COMM 3115 Exam 1
Science Journalism Finding #1
studies have found that science news is largely print-oriented and focused on health-oriented (biomedical) topics Most science journalists work for newspapers, magazines, and newsletters; fewer radio and TV journalists
Breast Cancer Awareness
1974: First Lady Betty Ford was diagnosed with breast cancer, she had a press conference talking about her medical history and recommending that other women should go and talk to their doctors to identify cancer early
The Breast Cancer Research Controversy of 1994 and Media Framing
1994 Chicago Tribune headline: "Fraud in Breast Cancer Study: Doctor Lied on Data for Decade" B-06 Protocol: large-scale, multi-site clinical trial showed that lumpectomy followed by radiation was just as effective as complete mastectomy Designed to find out: what is the appropriate therapeutic intervention for early-stage breast cancer? 1980s on: support for lumpectomy over mastectomy shaped many patients' treatment decisions
What are rhetorical genres?
A specific type of communication that takes a conventional form
Public Sphere
An argument that anyone can take part in, has to do with general laws surrounding a community Has to do with general knowledge The outcomes of public sphere debate impacts everyone Motivated by the general good, don't need to be super specific when providing evidence
Media Framing of Controversy #2
Another common framing The problem occurred because the media failed to keep complicated information from the public (because the falsification did not actually threaten public health or change the ultimate research results) Media could be technical sphere, but most often were the gatekeepers between technical and public spheres This frame is media critiquing the media
Technical Sphere
Anyone with a specialized knowledge coming together to discuss a specific issue Doesn't have to require a phD - just specialized knowledge
Overview of the Alcoholism Gene Debate
April 1990: Scientist Kenneth Blum finds that the DRD2 gene is associated with alcoholism April to November: findings get lots of media attention December 1990: Scientist Annabel Bolos' study does NOT support Blum's findings Why does it matter: If there was a single gene that could be tested, you could know your whole life if you were at risk for alcoholism
Out Law Discourse
Arguments are made within one sphere but do not draw from the expected types of evidence for that sphere Objection = when you question the motives and methods Counter-analysis = when you use different types of evidence than what is usually used in that sphere to analyze the data at hand
B-06 Controversy Today
B-06 is an ongoing project Poisson wrote a book in favor of lumpectomy Fisher received a $2.75 million settlement from the government The technical sphere often remains insulated from the concerns of the public and private spheres
According to DiSalvo, why do scientists tend to distrust journalists?
Because the popular market for news affects how science stories get told, scientists are worried that sensationalist news will strip their work of its credibility
Major Disagreement in Alcoholism Article
Blum: DRD2 gene contributes to the development of alcoholism Bolos: DRD2 gene DOES NOT contribute to the development of alcoholism
Severe Alcoholic Definition Debate
Bolos says typical criteria are: Age of onset Behavioral or social problems associated with disease (legal documents) Alcoholic relative Blum's criteria: Examines medical and autopsy records Interviews with relatives, treatment center professionals Alcohol consumption data Bolos argued that Blum's criteria was biased, not generalized enough, likely that he could skew the data
Who won the alcoholism gene debate?
Bolos won because her definitions prevailed Today the DRD2 gene is NOT believed to be a causal factor in alcoholism
Media Framing of Controversy #4
Common framing in international media coverage The problem occurred because the personal, technical, and public spheres were not accounting for each other Personal sphere: Poisson wanted to give patients the care they needed to be a part of the trial
Critiques of Nanotechnology
Concern that workers making products with nanomaterials may experience negative health implications, and that discarded nanomaterials will be environmental hazards
Science Journalism Finding #3
Coverage of science follows journalistic norms over scientific norms Tends to focus on specific episode or product, not on the scientific process (This is episodic coverage of science) Journalists take on an objective/balanced stance and given equal weight to many sides of a scientific debate (this could be a downside, especially with climate change when more weight should be given to scientific community) Should journalists be gatekeeping extreme voices out of science coverage?
According to the video, what is the present day implication of the Tuskegee syphilis project?
Deep mistrust of medical industry by many African Americans (much less likely to participate in clinical studies, to get preventative care, and to check in with their medical provider)
Nanotechnology article Procedure and Findings
Definition shown: "Nanotechnology is the creation of useful materials, devices, and systems used to manipulate matter at an incredibly small scale - between one and 100 nanometers, with 80,000 nanometers fitting into one human hair" After each visual was shown to participants, they were asked: What thoughts does this picture bring to mind? What feelings does this picture give you?
