COMM 2110 - Ch. 5 Language

The nature of language (ARBITRARY)

Language is arbitrary mostly -Most words have only an arbitrary connection to their meanings -Words literally mean whatever we - as users of a language - choose for them to mean -An exception is onomatopoeia, a word formed by imitating the sound associated with its meaning

Types of language rules

Language is governed by rules: -phonological rules: how the word sounds and is pronounced -Syntactic rules: the way we put together words and phrases into sentences -Semantic rules: the meaning of individual words -Pragmatic rules: address how we use social and cultural info to derive meaning

communication climate

Researchers refer to the emotional tone of a relationship as its Communication climate reflects how you feel about the relationships you're in. Studies show that having a positive communication climate is beneficial for a broad range of relationships such as those in marriages, in families, in friendships, in the workplace, and in educational settings. Communication climate is even important for the quality of computer-mediated interactions, such as ones you might have with online friends or virtual work partners.

denotative meaning

The literal meaning of a word—that is, its dictionary definition

Semantic rules

govern the meanings of individual words. These meanings may be arbitrary, as we have seen, but they are agreed upon by speakers of a language.

Syntactic rules

govern the way we put together words and phrases to create well-formed sentences. Syntactic rules vary by language.

intimacy

is a characteristic of close, supportive relationships. We humans use language both to convey our affectionate feelings for one another and to strengthen our intimate bonds with those who are most important to us.

slander

is a defamatory statement that is made aloud, within earshot of others.

supportiveness

is a feeling of assurance that others care about us and will protect us. People feel supported when others encourage them and express concern for their well-being

defensiveness

is a feeling of excessive concern with guarding ourselves against the threat of criticism or attacks to our ego.

you -statements

shifts that responsibility to the other person. Instead of saying, "You're not being clear," your boss might say, "I'm having a hard time understanding you." Rather than saying, "You make me mad," I might say "I'm angry right now."

linguistic relativity

suggests that because language determines our perceptions of reality, people who speak different languages will see the world differently.

linguistic determinism,

suggests that the structure of language determines how we think. In other words, we can conceive of something only if we have a term for it in our vocabulary.

weasel words

terms and phrases that are intended to mislead listeners by implying something that they don't actually say. Advertisers commonly use weasel words when making claims about their products. For instance, when you hear that "four out of five dentists prefer" a certain chewing gum, the implication is that 80 percent of all dentists prefer that brand. That would indeed be impressive—but that isn't what the statement actually said. For all we know, only five dentists were surveyed to begin with, making the support of "four out of five" appear much less impressive.

connotative meaning

the implications that a word suggests in addition to its literal meaning.

Persuasion

the process of moving people to think or act in a certain way. Every time we watch a TV commercial, read a billboard, or listen to a political speech, someone is trying to influence our beliefs or behavior

slang

the use of informal and unconventional words that often are understood only by others in a particular group.

reason

to make judgments about the world based on evidence rather than emotion or intuition. When we appeal to logos, we formulate logical arguments that support our position, and we provide specific information or evidence to bolster those arguments.

communication accommodation theory

we may be able to enhance our credibility by speaking in a dialect that is familiar to our audience. In contrast, when we use a dialect that is different from that of our listeners, we can cause them to see us as an outsider, and such a perception might lead them to question our credibility.

rhetorical proof

which are ways to support a persuasive argument. He explained that persuasive messages could be supported by appeals to ethos, pathos, and logos.

Names define and differentiate us

A person's first name, for instance, frequently suggests information about the person's demographic characteristics. One such characteristic is the person's sex Names can also provide clues about a person's ethnicity. For example, you might infer that LaKeisha is African American, Huong is Asian, and Santiago is Latino. Some names even suggest a person's age group, so you might assume that Jennifer, Emily, and Hannah are younger than Edna, Mildred, and Bertha. names can suggest information about our disposition and sense of self. For instance, we might perceive an adult man who goes by the name William differently than one who goes by Billy, even though those are two forms of the same name. Indeed, research shows that we do make assumptions about people—accurately or not—on the basis of their names. Practices of naming also vary according to culture and religion. In predominantly Catholic communities around the world, for instance, males are often given a feminine middle name, such as Marie or Maria. Among the Sikh of India, boys are given the surname Singh and girls the surname Kaur, although adults of both sexes often take these as middle names instead. The Sikh practice of giving common surnames to all boys and girls is meant to symbolize the abolition of class inequalities. In Mexico, children often receive two last names, including their father's last name and their mother's maiden name. This practice is intended to honor both the maternal and the paternal lineages. In many parts of the world, it is also traditional for women to adopt their husband's last name when they marry, or at least to add his name to hers.

