of cells in the ovary each of which contains an egg cell.
Extrafusal muscle fiber
One of the fibers outside the muscle spindle that is responsible for contracting the muscle.
Intrafusial muscle fiber
One of the fibers that make up a muscle spindle.
Umami; Metabotropic glutamate receptor
One of the five basic taste groups, characteristic of tastes found in seaweed and other "meaty or savory" elements of Asian cuisine. - detection of the carboxylate anion of glumatic acid, a naturally occurring amino acid common in meats, cheese, etc. - a meaty-savory flavor-detected by a type of ___ ___ receptor
Utricle
One of the structures of the otolith organs. Contains hair cells that are arranged along a horizontal membrane;
Saccule
One of the structures of the otolith organs. Contains hair cells that are arranged along a vertical membrane
Semicircular canal
One of three looping chambers found in the inner ear that provide information regarding the rotation of the head; - Respond to rotational movements of the head and contribute to our ability to walk upright; - are filled with the endolypmph fluid
Y chromosome
One of two types of sex chromosomes; individuals with a _ chromosome will usually develop into males.
X chromosome
One of two types of sex chromosomes; individuals with two X chromosomes will usually develop into females.
Ventral tegmental area (VTA); Amygdala active at ejaculation- decline in activity;
Orgasmic pleasure- locations in the brain for men; intensity comparable to heroin;
Activity in nucleus accumbens, somatosensory cortex; Decrease when left lateral orbitofrontal cortex active- release of tension and inhibition; also dorsomedial prefrontal cortex; decrease in amygdala- greater decrease in women than men
Orgasmic pleasure-locations in the brain for women
greater; high; Merkel's disks; Meissner's corpuscles
Our hands and lips have a smaller/greater density of mechanoreceptors overall than other areas of the body, and also contain little/high concentrations of ___ and ____, with their small receptive fields
Cingulate cortex
Pain information is integrated in the ___ cortex- the experience of pain is affected by our expectation; - ___ cortex is activated both when a person is experiencing the pain or when empathizing with another
Somatosensory
Pain information is represented in the ___ regions (the same as represent touch).
Tissue damage
Pain is an unpleasant experience associated with ___ damage;
A delta and C fibers
Pathway for cold receptors
C fibers only
Pathway for warm receptors
serotonin level
Patients with MDD, OCD and EDs show decreased levels of ____
Serotonin
Patients with MDD, OCD and eating disorders show decreased levels of ___
Endolymph
Rotating the head causes the ___ within the canals to bend hair cells; - Extensive movement- the ___ reverses its course (and you may have the odd fleeting sensation that your head it moving in the opposite direction)
Reflexive; opposite
Rotations of the head result in ___ movements of the eyes in the ___ direction.
Ionotropic
Salty and sour substances send ions through ___ receptors
Sodium
Salty- ___ ions are transported across taste cell membranes (___ ion channel that is open all the time- unlike voltage-gated channels in neural membranes)
Masculinization of the brain
Sexually dimorphic features on the male pattern
Somnambulism
Sleepwalking - most sleepwalkers are between ages 4-12 - episodes can be triggered by sleep deprivation, use of alcohol or other meds, stress, fever - occurs during states 3 and 4 SWS, and may persist into adulthood;
Microvilli
Small fibers extending from taste receptors. - taste receptor cells extend ___ into the taste pore to contact tastants;
larger; more
Smaller animals have a ____ surface (relative to body volume), lose more heat, need ___ energy to maintain constant body temperature;
Gustatory (taste)
Solitary tract and its nucleus
PMS (premenstrual syndrome)
Some women experience ___; - physical symptoms include breast enlargement and tenderness and bloating; - Psychological symptoms include depression and irritability;
Hydrogen
Sour- all acids taste sour because they release ___ ions- ___ ions bind with the receptors, causing potassium channels to close; potassium cannot leave the cell and the membrane potential depolarizes;
Intracellular
Specialized G-protein- coupled receptors for sweet, bitter, and umami- all cause a cascade of ____ events;
Capsaicin
The "hot" in chili peppers; - a receptor that binds ____ is the transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1)
Wolffian ducts; Mullerian ducts
The __ ducts and the ___ ducts connect the gonads to the body wall;
Retinal Ganglion cells
The ___ ___ cells in the retinohypothalamic pathway project to superchiasmatic nucleus; - aren't connected to rods or cones - most contain melanopsin, a special photopigment; makes them sensitive to light
Reticular formation
The ___ ___ is able to activate the cortex. - electrical stimulation of this area will wake up sleeping animals while lesions of this area promote sleep. - the basal forebrain and ___ ___ seem to guide the brain between SWS and wakefulness.