What can nanotechnology be used for?
Enhance eyeglasses, dental implants, and can fill holes in diseased bones Alter chemical manufacturing processes to save energy and reduce waste Build faster, more advanced computing chips Enhance food packaging for longer shelf life Deliver anti-cancer drugs more directly to harmful tumors Develop more durable building materials Diagnose medical conditions such as atherosclerosis Enhance solar panels
Research Control Group Definition Debate
General definition in experimental science: the group that is unaffected by the disease or condition (like alcoholism) Screened Control Groups: when scientists exclude all members with alcoholism Unscreened Control Groups: just representative of the general population, you don't pick out people who have alcoholism Blum argues: Bolos used an unscreened control group, and the percentage of alcoholics in the general population is 30%, not 17% as Bolos claimed
Spheres of Argumentation
Goodnight's Theory of Spheres 3 different communities of discussion where arguments are built Keranen's Argument: it's harmful to not account for all these spheres of argumentation, and you lose out on the big picture of how they all work together who was at fault during the breast cancer trial had to do with lack of communication among spheres
Why was the scientist studying Meniere's disease in the mid-1960s denied membership in an honorific society?
He had been named in a news story about his research, the society said the story was unethical advertising
How does the video characterize Olestra?
Health-conscious, smart, able to snack, crunchy texture and feel Combines family setting with scientific facts/explanations
Key Points of Contention about Science News Coverage and Journalism
How accurate are science news stories? Scientists say they're not accurate, journalists say their job is to give key info to laypeople How should science journalists be trained? With specific science training or unspecialized journalism track Best predictor of good science journalism is number of years on the job
What does Boyd argue about spheres of argumentation?
In a Regulatory Controversy, the borders between the technical and public spheres become more permeable (evidence appropriate for the public sphere might be used effectively in the technical sphere) Technical Sphere = P & G Public Sphere = Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI)
How did scientists view the popularization of science knowledge during the late 19th century (late 1800s)?
It was part of their job, embraced their role in communicating science to the public Popular science magazines were established (Scientific American, Popular Science) All members in the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) had published in at least 1 popular science magazine
Nanotechnology Figure 2 Themes
Machines, Technology, Bodily Blood, Injecting, Something Foreign Valence = neutral or negative
New Trends in Science Journalism
Major shift to the Internet Increasingly complex relationship between scientists and science journalists Increasingly complex relationship between science journalists and their audience (comments, feedback, polls)
Rectifying contradictions by developing overarching theories
Making it so both people can be right at the same time Theory 1: More than one gene is involved Theory 2: DRD2 reacts with alcoholism to increase severity Theory 3: DRD2 may make a person more susceptible to medical complications when consuming alcohol Theory 4: DRD2 may cause impulsive, compulsive, or addictive behavior (this theory still stands)
Wastyn and Wastyn Article Overview
Method: Argumentation Analysis Data: 16 academic journal articles from 1990 to 1993 Research Questions: What communication strategies and arguments have scientists used to get their findings about health accepted by medical and lay communities? Overarching Thesis: Scientific "truths" often depend upon who can make the best argument for their findings
Boyd Article Overview
Method: Argumentation Analysis Data: transcripts from congressional hearings on the FDA's approval process, transcripts from the FDA's Food Advisory Committee that recommended approval for Olestra Research Questions: What arguments and communication strategies were used to get Olestra approved by the FDA?, How do technical, private, and public spheres of argument tent to overlap in regulatory controversies?
Solomon Article Overview
Method: Rhetorical criticism Data: 13 progress reports published in scientific journals from 1936 to 1973 Research Questions: Why did no one in the scientific community question the experiment after reading progress reports about it in scientific journals from 1936 to 1973?
Media Framing of Controversy #1
Most common framing The problem occurred because the Technical sphere (Breast cancer researchers including Fisher and Poisson) was keeping information away from the Public sphere (the general public including breast cancer victims) Fraud because there was an attempt to deceive the public
Timeline of Breast Cancer Research and Treatment
Most of 20th century: Halstad "radical" mastectomy is expected treatment End of 1970s: B-06 research begins 1980: early B-06 reports claim that mastectomy is often unnecessary 1990: Dr. Fisher (head of research team, located in US, started the research project) notices discrepancies in some data Dr. Poisson (located in Montreal): changed 6 people's biopsy dates to make them eligible for the trial 1992: Office of Scientific Integrity reviews Poisson's data collection, and Poisson confesses to violating protocol 1994: "fraud" headline hits newsstands Fisher forced to resign from project he helped found, congressional hearings take place In the end: when the falsified data was removed from the study, the findings remained unchanged — that lumpectomy was just as effective as mastectomy
What journalism practice was common during the Progressive Era?