using language to comfort other people in times of loss

Acknowledge the loss: "I'm so sorry to hear about your sister's accident. I know that everyone who knew her will miss her greatly." Express sympathy: "Words can't express how sorry I feel. Please know that my heartfelt sympathies are with you." Offer a positive reflection: "I will always remember your sister's wonderful sense of humor and her great compassion for others." Offer assistance: "Please remember I'm here for you, whatever you need. I'll give you a call this weekend to see if there's anything I can do for you." In addition, many other situations call for words of comfort, such as a divorce, a job loss, or a serious illness Just as we can use our words to comfort other people, we can also use them to comfort ourselves. Many people find that "journaling," or keeping a diary of their feelings, helps them find comfort and meaning even in traumatic events. In fact, some evidence indicates that writing about our thoughts and feelings can improve our health.

affection

Affection and intimacy are closely related but not the same. Affection is an emotional experience that includes feelings of love and appreciation that one person has for another.

equivocation

Another form of language that sometimes influences a speaker's credibility is equivocation, or strategically vague language that disguises the speaker's true intentions. We often criticize politicians for failing to provide clear answers to controversial questions, but in fact many people use equivocal language when faced with a communication dilemma in which no good options exist.

six types of messages that promote defensiveness and six that promote supportiveness

Evaluation versus description: An evaluation expresses an opinion on the value or worth of another person's behaviors. A description provides detail about the person's behaviors without passing judgment. Evaluative:"This is the worst article you've ever written." Descriptive:"There are some opportunities for improvement in this article." Control versus problem orientation: Control-oriented messages manipulate others to act only a specific way. Problem-oriented messages encourage collaboration and creative thinking. Control-oriented:"You can't watch TV right now; my show is on." Problem-oriented:"Let's figure out a way we can both watch what we want." Strategy versus spontaneity: Strategic messages withhold information in an attempt to control the listener. Spontaneous messages express thoughts and desires openly and honestly, without a "hidden agenda." Strategic:"Are you busy next weekend?" Spontaneous:"I'm planning a hike for next Saturday; want to come?" Neutrality versus empathy: Neutral statements imply a lack of concern for the well-being of others. Empathic statements convey concern for what others are feeling and experiencing. Neutral:"Not everything goes the way you want. That's life." Empathic:"I'm sorry your plans fell through. You must be disappointed." Superiority versus equality: Messages of superiority encourage division and an "us vs. them" mentality. Messages of equality emphasize inclusiveness and minimize status differences between people. Superior:"You don't know what you're doing." Equal:"That's an interesting approach. I've never thought about this situation in that way before." Certainty versus provisionalism: Messages of certainty offer inflexible conclusions with no room for debate. Provisional messages offer ideas flexibly, in the hope of generating dialogue. Certain:"You're wrong." Provisional:"What leads you to believe that? Is it possible that the source of your information is mistaken?"

semantic triangle

In its three corners, the semantic triangle portrays three necessary elements for identifying the meaning in language. The first element is the symbol, which is the word being communicated. In the second corner is the referent, which is the word's denotative meaning. Finally, there's the reference, or the connotative meaning.

reclaiming the term

In recent years, some social groups have recognized that they can reduce the negative effects of certain profane terms themselves by making the terms more commonplace, thus lowering or eliminating their shock value.

language and credibility

Language is intimately tied to issues of credibility. Irrespective of our training or credentials, our words can portray us as confident, trustworthy communicators, or they can make us appear unsure of ourselves. In either situation, our ability to get what we want out of our interpersonal interactions is affected by the credibility that our use of language gives us.