Insula
The ___ may provide a basis for complex, subjective, personal, emotional experience to be represented in terms of simpler representations of physical pain body states;
Hypothalamus
The ___ receives input from skin sensors, spinal cord, and thermo-receptors in itself
Cool-menthol receptor 1 (CMR1)
The ___ receptor 1 responds to menthol and to cool temperatures- located on other type C fibers
Sensory organs
The ____ ___ of the vestibular system are found in the inner ear, adjacent to the structures responsible for audition.
Dermatome
The area of the skin surface served by the dorsal roots of one spinal segment.
motor unit
The combination of a single alpha motor neuron and all the muscle fibers that it innervates. A ___ ___ consists of an alpha motor neuron (a spinal motor neuron directly responsible fir signaling a muscle fiber to contact) and all the fibers it controls - includes fibers of only one type (I, IIa, IIb) - size of a ___ ___ corresponds to its function (Type I/II)
Twitch
The contraction of a single muscle fiber.
indifferent;six
The early ____ gonads begin to change into ovaries or testes __ weeks after conception
External genitalia
The external sexual organs, including the penis and scrotum in males and the labia, clitoris, and lower third of the vagina in females.
Linear acceleration
The force perceived when our rate of movement changes.
Type 2 diabetes mellitus
The form of diabetes generally diagnosed in middle-aged adults and characterized by resistance to insulin. - middle age, insulin resistance; - gradual decline in amount of insulin produced, risk factor-obesity
Type 1 diabetes mellitus
The form of diabetes that appears early in life and is characterized by insufficient production of insulin. - childhood or young adulthood; 5-10% of diabetes, autoimmune attack on pancreas beta cells where glycogen is not formed, glucose doesn't enter cells; sweet urine; thirst because of solute imbalance, fatigue, weight loss - usually occurs when insulin-producing pancreatic cells are attacked and destroyed by the body's immune system - without insulin, glucose from food circulates through bloodstream without eing absorbed or stored by the body's tissues
Sleep debt
The homeostatic control of sleep, in which sleep promotion is related to the preceding duration and intensity of wakefulness.
350
The human genome encodes receptors for about __ different kinds of odorants, compared to mice who have 1000;
Insomnia
The inability to sleep a normal amount of time.
Anosmia
The inability to smell
REM rebound
The increased amount of REM sleep following a period of REM deprivation.
Gonads
The internal organs, ovaries in females and testes in males, that produce reproductive cells (eggs and sperm) and secrete sex hormones. - Hormones secreted by __ mainly from the testes direct sexual differentiation
Mullerian system
The internal system that develops into a uterus, fallopian tubes, and the upper two thirds of the vagina in the absence of anti-Mullerian hormone. - only part of Wolffian ducts remains
Wolffian system
The internal system that develops into seminal vesicles, vas deferens, and the prostate gland in males, epididymis; - Mullerian ducts shrink;
Melanin Concentrating hormone (MCH)
The lateral hypithalamus (LH) uses __ ___ ___, a peptide neurotransmitter, to communicate widely with the cortex: causing higher-order motivated feeding behaviors
Olfactory epithelium
The layer in the nasal cavity containing olfactory receptors. Those receptors regularly die and are replaced in a cycle lasting approximately 4-6 weeks; - The ___ ___ contains glia-type support cells that produce mucus; - 3 types of cells: receptor neurons (bipolar); supporting cells (like glia-produce mucus); basal cells (give rise to new receptors) - from receptor cell, an apical dendrite extends to the mucosal surface; - Cilia emerge from the dendritic know - an unmyelinated axon extend from the other end of the receptor cell to the olfactory bulb
Dermis
The layer of skin lying below the outermost epidermis
Subcutaneous tissue
The layer of tissue lying below the dermis.
Ventral posterior (VP) nucleus
The nucleus of the thalamus that receives information regarding pain, touch, and the position and movement of the head.
Ventral posterior medial (VPM) nucleus of the thalamus
The nucleus of the thalamus that receives information regarding taste.
Epidermis
The outermost layer of the skin
Medical lemniscus
The pathway originating in the dorsal column nuclei and synapsing in the ventral posterior (VP) nucleus of the thalamus that is responsible for carrying information about touch and position.
Motivation
The process of activating and directing behavior.
Glycolysis
The process of converting glycogen back into glucose when blood glucose levels drop.
Recruitment
The process of gradually activating more motor units as an increasing load is placed on a muscle.