Muckraking journalists (Investigative journalism to expose corruption and encourage reform)
Scientific Debate as Argumentation
Myth: Science speaks for itself (it does not need to be persuasive) Fact: Science is rhetorical (must be presented in persuasive ways) Scientific study is cumulative and collective (people build off of accepted ideas of others, no one makes an argument without citing other scientific findings)
Science Writers in the mid 1900s
News media very interested in science topics Few journalists described themselves as science writers — belief among editors that a great journalist could cover anything
Conversation #2: A new and increasingly popular philosophy of education
Older philosophies of education: Education is the passing on of information from teacher to student, preparation for a specific occupation, and/or a disciplinary exercise, very separated from day to day life The Chicago School philosophy (John Dewey): education should emphasize lived experience over abstract concepts, students learn to be contributing members of society, "educate the whole child" Young built from the Chicago's school philosophy advocating that curricula should be decided by students' experiences and environment Biology: all of students' bodies were part of their experiences in the world, so they needed to know how their bodies work and how to care for them Environment: Argued that urban locations in location were filled with vice, all residents would encounter that vice and should be prepared to respond safely and appropriately Arguments Against: respect the rights of parents to educate their children and protect them from the evils of life
The Basic Olestra Debate
Olestra (brand name Olean) is a food additive produced by Procter & Gamble (P&G) Appeal of Olestra: added to snack foods to replace fat How it works: Olestra molecules are too big to fit into digestive enzymes so the fat doesn't get absorbed, but takes some vitamins/minerals with it
The Public Sphere: Educating Consumers about Olestra
P & G consumer campaign was designed to convince customers of Olestra's benefits based on 3 attributes: Taste Choice (gave dieters more choices) Health benefits
What was the 1996 FDA Approval for Olestra contingent on?
P & G must add vitamins to products containing Olestra Must display a label on all products (that it may cause cramping and loose stools, inhibits the absorption of some vitamins, some vitamins have been added) Must continue studies on Olestra, share findings with the FDA, and go through a follow-up review 30 months later
Who won the Olestra controversy?
P&G won the technical debate because they got FDA approval BUT: CSPI won the public debate because sales were very low and unpopular with consumers
Tuskegee Participants
Participants were not told they had syphilis Were not told they were participating in a research study Were not told that they were not actually being treated for their illness
1940s: penicillin is identified as the cure for syphilis
Participants were passed over for treatment when they were drafted (if their records showed they had syphilis, they were instructed to not be given penicillin) Exempt from nationwide campaign to eradicate syphilis Experiment continued despite international laws about informed consent By the end of the experiment: 28 men had died of syphilis, 100 had died of related complications
What happens when the public lacks information on science?
People are less likely to support research in that area if they know very little about it, they tend to be mistrustful and suspicious about research Problematic because things like nanotechnology have potentially huge benefits and dangers, and the only way to know those things is through research
Aftermath of Tuskegee Experiment
Peter Buxton (insider for the Public Health Service) goes to the Associated Press in 1972 Public class act lawsuit against the PHS Medical review for scientific experimentation, more strict laws Many people made comparisons to Nazi experimentation
Context of the Chicago Experiment
Progressive Era (1890 - 1917) Mass industrialization - tenements, lots of public health problems The problem that Young was trying to address: climbing rates of venereal diseases, unwanted pregnancies, and prostitution (especially in urban centers like Chicago) How young people generally learned about sex — from their peers, their churches, their parents Upton Sinclair (The Jungle) — the meatpacking industry in Chicago, Ida B Wells
Conversation #3: The belief that physical health was related to intelligence
Progressive Era saw many health reform movements Recess introduced into schools Penny lunch program to get school lunches School bathhouse Prohibited the use of corporal punishment Argument from classification: if two things are alike in type, they should be treated the same way — personal purity lectures are simply a type of health class for students (this argument still stands today)
Medical Report Convention #2: Framed by Focus and Realism
Realism: being an outsider who is observing and who is not connected to what is happening (look at something for what it is) Progress reports left out the people who had syphilis — focus is on the syphilis germs and progression of the disease (humans as HOSTS of the syphilis)
What were CSPI's outlaw discourse strategies?