The nature of language (SYMBOLIC)

Language is symbolic. That statement means that each word represents a particular object or idea, but it does not constitute the object or idea itself. For example, the word barn represents a structure often used for storing hay, grain, or livestock. The word itself is not the structure;

humor, slang, euphemisms, and jargon

Like humor and euphemisms, slang and jargon are neither inherently good nor inherently bad. They can be used for positive purposes, such as to reaffirm one's membership within a particular social community. Whether you're into surfing, wine tasting, calligraphy, or restoring old cars, learning and using the slang appropriate to those interests serves as a type of membership badge, allowing you to connect with others like you. By the same token, however, the use of slang and jargon can also make people feel like outsiders.

social lubricant

Not all effects of profanity are negative. In certain contexts, the use of profanity can act as a social lubricant by establishing and maintaining an informal social atmosphere. Profanity is a common element in comedy, for instance, partly because it creates an expectation that nothing is taboo in that context and that ideas can flow freely.

allness statement

One specific form of weasel words is an allness statement, or a declaration implying that a claim is true without exception. For instance, when you hear somebody claim that "experts agree that corporal punishment is emotionally damaging to children," the implication is that all experts agree. Note, however, that the speaker provides no evidence to back up that claim.

confirming messages

One way to contribute to positive communication climates is to practice using confirming messages, which are statements that convey value for other people Recognition. The most basic act of confirmation is to recognize that another person exists and is worthy of your attention. Replying to a text message from a sibling, calling to ask about a friend's day, and making eye contact with a new acquaintance you see in class are all ways of sending the message "I recognize that you matter." Acknowledgment. A more positive form of confirmation is to acknowledge another person's feelings and thoughts. You engage in acts of acknowledgment when you ask someone's opinion, solicit someone's ideas, or inquire about someone's feelings. Just as important as asking for that information is listening actively to what the person says. Endorsement. The most positive form of confirmation is to provide endorsement, which is the signal that you agree with what another person has said. On some occasions, you may endorse another's message fully, as when expressing complete agreement with an opinion. On other occasions, you may provide partial endorsement, as when you tell a friend that you agree with her feelings but not necessarily with her actions.

dialects

People can also affect perceptions of their credibility by using certain dialects, which are variations on a language that are shared by people of a certain region or social class.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Their notion was that language influences the ways that members of a culture see the world—and that the attitudes and behaviors of a culture's people are reflected in its language embodies two specific principles: linguistic determinism, linguistic relativity

evaluative feedback

There are situations, of course, when others want or need your input. In those circumstances, you can use evaluative feedback, which is a reply that offers assessment of what the speaker has said or done. less likely than you-statements to cause a listener to become defensive

language of affection and intimacy

Verbal statements can communicate affection or intimacy in many ways. Some statements express our feelings for another person, such as "I like you" and "I'm in love with you." Others reinforce the importance of our relationship with another person, such as "You're my best friend" and "I could never love anyone as much as I love you." Still others convey hopes or dreams for the future of the relationship, including "I can't wait to be married to you" and "I want us to be together forever." Finally, some statements express the value of a relationship by noting how we would feel without it, such as "I can't stand the thought of losing you" and "My life would be empty if I hadn't met you." Statements like those are characteristic of our closest personal relationships. In fact, evidence suggests that communicating intimacy and affection is good both for relationships and for the people in them.

language

a structured system of symbols used for communicating meaning.

euphemism

a vague, mild expression that symbolizes something more blunt or harsh because Some topics are difficult or impolite to talk about directly.

most important aspect of humor

a violation of our expectations. In fact, researchers have discovered that specific parts of the brain process humor, and that without the violation of expectations—without the punch line—those neurological structures don't "light up" or provide the mental reward we associate with a good joke. Humor can enhance our interpersonal interactions in many ways. It can bring us closer to others and make social interaction more pleasant and enjoyable. It can defuse stress, such as when people are in conflict with one another. Within relationships, "inside jokes" can reinforce people's feelings of intimacy. Humor can provide so many personal and social benefits, in fact, that a good sense of humor is something both women and men strongly seek in a romantic partner. Research shows that self-deprecating humor—jokes in which people poke fun at themselves—are seen as especially attractive in others.