Ovulation
The process of releasing a mature egg from the ovary.
Troponin
The protein convering of an actin molecule that prevents the molecule from binding with myosin when a muscle is in the resting state; - In the resting muscle, ___ prevents interaction between actin and myosin
Transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1)
The receptor that binds capsaicin is the ____. - this receptor normally detects painful heat, but also hot pepper - ___ receptors are on C fibers- thin unmyelinated axons that conduct slowly, producing persisting heat pain.
Entrainment
The resetting of internal biological clocks to the 24-hour cycle of the earth's rotation. - process of shifting the rhythm
Satiety
The sensation of being full, cessation of eating.
Gender identity
The sense of being male or female, independent of genetic sex or physical appearance.
Olfaction
The sense of smell; It is unique among the major sense in that information travels to the neocortex without synapsing in the thalamus first
Vestibular system
The sensory system that provides information about the position and movement of the head; - provides information about the force of gravity on the body and the acceleration of the head - Contributes to our balance and our sense of spatial orientation - Provides the dominant input about movement and our sense of equilibrium; - Input from the ___ ___ is highly integrated with visual processing (essential for accurate vision that we maintain a stable view of our surroundings regardless of what our body is doing);
Dorsal column
The spinal pathway that carries information about touch and position to the medulla.
Somatosensory system
The system that provides information about the body sense, including touch, movement, pain, and temperature.
Lactic acid
The unpleasant soreness we experience after exercising vigorously is produced by a buildup of ___ ___; - ___ ___ produces an increase in hydrogen ions in the extracellular fluid;
Lucid dreaming
Thoughtful dreaming; the dreamer is aware that he is dreaming and can manipulate the experience.
Position and movement
Together, the utricle, saccule, and semicircular canals provide information about the ____ and ___ of the head;
Antagonistic pair
Two opposing muscles, one a flexor and one an extensor, arranged at a joint.
Sex hormones
___ ____ are synthesized from cholesterol; - classified as steroids - Males and females both produce androgens and estrogens;
Anterior insula and frontal perculum on the inferior frontal gyrus of frontal lobe
What are the 2 cortical substructures?
Warm-sensitive; Cold- sensitive; Temperature-insensitive
What are the 3 types of neurons in the preoptic area (POA)?
salty; sour; sweet; bitter;umami
What are the five basic tastes?
1. Encapsulation 2. Rate of adaptation 3. Receptive field size
What are the three criteria that receptors vary in?
1. Receptor neurons (bipolar 2. Supporting cells (like glia-produce mucus) 3. Basal cells (give rise to new receptors)
What are the three types of cells that are found in the olfactory epithelium?
Smooth muscles
What are the type of muscle of: - digestive tract - arteries - reproductive system are controlled by the autonomic nervous system
decrease in estrogen
What causes hot flashes
Vestibular, touch, pain
What kind of information does the VP nucleus of the thalamus contain?
Poly-synaptic reflextes
___ ____ reflexes require more than two neurons
Testosternone- promotes the development of the Wolffian system Anti- mullerian hormone (AMH)-induces the regression of the Mullerian system
Which are the two hormones from the testes that make the Wolffian system masculine?
Preoptic area (POA)- promotes heat loss; Perspiration, dilation of vlood vessels; posterior hypothalamus- shivering, constriction of blood vessels
Which two areas of the hypothalamus participate in temperature regulation?
Intrafusion
Within the spindle
Contraction
___ Last longer than action potentials, allowing temporal summation
Sleep-onset insomnia
___ ___ insomnia is a difficulty in falling asleep, and can be caused by situational factors, such as shift work or let lag.