Redefined terms (harm, reasonable certainty, safe) Argued that CSPI representatives were not getting enough time in the FDA hearings Solicited opinion letters that were sent to the FDA Introduced scientific claims that did not have studies to back them up
Keranen Article Overview
Research Method: Rhetorical Criticism (the analysis of symbols like words/images/gestures and how those symbols are used to persuade) Data: newspaper coverage, medical journals, Congressional hearings concerning a scientific debate about breast cancer treatment Research Questions: How did the media frame the B-06 Research Study controversy? How much should scientific communities communicate to the general public about their findings?
Jensen Article Overview
Research Question: How did Ella Flagg Young convince people to support the first public sex education program in US public schools Method: Argumentation Analysis (similar to rhetorical criticism, but focus on arguments) Data: p. 221: newspapers, interviews, reports, educational journals, conference proceedings Why study fragments of discourse rather than complete speeches/writing? - Because there wasn't a complete speech that she wrote Overarching Thesis: Arguments based on scientific logic alone are often not enough to win over public opinion or affect policy decisions
Landau, Groscurth, Wright, and Condit Article Overview
Research Question: What do key images used to explain nanotechnology lead people to believe (and thereby communicate about) nanotechnology? Research Method: Qualitative interviews with 10 individuals who were not university affiliated Participants: 5 men, 5 women, aged 21-33 Interviews lasted 45 minutes - 1 hour Researchers asked individuals to talk about a provided definition of nanotechnology and what two images of nanotechnology made them think about nanotechnology Analysis: Researchers analyzed the interviews by looking for key themes, and then coding for whether themes were positively, negatively, or neutrally valenced (aka how people reacted to it)
How do Scientific Images Play a Major Role in how People Understand Science?
Scholars have argued that being able to visualize science is necessary for understanding scientific processes Key scientific images have been responsible for catalyzing (or halting) scientific revolutions (like Da Vinci's Vitruvian Man) Some visuals represent science as dangerous (Like Frankenstein)
Nanotechnology Figure 1 Themes
Science (molecules, atoms), Very Small Things, Sky or Light Related, Motion, Childhood Toys Valence = neutral or positive
Science in the Early 1900s
Science specialization = less interaction with the public View that communicating with the public means they're trying to make money and not as serious about their science Fewer general scientists Scientists developing specialized language, area-specific jargon Scientific societies ostracized scientists who interacted with the media Even today, some scientists still feel that communicating with the public shows that they're "dumbing down" their work
Alcoholism Gene Debate Implications
Scientific arguments must be framed using effective comm skills to be accepted by science or lay communities Being able to define the terms of an argument plays a big role in who wins Overarching theories can be used to explain how everyone is right
Medical Report Convention #1: Scientists as Impartial Observers
Scientists write as if they are observing not acting or making choices (passive voice) Part of a team Researchers framed as inactive in the research process (not "withholding treatment" but study participants as "uninfluenced by treatment")
What is the difference between screened and non-screened control groups?
Screened = scientists exclude all participants from the study if they have the trait/disease they're studying Unscreened = scientists don't test participants for the trait, supposed to be representative of the general population
How did Young argue for Public Sex Education?
She inserted arguments for public sex ed into pre-existing conversations
Conversation #1: The Credibility of Scientific Information
Social Hygienists (clean sex) Spoke about the value of scientific facts and the infallibility of the scientific method Claimed that students needed to learn about topics such as conception, reproduction, and venereal diseases because those topics were grounded in science Social Purists/Moralists (moral/pure sex) Protestant groups (of mostly women) who wanted students to learn about morality and the protection of their souls Worried that talk about sex in schools would encourage young people to have sex Young: if we teach children scientifically about sex, they won't have sex because scientific information is inherently moral and cannot corrupt children Arguments Against: Science men and students have plenty of sins and engage in immoral activities, so how are they inherently moral facts?
What is nanotechnology?
Study of extremely small things; manipulation of atoms and molecules Scientists/engineers are making materials at the nanoscale to enhance the properties of larger items, making them stronger and lighter Example: The Lycurgus Cup Ancient Romans about to make a color-changing cup (The Lycurgus Cup) Ground particles of silver and gold, so that when you put different solutions into the cup, it turns different colors
What happened with the Chicago experiment?