Onomatopoeia

a word formed by imitating the sound associated with its meaning. Words such as buzz, meow, splash, and click

Pragmatic rules

address how we use social and cultural information to determine the meaning of statements. They direct us to pay attention to context, tone of voice, and other clues to make sense of what someone is saying

I - statements

claims ownership of what a person is feeling or thinking

Phonological rules

deal with the correct pronunciation of a word, and they vary from language to language.

profanity

is a form of language that is considered vulgar, rude, or obscene in the context in which it is used. We sometimes call profane terms "swear words" or "curse words," and they come in many forms. Profanity is context-specific: What makes a word profane is that it is considered rude or obscene in the language and context in which it is used. For instance, calling a woman a "bitch" might be profane, but using the same term to describe a female dog is not. In the United States, "fag" is a derogatory term for gay men, but to the British, it refers to a cigarette.

hate speech

is a specific form of profanity meant to degrade, intimidate, or dehumanize people on the basis of their gender, national origin, sexual orientation, religion, race, disability status, or political or moral views

credibility

is the extent to which others perceive us to be competent and trustworthy.

jargon

jargon is the technical vocabulary of a certain occupation or profession. The purpose of jargon is to allow members of that occupation or profession to communicate with one another precisely and efficiently.

defamation

language that harms a person's reputation or gives that person a negative image. Defamation comes in two forms libel slander

ambiguous language

making a statement that we can interpret to have more than one meaning

disconfirming messages

or statements that imply a lack of regard for other people. Impervious response. As you read, the most fundamental act of confirmation is recognition. In contrast, we disconfirm others when we enact an impervious response, which means ignoring those people altogether. Adopting an impervious response sends the message that "I don't care enough about you even to recognize your existence," which can make people feel neglected and unimportant. Verbal abuse. Verbal abuse is an overt form of disconfirming message that involves using words to hurt people emotionally and psychologically, such as calling someone derogatory names, offering insults or put-downs, or threatening physical harm. Such abuse can cause many significant problems in close relationships, particularly when directed at children. Generalized complaining. Particularly in a conflict situation, offering specific complaints often helps by focusing the conversation on particular problems. In contrast, offering generalized complaints—complaints that simply indict the other person's value or character—is unhelpful and disconfirming. Messages such as "Why can't you be more like your brother?" and "You never think of anyone but yourself" usually do little beyond making the recipient feel unvalued. Irrelevant response. Offering an irrelevant response means replying to someone's message with a completely unrelated statement. Suppose your spouse says, "We really need to work out a schedule for the kids' soccer practices next week" and you reply by saying "Don't forget it's my mom's birthday on Saturday." Your reply isn't only off-topic, it also conveys the message that you don't care enough about your spouse to pay attention to his or her words. Impersonal response. You enact an impersonal response when you reply to someone's words with a cliché that conveys no real empathy. After your sister confides in you about her recent battles with depression, for instance, you shrug your shoulders and say, "Well, life's a struggle." Whereas an irrelevant response implies that you aren't paying attention to another's message, an impersonal response implies that you are indifferent to that message.

cliché

phrases that were novel at one time but have lost their effect because of overuse. One language practice that can diminish credibility is the use of clichés

abstract words

refers to a broader category or organizing concept of objects.

ethos

refers to a speaker's respectability, trustworthiness, and moral character.

concrete words

refers to a specific object in the physical world, such as a particular laptop computer, a specific restaurant, or an individual person

libel

refers to defamatory statements made in print or some other fixed medium, such as a photograph or a motion picture.

logos

refers to listeners' ability to reason.

pathos

refers to listeners' emotions, and he understood that emotion can be a significant persuasive tool.

non-evaluative feedback

which is a reply that withholds assessment of what the speaker has said or done. People usually use non-evaluative feedback to gain information about a situation and to help others work through their feelings. Probe. Probing means asking questions to gain more information. In Sara's case, you might ask whether she has explored the option of fertility treatments or considered the possibility of adoption. You might also ask how she and Kris are handling the situation emotionally. When probing, it is useful to ask questions that are specific rather than general. Example:"What have your doctors told you about in vitro fertilization as an option?" Paraphrase. Paraphrasing—or repeating what someone has said in your own words—assures the person that you are paying attention to his or her words. It also lets the other person correct any misunderstandings you may have about what he or she said. Example:"It sounds like you're really interested in pursuing in vitro fertilization but Kris is worried about how effective it would be." Offer support. Offering support includes sharing your perceptions of the situation and confirming the validity of the problem. Even if you disagree with Sara's perspective, you can say so without implying that her feelings are invalid. Convey the message that you respect her decisions even though yours might differ. Example:"I can certainly understand how hard this must be for you and Kris. I'm not sure what I would do in your situation—but you have my support whatever you decide to do."

loaded language

words with strongly positive or negative connotations. -reflects the observation that denotations and connotations represent different layers of meaning