Sleep-maintenance insomnia
___ ___ insomnia is a difficulty in staying asleep and may be caused by drugs or neurological factors
Lateral hypothalamus
___ ___ may regulate rewarding responses to palatable food and drive food-seeking behaviors
Olfactory stimuli
___ ___ must be soluble in fat because the material surrounding our smell receptors is composed of fatty substances;
Phantom limb pain
___ ___ pain may be due to inappropriate signaling of pain by neurons
Sleep state misperception
___ ____ ___ occurs when people report insomnia even when they were asleep.
Locus coeruleus (norepinephrine)
___ ____ active when awake, less when SWS, silent during REM
Mono-synaptic reflexes
___ ____ relfexes require only two neurons and a single synapse. - e.g. knee-jerk reflex
Pain pathway; - Nocireceptor - Alpha- delta fibers and C fibers;
___ pathway; - Name receptor type and axon type; - Fibers enter spinal cord via dorsal root; - Fibers synapse in substantia gelatinosa; - Pain information travels via the spinothalamic pathway and trigeminal lemniscus to the VP nucleus and intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus; - Information is transmitted to the anterior cingulate cortex and primary somatosensory cortex from both areas;
Cold receptors
___ receptors are linked with the faster, myelinated alpha-delta fibers as well as with the slower, unmyelinated C fibers
NPY
___ release increases feeding
Touch Pathway; Mechanoreceptor; Alpha-delta fibers
____ Pathway: - Name receptor type and axon type; - Fibers enter spinal cord via dorsal root; - Axons join the dorsal column and synapse in the dorsal column nuclei of the medulla; - Axons from the dorsal column nuclei form the medial lemniscus and synapse in the VP nucleus of the thalamus; Cranial neurons carry touch information from the head to brainstem nuclei, which form connections with the VP nucleus of the thalamus; - The VP nucleus projects to primary somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe
Oxytocin
____ from hypothalamus responsible for muscle contractions in the vagina during orgasm, milk letdown, also social bonding (sex partners and others).
Motivation
____ is a process that activates and directs behavior. - perceived deviations from a set point generates an unpleasant drive state - resulting behaviors are specific to the drive state (e.g. we don't seek out water when we're hungry)
Gluconeogenesis
____ is the process of converting fat to glucose and ketones, a form of fuel, by the liver
Ectothermos
____ like amphibians, reptiles and fish rely on external factors, such as sunlight, in order to maintain body temperature.
Bingeing
____ may involved addictive processes (in EDs).
Taste pathway; Taste buds on the tongue and elsewhere in the mouth;
____ pathway; - Name receptor types; - Taste receptors form parts of cranial nerves VII, IX, X; - These nerves in turn form synapses with the gustatory nucleus (part of the solitary nucleus of the medulla); - Axons from the gustatory nucleus synapse in the VPM (Ventral Posterior Medial) nucleus of the thalamus; - axons from there synapse in the gustatory cortex in the parietal lobe; - it's an ipsilateral pathway;
Temperatrue pathway; Thermoreceptors; Cold receptors; warm receptors
____ pathway; - Name receptor types; ___ receptors transmit information via alpha-delta fibers and C fibers; ___ receptors transmit information via C fibers; - Routes are identical to pain pathways;
Vestibular system - Hair cells within the saccule, utricle, and semicircular canals; Axon type varies;
____ pathway; Name receptor type and axon type; - Fibers join the auditory nerve (cranial nerve VIII); Axons synapse in cerebellum and vestibular nuclei; - Vestibular nuclei axons project to the spinal cord motor neurons and to the VP nucleus of the thalamus; - Information travels from the VP nucleus to primary somatosensory and motor cortex;
Olfaction pathway; Receptor type: Bipolar cells embedded in the olfactory epithelium;
____ pathway; - Name receptor type; - Axons from the receptors synapse in the glomeruli of the olfactory bulbs; - Axons from the olfactory bulbs form the olfactory tract and synapse in the olfactory cortex without synapsing in the thalamus first; - The olfactory cortex sends information to the medial dorsal nucleus of the thalamus, which in turn projects to limbic system, insula, and orbitofrontal cortex;
Bariatric procedure
____ procedures bypass the intestinal tract or stomach, but have risks of complications (in obesity)
Warm
____ receptors are linked with C fibers only;
Glucose transporters
____ transporters span the cell membrane and interact with insulin to bring glucose into the cell
Glucagon
____, a pancreatic hormone, mediates glycolysis- the process of converting glycogen back into glucose when blood glucose levels drop
alpha motor neuron
a spinal motor neuron directly responsible for signaling a muscle fiber to contract - ___ ___ neurons with their cell bodies in the ventral horns of the spinal cord produce muscle contraction though their activity at the neuromuscular junction - the gray matter of the spinal cord is larger in segments serving the arms and legs due to large numbers of ___ ___ neurons. Location: ventral horns of the spinal cord, some cranial nerve nuclei Source of input to these cells: Motor cortex, brainstem, muscle spindles, spinal interneurons Action produced: ____ ____ neurons produce action potentials in muscle fibers, leading to contraction.
sympathetic
alpha-MSH and CART initiate ____ nervous system activity (brainstem and spinal cord); - they also inhibit synthesis of NPY and AgRP => feeding is inhibited
Hot flashes
spontaneous sensation of warmth, often associated with perspiration, palpitations, and anxiety. Can interfere with daily activities or sleep, requiring treatment. - The most common symptom related to menopausal transition (50% + of menopausal women). Can persist for several years after menopause.