The Chicago Experiment lasted for just one year Comstock laws: can't send anything sex-related through mail Chicago Experiment sent transcripts of lectures to parents to show that the classes were fine, but the US Post Service caught wind of this and shut it down Young's arguments became resources or a vocabulary for those fighting for sex education programs in the years that followed By 1920, half of all US secondary schools had a sex education program Even today, Young's argument to classify sex ed as a subcategory of health education endures Young combined scientific logic (technical sphere) with popular reasoning (public and private spheres) to make science persuasive for her audiences
The article mentions one global association for science writers called __________________?
The World Federation of Science Journalists
Aftermath and Conclusions on Communicating about Science
The controversy encouraged the consideration of new research (technical) practices including: Experimental therapy should be made available to unqualified participants if that is the only therapy for their condition Eligibility criteria should be rigorously justified For science communicators, it is helpful to classify controversy-focused media coverage according to the spheres of argument to establish whether all three spheres are being accounted for
Why are Science Images Important?
The images used to explain or represent emerging science will play a major role in whether the lay public supports research surrounding that science Even if people have little knowledge about a scientific topic, they are often still willing to express a positive or negative attitude about it
Media Framing of Controversy #3
The problem resulted because of the messy nature of scientific research (Funding requirements, publication pressures, human error, scientific ambiguity)
What happened during the Olestra controversy?
The technical sphere (FDA approval process) is invaded by the public sphere (CSPI) Formal FDA guidelines for approval: scientific research must establish a reasonable certainty that the substance will not be harmful under the prescribed conditions of use CSPI's definitional arguments 1) Harm - harm should be redefined as completely harmless, things in Olestra could harm children and their education if they have digestive problems — aka undesirable consequences 2) Reasonable Certainty 3) Safe
What did the New Jersey Institute of Technology find out about the nanoparticles of aluminum oxide?
They stunt the growth of roots on crops like soybeans and corn
Approximately how many science, health, and environment reporters does Dunwoody (2008) argue exist today in the United States?
Thousands
Why were reporters routinely rotated across beats in the American news media during the 20th century?
To avoid the consequences of intimacy between reporters and their sources
Long Term Health Implications of Tuskegee Experiment
Today, many people cite Tuskegee of the source of US minorities distrust in medical institutions and healthcare African Americans are less likely to get medical care in the US than other races In the 1990s, upwards of 10% African American believe that HIV/AIDS might be something that the US government is responsible for
The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment
US Public Health Service decided to experiment on how syphilis progressed when it went untreated Interested in how syphilis presented differently in black men Participants were sharecroppers, illiterate, very little access to healthcare, may have never been to a doctor -- so they didn't know to question the experiment US PHS joined with the Tuskegee Institute, an all black health organization, promising them that they will receive federal funding if they helped with the experiment Participants were told they would receive free medical care, then they tested them for syphilis — if they were positive, they were told they had "bad blood" Given placebo injections, or vitamins, or aspirin
Medical Report Convention #3: Goal is the Pursuit of Knowledge
Underlying Value: advancing medical knowledge (Unstated value: regardless of human costs) Ultimately, Solomon concludes that the GENRE of the medical report leads to myopia (nearsightedness) and insensitivity in writers and readers
In Law Discourse
Uses the expected type of evidence for the sphere at hand
When Argumentative Spheres Collide
Using the wrong type of evidence in a sphere usually results in the argument being rejected
Ella Flagg Young
Very formal, very Victorian, prim and proper - better to spread the message First female superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools First female president of the National Education Association First person to get a sex ed class into the US public schools The classes were called "personal purity lectures" — they discussed puberty, venereal diseases, personal hygiene - given by medical doctors
What is the major criticism of the EPA's current plan for regulation?
Voluntary compliance, not required to make reports about nanoproducts
Science Journalism Finding #2
When Science is discussed on TV, it is framed as sacred/legitimate, the conclusions that scientists come to are framed as certain, science is dramatized more than it is explained to create public understanding
Conclusions from Boyd's model
When outlaw rhetoric is introduced into regulatory controversies, the corporate actors become the underdogs Corporate actors must succeed in both the technical and the public sphere (Ex: get FDA approval and get consumer acceptance) Those using outlaw rhetoric only have to succeed in one sphere (Ex; stop FDA approval or stop consumer acceptance)
Private/Personal Sphere
You have an argument/discussion about personal issues and decisions
What are arguments from classification?
if two things are alike in type, they should be treated the same way Ex: If you gave money to help the victims of Hurricane Harvey, you should also give money to help the victims of Hurricane Irma